Boy Scouts of America Merit Badge For Foundry Practice 1930

REQUIREMENTS
FOUNDRY PRACTICE
To obtain a Merit Badge for Foundry Practice, a Scout must:
1. (a) Make a .freehand drawing of a flask used for bench mould
ing in the foundry.
(b) Describe same llQk.
2. (a) Show by aection sketch a mould 'of a plaai 12" long, 6"
wide, 111 thick widi gaw -ud V8iiiil;
(b) Construct 'tbe m.alf ' '
3. Make a perspecti\ie of a pulley pattern 6'' in diameter,
2" face, the centel' to be cored 2" by use of core. prina.
1
.
4. Cobstrw:it a pattern and core box as per s1cetch outlined
in question 3; d8e . .tvinbge rule for the metal ueed-GRA Y IRON,
BRONZJ!r Cllt 'Ba.ASS. Chanae measurement& to allow for fuiiah
all over casting and pn>per lor removing pattern from ipould.
S. bl!ICl'iM how a cupola operaw1
6. (a) process for deaning one of the above castings
When mould.
(b') of the above camnp.
'J, Delcrihe. die propertjes in lllD.d that are 'Lest suited for foundry
use and wll how to sand fqr use.
8. Tell wb.at .important 1afety precautiona lhould 'be tiken to pro-
tect the workers in a employer--by the employee?
NO'l'B: in each t:ue when a 11tould is required tbe pattern must first
be made.
"Goltl a for the miatn-llver for tlae maid!
"Copl!. fa&o the cnfu'maa cunning at bU trade."
"Goacll" HJ.ii tha Beren, littins ill hia hall.
.,.Bat Iron, Co!cl lioil, la - of them afll"
From the Poem "Cold Iron., in Rewards and
Fairies, by Rudyard Kipling. By permission of
A. P. Watt l!I Sons, London, Ens.
Copyright, 1930, by
Boy SClOUtl of America
IM-May, 1937
INTRODUCTION
T
HIS is one of a series of pamphlets published by the
Boy Scouts of America in connection with its Merit
Badge scheme. This library on Scout activities and
vocational guidance has been prepared by experts and
is frequently revised and brought up to date.
We feel that the Merit Badge Series offers to boys
a library that is unsurpassed in helpfulness, technical
excellence, and wide range of interest. Much of the ma-
terial that is here made available at a very moderate
cost, it would be impossible to procure at any price else-
where. Leading authorities have placed their time and
knowledge at the disposal of the Boy Scouts as a con-
tribution to the boyhood of America.
It would defeat the purpose of the Merit Badge plan
if an attempt were made in the pamphlets to cover the
requirements so completely as to make unnecessary the
boy's usi ng his own init iative and resourcefulness in
seeking further information to enable him to meet the
requirements successfully. The material in this pamph-
let, however, provides a more comprehensive outline of
the subject than would be practical in the Handbook
for Boys. The pamphlets suggest the scope of the sub-
jects, and serve as a guide. In each case the Scout
should secure further book knowledge for himself and
avail himself, on his own initiative, of such opportunities
for further study as he can develop in his neighborhood
or community, from men who are authorities on the
irnbject. Experience shows t hat men of this type are
usually very glad to cooperate with boys who show an
earnest interest in the subject.
Only the duly registered Scout may qualify for Merit
Badges. Second Class Scouts are eligible to take five
of a selected list of forty subjects. First Class Scouts
may qualify for the entire series.
iii
iv Introduction
Examination for Merit Badges should be given by the
Court of Honor of the Local Council and in larger com-
munities by the district Court of Honor, organized so as
to reduce to a minimum the necessity of the boy traveling
long distances. In no case shall a Merit Badge be awarded
unless the Scout has personally appeared before at least three
members of the Court of Honor, and either by examina-
tion, conducted personally by the .Court of Honor, or upon
evidence furnished by a duly appointed expert counselor,
demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Court of Honor that
the requirements have been complied with in a satisfactory
manner. In con;_munities where there is no Court of Honor
an Examining Committee of at least three members super-
vises the Merit Badge Tests.
In all examinations, it should be borne in mind that the
purpose of the tests and examinations is not to secure a
mere technical compliance with requirements, but rather
to ascertain the Scout's general knowledge of subjects
studied, and practical rather than book knowledge is de-
sired. A Scout should be prepared at any examination tfor
a review covering previous tests given him as well as to
demonstrate that he is putting the Scout Oath and Law into
daily practice.
With a view of increasing the value of these pamph-
lets to all boys, and particularly to Boy Scouts interested
in securing Merit Badges, an attempt has been made in
connection with each subject, to make available facts and in-
formation bearing on the vocational value of the subject.
It is believed that this practical application in each case
makes available a unique contribution to the literature for
boys, and will be of great value to parents and teachers as
well as boys throughout the whole country.
To further this object, those interested, and having sug-
gestions to offer as to the vocational guidance treatment
of any of the more than 100 subjects for which 'Merit
Badge awards are' provided are invited to correspond with
E. S. Martin, Secretary Editorial Board, The Boy Scouts
of America, 2 Park A venue, New York City.
FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Definition
Foundry practice is the name applied to that branch
of engineering which deals with melting metal and pour-
ing it in liquid form into sand molds to shape it into
castings of all descriptions.
CASTINGS
Three Classes of Castings
Three classes of castings, each having individual physi-
cal characteristics, (such as strength, toughness, dura-
bility, etc.), are employed in the manufacture of modern
machinery; to wit, those made from gray iron, copper
alloys, i.e .. , .brass, bronze, etc., and mild steel.
Gray Iron
The bulk of the casting done in the foundries of
America is of gray iron, that is, iron which may be
machined directly as it comes from the mold without
any further heat treatment.
Chilled Iron and Malleable Iron
Chilled iron is used for rolling mills, car wheels, etc.,
and malleable iron is used for certain types of hardware
in use by manufacturers and builders.
MOLDING
Molding Operations Variously Classified
The mold is the essential feature in all foundry prac-
tice. A mold is a forin or cavity in a refractory mate-
rial such as sand, loam or in metal, into which molten
metal is poured, and which determines the final shape of
the poured metal after it becomes cold. There are four
main branches of gray iron molding, judged from the
material of which the mold is composed: Green sand
work, cover work, dry sand molding, and loam work.
Classified according to size, molding operations are
broadly grouped as bench work,,, usually for the lighter
I
2 Merit Badge Examinations
class of castings, and f loor work, for the heavier castings.
Another subdivision is hand work and machine work,
depending on whether the mold is made by hand or 111
a molding machine.
Characteristics Common to All Molds
Although molds are made in many different materials,
and of many different shapes, and by different methods,
they are, in their essential characteristics, all alike: they
are all made from a pattern, they are supported by and
enclosed in a flask, they are formed in a material which
will imthstand the heat of the molten metal when it is
poured into the mold.
Definitions
A pattern may be made of wood, metal or other mate-
rial.
1
Molds, except for the very largest which are bedded
in the floor of the foundry, and certain other special
kinds of molds, are supported by a'nd inclosed in a flask.
This" fl.ask may be made of wood or metal, and may be
rigid or hinged, in which latter case it is known as a
snap flask.
Snap Flask.
From VVendt's Foundry Work.
Foundry Practice
3
If in an article to be cast it is required t hat t here
should be cavities, or holes, that is, that the cast ings
should not be solid, as in the' case of an ordinary pipe,
it is necessary that in the inold this cavity should be
filled with mater ial which will confine t he metal into
those channels which will, on the metal solidifying, give
the required shape of the article.
The core is t he name given t o the form so inserted
in the mold, as to produce a hollow or cavity in the
casting. Cores may be either baked cores, or gr een sand
cores.
FIG. 2.
Core Oven for Baking Small Cores.
F r om Foundry Wor k by Will iam C. Stimpson.
Courtesy of the America n School.
Core making is a . special branch of the molder's art.
Core making supplements molding. It deals with the
construction of separate shapes in sand which form
holes, cavities or pockets in the castings. Such shapes
are called cores. They are held firmly in position by
the sand of the mold itself.
4
Merit Badge Examinations
Core sand differs from ordinary molding sand. It is
shaped in wooden boxes called core boxes. All cores are
baked in an oven before they can be used. The whole
detail of their construction. differs so fundamentally
from the construction of a mold, that core making is a
distinct trade, and frequently is a stepping stone
molding. Boys entering a foundry are often started m
the core shop. .
The question as to whether a mold should be
in green or dry sand is primarily one of cost and
the amount of machinery to be done on the finished
casting, and the type of molder available for the work.
General Principle in Molding
The general principle in molding is that the pattern
of the article to be cast is embedded in the sand, pro-
ducing its shape in the moldtng material. When the
pattern is removed, the cavity is filled with. molten metal.
All the appliances and methods employed m the foundry
are focused on this general priq,ciple.
The Flask or Box
Molding boxes or flasks may be built up in sections to
fit over each other, and to fasten securely together for
the purposes of confining and strengthening the sand
mold.
FIG. 3.
Snap Flask Weight.
From Wendt's Foundry Work.
While sometimes made of wood, molding boxes are
commonly made of iron, which is capable of standing
greater stress, and does not warp as does wood. Pat-
Foundry Practice
5
terns may be molded in t wo boxes, an upper, often called
the cope, and a lower box, known as the drag.
If there are intermediate parts t o the flask, t hey are
called cheeks. Wooden flasks should be made of sub-
stantial material, as they are liable t o burning, and in a
short time, if too light, will be completely burned away
at the joint, and run-outs of the mold wi ll be frequent.
Flasks are fi tted with pins and sockets, holding the
parts firmly together.
For small castings the molds are rammed up on
benches or projecting brackets. Such work is called
bench work, and the fl asks employed are usually of the
t ype known as snap flasks. Figure 1, page 2, shows
a snap flask, hinged on one corner, with catches on the
diagonal corner. In a flask of t his type any number
of molds may be cast.
Mold Board
A smooth, straight board, called the mold board, the
size of the outside dimensions of the fl ask, should be a
part of every flask. Rough boards or bottom boards of
same size should be provided, one for each mold that
will be up in a day.
Boards for snap work are made of f8 to 1-inch stuff,
and should have two stiff cleats, t o hold them straight.
Wooden flasks of necessity receive hard usage in the
shop, and grow weaker with each use. They burn, more
or less, each heat , and receive rough usage when the
mold is shaken out. If stored, they are subjected t o the
disintegrati ng forces of mud and weather. It is there-
fore an economy to build wooden flasks of heavy
material. .
In drags, which may r equir e lift ing and moving, when
the pattern is made in them, bars for lifting ar e made
with thin, fl at sides along the plane of the lengt h of the
box; while in the cope, which may have to be lift ed off
the pattern and turned over, the bars are placed edge-
wise in the patern-box, or flask, the flat side of the bar
being almost the depth of the box, with the inside edge
narrower than the outside. Such an arrangement fur-
nishes great support for the sand, enabling it t o with-
stand the extra handling.
TOOLS l
) :
F G
H J
== M:==io-
FIG. 4.
Foundry Practice
7
Molding Tools
Figure 4, from Wendt's Foundry Work, shows many
of the tools used by the molder.
For cutting and handling loose sand the molder uses
a shovel, A, with flat blade, so that the sand can slide off
the side of the shovel as well as off the end. This is
often convenient when shovelling sand into bench molds.
The foundry sieve or riddle, E, is used to break up and
remove lumps, shot iron, nails, etc., from the sand placed
next the pattern or joint. Sieves should have oak rims
with brass or galvanized iron wire cloth.
Rammers, B and C, are used for evenly and quickly
packing the sand in the flask. One end is in the shape of
a dull wedge, called the keen edge, the other is round and
flat, called the butt end. Fig. 4, C, shows the type of
rammer used on bench work. Fig. 4, B, is a floor ram-
mer, for use in floor casting.
A pneumatic rammer is sometimes used to butt off
large flasks, and for ramming loam molds in pits in shops
equipped with compressed air.
D of Fig. 4 shows the bellows of standard type. K, the
brush used by the majority of foundries. The swab, L, is
used to moisten the sand around patterns before they are
drawn. F is a straight edge used to cut the sand level with
the flask, after the mold is rammed. I is a vent wire.
G is a draw-spike, and H a ra,pping ba;r, whose uses are
detailed later. The wood screw, M, is used for drawing
patterns from the mold. The draw-screw, J, is used
when the pattern maker has put threaded draw holes
in the pattern.
Sixty or more combinations of shapes. of molder' s
tools are on the market, designed for shaping and slick-
ing the joint surface of a mold, and finishing the faces
of the mold itself. These include trowels, slicks, lifters,
swabs, draw-sticks, vent-wires or rods, clamps and
wedges.
Trowels are used for shaping and smoothing the larger
surface of the mold. Slickers, designated by the shape
of the blade (heart and leaf, leaf and spoon, spoon and
lead, heart and square, etc.), are used for repairing and
slicking small surfaces.
8
_ID
c
FIG. 5.
Molder's Tools.
A, Finishing Trowel; B, Square
Trowel; C, Lifter.
D, Double-end Slick and Spoon; E,
Combination Slick and Lifter;
F,, Gate-cutter.
Frnm Wendt's Foundry Work.
'
Lifters are used to clean and finish the bottom and
sides of deep, narrow openings.
Before drawing a pattern from a mold, a swab is used
to moisten the edges of the sand. A swab must be used
with great care, lest the too free use of water around
a mold result in blow holes. By fastening a piece of
sponge to the end of a goose quill, or even a pointed
hardwood stick, the water in the sponge can be made to
trickle off the end of the quill or stick, drop by drop,
thus moistening the sand gradually, with no danger of
over-wetting.
Vent wires are used to pierce small holes through the
sand, connecting the mold cavity with the outside air.
A knitting needle with a short hardwood handle or knob
at one end, forms a convenient vent rod for bench work.
The smaller the needle, the better, provided it does not
bend when used.
Draw sticks are used to rap and draw patterns from
the sand. They are of many designs. Sometimes a
metal plate (called a rapping plate), with threaded holes
is let into the pattern, and a draw stick with m c h i n ~
screw thread is used, the same being screwed into the
rapping plate, and thus by steady pull, withdrawing the
pattern.
Foundry Practice
9
Brief Discussion of Requirements for the Merit Badge
in Foundry Practice
1. (a) Make a Freehand Working Drawing of a Flask Used
For Bench Molding in the Foundry.
A working drawing is an instruction to the maker of
the article drawn, and its primary function is t o carry
detailed information.
Since drawing is included in the curriculum of all
schools, it is safe to assume t hat the average scout has
had sufficient training in di-a wing to fulfill this require-
ment.
Flasks are sets of open frames in which the molding
sand is confined in making a casting. A flask consists
of two or more boxes, held together with pins and sock-
ets. The flasks for small moldings are rammed up on
benches or brackets. Such work is called bench work.
The flask, then, of which you are required to make a
freehand working drawing, is a very simple box-like
structure, of which Fig. 1 is typical.
A visit to a foundry, or to the founding branch of a
technical school, should give t he scout access to a num-
ber of flasks used in bench work, from which he can
determine the type he will use in his working drawing.
Remember that a working drawing fail s in its mis-
sion unless it is perfectly clear. The message itself
should be clear, and the lines presenting it should be
clean-cut and distinct. Moreover, the drawing should
be neat in appearance. A slovenly drawing ' is likely to
reflect careless or slovenly thinking. Make the drawing
workmanlike, accurate, distinct, one in which you can
take pride.
( b) Describe Same Flask.
Exposition is far more difficult for the young writer
than narration. Be sure that your description of the
- flask is so complete and detailed that one reading it can
visualize the flask. Thi.s quest ion is not as simple as
it at first seems. Give pa,ipstaking thought to your
IO Merit Badge Examinations
answer, which should be simple and direct, but should
cover all details. r
2. (a) Show by Section Sketch a Mold' of a Plate 12" L ong,
6" Wide, 1" Thick, With Gate and Vents.
This is a very simple problem, for a plate 12x6xl inches
involves bench work and no difficult manipulation. The
size of the plate suggests that the time of cooling is
sufficiently long to require venting, that is providing
channels for the escape of gas and steam. Vent wires,
used to pierce small holes through the sand connecting
the mold cavity with the outside air, will give adequate
channels for the escape of gases. These will show in
your drawing.
Gating is the term applied to the method of forming
openings and channels in the sand by which liquid metal
may enter the mold cavity. There are practically three
parts to all gates-the pouring basin, the runner, and
the gate. The pouring basin is shaped by hand on top
of the cope. The runner is formed by a wooden gate
plug, and connects the pouring b;i,sin with the gate. The
gate proper is cut with a gate cutter, and gives imme-
diate access to the hollow mold. It should be smaller
than the runner or the pouring basin, so that when pour-
ing, the runner and basin may be quickly flooded; also
that when cold the gate may be easily broken from the
casting and lessen the trouble of cleaning.
FIG. 6.
Mold Gated with Common Gate.
A, is the sprue made with a funnel shape at
the top; B , is the gate cut in the drag, and C,
is the casing.
From Wendt's Foundry Practice.
Foundry Practice
FIG. 7.
Mold Gated With Pouring Basin.
The basi n is shown at A, the sprue at B,
and the casting at C. Note that the basin
is lower at D than at E. The metal should
be poured into the basiu slowly at D unitl
it beains to run over at E into the sprue,
when the basin should be filled as quickl y
as possible.
From Vfendt's Foundry Work.
FIG. 8.
l\fold Gated with Skimming Gate.
II
The skimmi ng gate is made by setting the sprue, A, . and the skimmer,
B in the cope and connecting them by the channel, C, after the cope ts
lifted off. T he channel should be made a littl e larger than t he. gate, .D.
The metal must be poured into the sprue fast t ~ o u g h to force it to nse
to the top of the s)<:i mmer, and the sprue and ski mmer must be kept full
thrr1ughout the pourini.rom Wendt's Foundry ' i\Tork.
With t hese points clearly in mind, a drawing. showing
a section of a flask with the casting, as specified, and
the vents and gate, should not be beyond t he power of
execution of any scout.
( b) Construct The Mold.
Before constructing the mold, read all that has been
said of molding sand on pp. 22-28 of this pamphlet.
Select a flask large enough to hold the pattern and
have at least 2 inches clear of the flask all around the
pattern. See that the flask is strong enough to carry
the sand without racking, and that the pins fit. Have
the necessary tools at hand, such as sieve, rammer,
slicks , etc. Examine the pattern of the plate to be
molded, and note where the parting line runs . The joint
is that part of the mold forming the surface between the
parts of the flask. Where the joint touches the pattern,
it must be made to correspond with the parting line of
the pattern.
The joi:-it, in this case, is a flat surface and is formed
entirely by the mold board.
FIG. 9.
Pattern and Drag Placed on Molding Board.
Place a smooth mold board upon the bench or brack-
ets. Place the drag (lower portion of the flask) upon
this, with sockets down. Set pattern a little to one side
of center, to allow for runner. Sift sand over this about
1,0 inches deep. Tuck sand firmly around the pattern
and edges of flask, using hands for packing. Fill the
drag level full with molding sand. With the peen end
FIG. 10.
Drag Filled Heaping Full of Molding Sand,
From Wendi's Foundry Work.
of the rammer slanted in the direction of the blows, ram
first around the sides of the flask to insure the sand
- ......
Foundry Practice 13
hanging in well. Next, carefully direct the rammer
around the pattern. This work must be very carefully
done. Shifting the rammer to a vertical position, ram
back and forth across the flask, taking care not to ram
too hard, nor to strike the pattern. Then fill the drag
heaping full of sand. Pack this well and smoothly until
the drag is completely filled. With a straight edge level
off to the bottom of the flask. Now cover the bottom of
the mold with loose sand to the depth of y,i. inch. On
this loose sand press the bottom board, rubbing it
slightly back and forth to make it set well. With a
hand at each end, firmly grip the bottom board to the
mold and roll it over. Remove the mold board and slip
over the joint surface with a trowel. Dust parting sand
FIG. 11.
Face Plate Drag Ready for the Cope.
over this joint, but blow it carefully off the exposed part
of the pattern. Set the wooden runner or gate plug
about 2 inches from the pattern.
Set the cope on the drag, being careful if it is a snap
flask to see that the hinges of the cope and drag come
at the same corner.
FIG. 12.
Cope and Sprue Set in Making Face
Plate Mold.
Sift a layer of sand, about 1,0 inches deep. Pack
firmly with the fingers about the lower end of the run-
ner and around the edges of the flask. Fill the cope and
proceed with the ramming as before.
Strike off the surplus sand, leaving a flat surface of
sand. Vent the cope by driving in a vent wire, making
it strike the pattern in several places.
Partly shape a pouring basin with a gate cutter before
removing the runner. .
Draw the runner, and finish the basin with a gate cut-
ter, smoothing it up with the fingers. Moisten the edges
with a swab and blow it out clean with bellows.
The cope should then be lifted off and any imperfec-
tions in the mold surface repaired with trowel or slicks.
Having finished the cope, moisten the sand about the
edges of the pattern with a swab.
The removal of the pattern from the sand is a matter
involving great care and delicacy of handling. A draw
spike should be driven into the . center of the pattern,
and this (the draw spike) should be lightly tapped, front ,
back and crosswise, with a mallet. Having loosened t he
pattern by this tapping, draw it carefully from the drag.
If any break occurs, it should be repaired. Cut the gate,
and smooth it down gently with the fingers. The mold
should then be blown out clean with bellows. The mold
should now be closed, and may be regarded as finished.
FIG. 13.
Face Plate Mold Closed.
From Vl' endt's Foundry Work.
3. Make a Perspective Sketch of a Pulley Pattern 6
11
in
Diameter, 2" Face, Thie Center to be Cored' 2" by Use
of Core Prints.
The diameter. of the pulley pattern 6", is the diameter
from the top to the bottom 'of the pulley pattern. As
this is shown in perspective in the working drawing, this
......
Foundry Practice
dimension, lengt hwise, will be g r eater than t he diameter
drawn at right angles t o it through the cent er.
The opening shown to r epr esent the 2" core will also
be shown as an oval, rather t ha n as a circle (due to per -
spective drawing ), and the diameter fr om t op to bot tom
will be the 2" diameter, which, of course, will be 011e-
third of t he diameter of the pulley.
By the "face" is meant the t hickness of t he pull ey.
This dimension is always somewhat great er than t he
width of the belt it carries; e. g., a pulley wit h 2" face
would probably carry a belt l _0
11
wide.
The fact that the center is cored will be indicated on
your drawing by cor e print. This will indicat e t o t he
molder that he must make a slig ht indent ation in th
sand to accommodate t he core. When t he ca sting has
cooled, the cor e is broken out, leaving t he 2" hole as
desired.
Be sure that your drawing is clear, clean, a nd legible.
Be car eful t o let ter plainly and t o indicat e all dimensions.
The value of your dr awing will be dependent upon the
ease with which the workman who is t o const r ue:: the
pulley pattern (see Requirement 4) can read his direc-
tions from t he drawing.
4. Construct a TVood Pattern c.nd Core Box as P er
Outlined in Question 3 ; Use S hrinlwge Rule For the
111etal Used, Gray Iron, Bronze or Brass. Change JV!eas-
ureinents to Allow For Finish AU Over Casting aml
Proper Draft for R ewwving Pattern From Mould.
The making of this wooden pattern wiil require
use of a lat he. It is presumed t hat z. ny scol.1t a ttemptmg
to qualify fo r t his merit badge, will doubtless have !1ad
some experience in manual training, as pat tern makmg,
while it is a distinct trade, is inseparable from foundry
practice, inasmuch as no casting can be made without a
pattern, and this, the pattern, is made in the woodwork-
ing shops, or "pattern rooms," as they a re.
The shrink rule is a rule mar ked off 111 mches and
divisions of inches like an ordinary rule, except that a
shrink rule allows for the shr inkage of iron, which is
Ys" to the foot. A foot shrink rule would t herefore be
actually 1' Ys" long, the mar king of ?eing
same as on an ordinary foot r ule, each d1v1s:on bemg
augmented by its proportional part of the increase, _Ys".
A casting made in a mold constructed by this. shrink
rule, will , when cooling, shrink to the true proportions.
A core box is the box in which the core is formed.
The core is the body of sand used to form holes or open-
ings through castings. The shape of the core in this
instance is a cylinder 2" long and 2" in diameter.
By the draft is meant the shaping of sides of the
pattern so that there will be no resistance in withdrawing
it from the mold. It can be readily seen that a slight
slant in the outer edge, away from the center, would
present a resistance which would make it q1:1ite impossi.ble
to withdraw the pattern from the sand without causmg
the walls of the mold to crumble.
5. Describe How a Cupola Operates.
One of the most important considerations in the foun-
dry is that of melting the metal which is to be poured
into molds. '
Heat for all melting is produced from the union of tvvo
chemical elements, carbon and oxygen, carbon coming
from the fuel, coal, coke, oil, or g'as, and oxygen coming
from the air which is supplied in sufficient quantities by
means of a blast.
The peculiar properties of the metal to be melt ed, and
the degree of heat required for this purpose, determine
the design of the furnace, the kind of fuel used and the
application of the blast.
It is a far cry from the iron maker of early days, sitting
cross-legged on his platform between his crude bellows
of goat skins. with slits for air intakes, and nozzles of
bamboo, which he works alternately, delivering pitifully
small streams of air into the hole in the side of the clay
bank, which is his furnace and from which. after hours
of patient labor, his effort is rewarded by a few pounds
of iron, and the modern blast furnace, with its towering
height of 100 feet, its four huge heating stoves, the enor-
mous blast engines which each minute deliver to the
furnace 50.000 cubic feet of blast, and the whole array
of dust arresters, gas washers, and automatic ore and
coke handling machinery, which are essential to this
King of modern metallurgical devices .
Insignificad, indeed, is the output of the ancient fur-
Foundry Practice 17
nace when compared with the daily yield of 500 tons of
the modern blast furnace !
Foundry iron is melted in direct contact with the fuel
in a cupola furnace. The name comes from the resem-
blance of this type of furnace to the cupola, which, about
1850, was very commonly placed on top of dwelling
places. .
There are many different cupolas on the market which
vary only in details of design. A typical cupola !s a
straicrht shaft furnace, open at the top and bottom, !med
with
0
fire -brick, provided with a door at about the middle
of its height through which the charge is introduced,
and with tuyeres near the bottom through which the air
is blown to consume the fuel which is charged to melt
the iron.
The opening at the bottom is closed by hinged iron
doors which are dropped at the end of the day's run to
permit the unconsumed fuel and residue of iron in the
cupola to fall out and be removed.
The molten iron is drawn off through a hole at the
bottom, and slag is removed through a hole in the oppo-
site side, and at a slightly higher level than the iron tap
hole.
The wind'bo:r, communicating with the tuyeres, en-
circles the cupola. near its base. Air is delivered to the
windbox by a fan blower or a pressure blower, whence
it finds its way through the tuyeres into the cupola.
The cupola should have a blast gauge attached to the
wind-box to measure the pressure of air which ente.rs
the tuyeres; this pressure should be sufficient to force
the air into the middle of the cupola to insure complete
combustion. Figure 14. shows that type of furnace.
The bottom is supported on four cast -i ron legs, some
3,% feet above a solid foundation.
The bottom opening may be closed by cast-iron doors,
which swing into position, and are held in place by a
rod or spud wedged between them and the floor. These
doors, protected by a sand bed, support the charge during
the heat, and when all the iron has been melted, are
opened to "drop" it out of the furnace. The supporting
legs curve outward, and the doors are hinged as far back
as possible, to protect them from the heat of this "drop."
Char'11m;
]] Door
/lpproximofe
Levels
Iron
CoKe
Iron
CoKe
Iron
Cof(p .
First Char:;e ..
Bed
FIG. 14.
Scaffold
;. ,
I
8oiler Plate
Fire8ncK
Section Through Cupola Furnace.
From Foundry Work by Willi am C. Stimpson.
Courtesy of the American School.
Foundry Practice 19
At F is seen the wind-box, encircling the cupola, and
communicating with the openings through which t he air
is blown. These are called tuyeres, and are shown as H
and J in the fi gure:
Several feet from the bottom there is a door in the
side of ~ h cupola called the charging door and marked D
on the figure. Through this door the stock is charged
into the furnace. In practice this door is usually at the
level of the second fl oor of the foundry, or a platform
is built around it.
At G is the blast-pipe, connecting the fan or blower
with the wind-box. At C is the breast built around the
tap-hole T through which iron is removed from the
cupola, being drawn off through a spout. This spout,
protected by a fire sand mixture, projects in front of the
breast and guides the metal into the ladles. The bteast
opening, at which place the fire is lighted, is at one side,
level with the bottom. The height of the tuyer es above
the bed-plate varies according to the class of work done
in the foundry. The number of rows of t uyer es also
ranges from one to three. They direct t he blast int o the
fuel, increasing the heat sufficiently to melt the charge.
The advantage of using t wo or more rows of tuyeres is
that gases may be distilled from the fuel and escape
without coming in contact with air blown through the
lower row; they must, however , pass t hrough air blown
through the upper tuyeres, and thus become completely
consumed. The slag-hole and spout are shown at W.
Cleaning door s are built on either side. The double row
of tuyeres, therefore, reduces t he cost of furnace opera-
tion, and increases quick melting, inasmuch as no fuel is
lost. Moreover, when running small heats, the upper
row of tuyer es may be shut off by means of a damper.
Or if the melt ing is taking place too rapidly, the blast
may be diminished with consequent heat reduction, by
shutting off the upper tuyeres, and the use of a damper
in the blast pipe. Thus the melting rate of a cupola is
always under control of the melter.
A contrivance is also employed by which, when the
iron runs too high in the basin before tapping, it may be
drawn off through a spout into the wind-box, where its
i
I 1
I
20
heat will melt a lead plug, and it will fall to the floor
thus giving warning that the cupola should be tapped.
The following routine must be pursued each time a
heat is run off in the cupola :
. Dump from the last heat must be cleaned away.
Lumps of slag collected about the lower part of the
cupola walls must be chipped out by hand with a special
hand-pick. A mixture of fire sand and fire clay, in the
proportions of 1 to 4, wet with clay wash to the con-
sistency of flour paste, is daubed about, filling the breaks
in the lining made by picking out the slag. The greater
part of the daubing will be required from the bottom to
the level of the melting zone.
The bottom doors being swung up and closed by a
prop (generally of gas pipe), the doors are covered with
a layer of gangway sand or fine cinders, about an inch
in thickness . Burnt sand, tempered about the same as
for molds, is rammed evenly all over the bottom, and the
bottom is built higher on the sides and back so that
metal will flow towards the spout. The pitch varies with
size of the cupola, 1 inch to the .. foot being the fall for
cupolas of 24 to 30 inches inside lining.
Just inside the breast the fire is laid, with shavings
and fine kindling, then larger kindling until there is
centainty that a layer of coke sufficient to form the bed
will be ignited.
When the fuel is thoroughly lighted, more coke is
added to level up the bed, and the first ch.arge of iron is
put on. Above this alternate charges of fuel and iron are
placed to the level of the charging door.
~ b ~ of .iron about Ys inch round is laid in the spout,
proJectmg m through the breast opening. The breast
around the bar is filled in with a strong loamy molding
sand rammed hard.
The tap hole is left open when the blast is put on, but
when the metal begins to run freely, is closed with bott
clay, a mixture containing about 3i sawdust to make
it more fragile when tapped. The bott clay, made up in
small balls, is applied by a bott stick, onto whose end it
is shaped.
When sufficient molten metal has collected to fill the
first ladle, the tap hole is opened by means of a tapping
Foundry Practice 2!
bar. When all the iron has been melted, the supporting
bar is pulled away, and the bottom doors dropped, dump-
ing the slag and refuse. This is wet down with a hose to
deaden the heat, and left over night to cool.
The vessel receiving the molten metal is called a ladle.
These are of various types and sizes, varying from 30
pounds to twenty tons capacity, and named according to
the method of carrying them as hand ladles, bull ladles,
and crane or trolley ladles.
Hand ladles are made of cast-iron or pressed steel ; the
larger ladles are made of boiler plate.
The molt en iron is poured from the top of the ladle
which is therefor e
1
provided with lips. To protect them
from burning through ladles are lined ; those up .to a
ton capacity are lined with the daubing m_ixture used in
the cupola. This is done by hand, a thick clay wash
being used, which is pressed in hard with the hands and
rubbed smooth on the inside.
Larger ladles are lined with fire brick of thickness
proportioned to their size, and then daubed on the inside
with clay mixture similar to cupola lining. This lining
must be thoroughly dried before using. For smaller ladles
a ladle drying stove is provided, similar to a shallow core
oven. Wood fires are built inside of larger ladles to dry
them out.
Breaks in the ladle lining are daily repaired to preserve
the lining as long as possible.
6. (a) Describe a Process For Cleaning One of the Above
Castings When Removed From Mold.
When the casting has sufficiently solidified in the mold,
the flask is removed, leaving the casting in the sand.
For light bench work and snap flask work the mold is
lifted bodily and the sand dumped on the pile. The
bottom boards are piled in one place and the cores in
another for the next day's work. When all castings have
been removed from the sand the gates are broken and
thrown in a pile to one side. They (the gates) are now
"scrap" iron and will be used in the next pouring.
When the casting has sufficiently cooled, it is sent to
the cleaning room. Here castings are dumped into metal
barrels; called rattlers, that are revolved until the sand
and dirt have been jarred from the castings.
E3:ch barrel should be packed as full as possible, with
several shovelsful of gates and shot iron thrown in with
the castings. The cleaning is accomplished in from 20
to 30 minutes, by the scouring action of castings, scrap,
etc., rubbing against one another.
Castings of a similar character as to form and weight
sh.ould be rattled together, otherwise the lighter castings
will be broken by the heavier. When they are removed
from the barrel, the casting should show a smooth clean
surface, of an even gray color.
From the rattlers castings go to the grinding room
where slight roughness is removed on the emery wheel '.
FIG. 15.
Tumbling Mill or Rattler.
7. Describe The Properties in Sand That Are Best Suited
For Foundry Use and Tell How to Prepare Sand
For Use.
The chief material in which the molder works is sand.
The essential property of the molder's sand should be its
capability of binding together, or retaining the shape into
which it has been molded, while at the same time re-
11'.ai:iing sufficiently porous to allow of the escape of the
air m the mold, and of the gases generated by the action
of the hot metal upon it and its binding constituents.
Moreover, it must be sufficiently refractory to withstand
the very high temperatures to which it is subjected with-
out risk of fusing, and be able to give a smo-oth and fin-
ished appearance to the surface of the casting.
All sands are formed by the breaking up of rocks due
to the action of natural forces, frost, wind, rain and the
action of water. '
Foundry Practice 23
F ragments of rock on a mountain side are broken off
by action of frost, and are washed into mountain streams
through the action of rainfall. Here they are ground one
against another, and carried by the stream into the
current of the mightier river. Ground into finer and finer
particles by the turbulent current, they are finall y de-
posited as sand in shallows and along the recessed shores
where the current is less swift .
The finer sand and the clay have a tendency to settle
lower and lower down in the bed, so that we often find
a top soil formed over them so long have they remained
deposited. Removing the top soil we find first gravel or
coarse sand, then finer sand, and finally clay ..
But rocks are complex in their composition, and as sand
is pulverized rock, sands vary greatly in their charac-
teristics, and are not all suited to every grade of work.
Frequently a composite made by mixing two or more
sands from different localities will give a desired grade
and quality of molding sands when no single sand in the
mixture is suitable. '
The principal requirements of good m.olding sand are
the following:
Resistance to fusion. Molding sand should, first of all,
be refractory, that is, have the power to withstand the
heat of molten metal.
Bond: An essential property of the molder's sand
should be its capability of bonding together, or retaining
the shape into which it has been molded. Because of its
refractoriness and the bonding properties which it pos-
sesses, a fine molding sand will withstand the high tem-
peratures of the foundry; but sand molding has one
serious defect, which is, that after a single casting has
been made from a mold (often involving long and
arduous labor and careful preparation, probably on the
part of several men), that mold has to be completely
destroyed to retrieve the casting, and if a duplicate of
the casting is to be made, another mold, involving a
repetition of the labor, must be prepared.
Many attempts have been made to construct molds
which could be used successively in the casting of dupli-
cate forms. The greatest degree of success in these
attempts has been attained in the use of metal molds.
But to return to the essential qualitie? of molding sand :
Permeability: It must be permeable to permit the escape
of gases from the mold while filling with metal. The
pores in the mold are filled with air, and this, when heated
during the pouring of the metal, expands. The sand
must have sufficient cohesion or bond to withstand the
pressure due to this expansion, but it must also have
sufficient permeability to permit the escape of the con-
taine.d air, and of the gases which are generated in the
pourmg.
The greater the ease with which the air and gases
escape, the less need is there for a strong bond.
In green sand (see p. SS) more or less water is con-
tained in the mold, which, in casting, is converted into
steam, and this must also escape. A molding sand must
therefore have not only sufficient cohesion (bond) to hold
the particles together, retainit).g the form of the mold
during casting, but it must also have the necessary per-
meability to permit the escape of air, gases and steam.
Finally, a good molding sand must have an even grain.
Sharp, angular grains have a greater pore space than
rounded grains of the same size, indicating the difficulty
in making angular grains pack well. Microscopic tests
are necessary to determine whether sand will make a
good casting, as such tests reveal the shape of the grains,
whether they are flattened, rounded or angular, which
in turn determines how closely the mold can be rammed
and still permit the gases generated in pouring to escape.
A sharp, angular grain is necessary, for sand with this
grain can be firmly rammed around the pattern, and yet
give a porous and permeable mold.
With a strong, open sand a poor molder will often
make a better casting than will a good molder using a
sand lacking in permeability.
The two important chemical elements of molding sand
are silica, which is the heat-resisting element, and alum-
ina or clay, which gives the bond.
If heavy castings are to he made a sand containing
more silica and less clay (bond) is required to resist
fusion, as the sand must withstand a high degree of
heat for a long period. The refractoriness (heat-resist-
ing property) of sand depends on the amount of silica
Foundry Practice 25
it contains, but the bond decreases as the silica increases.
When the sand available for large castings is found to
be too close in texture (its grains being flat or rounded,
and therefore giving the sand less porosity) to have
sufficient permeability and refractoriness, silica sand or
ground silica rock is sometimes added to open up the
molding sand.
As sand becomes coarser, its bonding properties, which
give cohesion, decrease and the silica conte.nt, which
aids in resisting fusion, increases. Many castmgs made
in green sand remain in a liquid state for a considerable
time after pouring. They may also require churning
(pumping or feeding with hot iron) , during which period
the sand is constantly absorbing heat from the casting.
The resistance to fusion, as well as the cohesiveness,
must be great to prevent crumbling under the intense
heat .
Molding sand, as it comes from the pit where it is
mined, contains a certain amount of animal or vegetable
life. To get rid of this the sand must be burned.
Palmer, in his Foundry Practice, cites an instance of
what may happen in using an unburned sand.
A large mold made of new sand remained un-
poured for a number of days after finishing. On being
opened prior to pouring, it was found that a number
of plants were sprouting from the surface of the
mold. Much time was lost, and a good deal of expense
incurred in going over the surface of the mold to repair
the damage caused.
Besides silica and clay, the other elements found in
molding sands are oxide of iron, oxide of lime, lime car-
bonate, soda potash, combined water, etc.
Silica alone is a fire-resisting element, but it has no
bond. Under heat silica combines and fuses with the
other elements, forming silicates. These silicates melt
at a much lower temperature than does free silica. In
sands carrying much limestone within their make-up, or
those containing much oxide of iron, soda potash, etc.,
the molten iron will "burn in" more, making it more
difficult to clean the castings. Limestone combinations
also go to pieces under heat, tending to make the sand
crumble, and resulting in dirty castings.
Fi1:e is used in the daubing mixture with which
the ms1de of cupolas and ladles is overlaid. It must
have powe: of a high degree, and contain
the m1mmum of those mgredients that tend to make
it fuse or melt.
Light n:olding sand is used for castings such as stove
plate, which may have very finely carved detail on their
surface, but are thin. To bring out this detail the sand
must be very fine, and it must be very strong (high in
clay), so that the mold will retain every detail as the
rushes in.. As castings of this nature cool very
qmckly, there will be very little gas to come off through
the sand after the initial escape 0 air and steam.
FIG. 16.
, Molds Weighted for P'ou.ring.
From Palmer s Foundry Practice, by Permission of John Wiley's Sons.
M ediu111, sand is used for bench work and light floor
work. The bond should be strong to preserve the shape
- of the mold, but the of the larger proportion
of clay to .choke the vent, 1s offset by the larger size
of the gram .. The metal will remain hot in the mold
for . a longe.r time, . and gases will be forming during the
entire coolmg penod.
Heavy sand. This the largest iron castings.
The sand must be high m silica and the grain coarse,
because the heat of the molten metal must be resisted
by the sand, and gases must be carried off throtwh the
sand for a long period following the pouring.
0
The
amount of bond, or clay, must be small or it will cause
the sand to cake, closing the vents, and preventing the
Foundry Practice
27
free passage of these gases. The lack of bond is com-
pensated by the use of gaggers, etc. , to hold the
mold during the pouring and coolmg process. !he
coarse grain is rendered smooth on the surface by slick-
ing. .
Core sand. This sand must be qmte refractory, but
must have very little clay bond. The bond
the sand to cake, choking the vent, and makmg. 1t diffi-
cult of removal from the ca.vity when cleanmg the
casting.
Sands having practically no clay are called free sands.
Of these the two kinds in use are river sands and beach
sands. The little, sharp grains of river sand _interlock
one with another, and make a strong core. River sand
is therefore much used in large core work. Beach sand,
whose little rounded particles are .worn si:nooth by. the
action of the waves, has the ment of bemg relatively
inexpensive and in coast sections is much used, but only
for small cores.
Parting sands, or parting dusts, must be absolutely
free from bon.d. They are used to throw on the damp
surface of molds which must separate one from another.
They prevent these surfaces, formed of high bond sands ,
from sticking together.
Molding sand, after being used a certain length. of
time, loses its bond or cohesion. Every time a castmg
is removed from ;;, mold, a certain amount c;if sand ad-
heres to it, and is thereby lost. New sand 1s added to
the sand heap, not only to make up this loss, but also
to renew the bond, or cohesive quality. The color of
new molding sand varies from yellow, or reddish
to deep reddish brown, due to the presence of oxide of
iron. Molding sand which has been used, gradually be-
comes very black as a result of the burnii;ig into the
sand of the sea coal faci ng. As the sandpile becomes
black in color, it should be tested, and if found lacking
in strength (due to the burning out of the clay), the
sand should be removed. A mold made of sand of low
strenrrth is liable to have the face washed from it by
the iron. Moreover, in closing the mold a
portion of the sand is liable to drop.
Foundry men have many ways of testing the physical
property of sand. A foundry man will take a handful
of tempered sand, squeezing it in his hand into an elon-
gated mass. He then suspends this mass, holding it be-
tween thumb and finger. If it breaks off of its own
weight, it is not considered a strong sand. If, however,
it hangs together, there may be an excessive amount
of clay present. To test this , a small portion is wet
and rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, the
amount of clay present being judged from the stickiness
of the sand as shown in this operation.
Preparation of Sand for Molding
When the fl.asks which held the previous day's casting
been shaken out and the castings removed, the sand
is wet down. The molder or his helper do this with a
pail w.ater! throwing the pail around in a circular path
and tlppn:g 1t so that the water will fly over the edge
on one side and form a thin sheet, covering quite an
area .. When sand is sufficiently damp, new molding
sand 1s added 1 the sand used oi1' the previous day was
found to have insufficient strength. The new sand is
spread over the entire surface. It is then "cut over"
with the shovel. As each shovelful of sand is thrown a
twist is given to the shovel to spread the sand as mu'ch
as possible. Lumps are broken up with the fl.at, or
under part of the shovel. Dry portions are wet care
being taken not to make the sand too wet, as an
of moisture causes the metal in the mold to bubble or
"kick," sand that is too dry will crumble, when
the pattern 1s drawn.
Only an experienced molder can determine by the
sense of touch a properly tempered sand.
When sand has remained in the fl.ask some time after
the mold has been poured, it may bake hard in the fl.ask.
When the mold is shaken out, the sand will be found to
be lumpy. These lumps must be. thoroughly broken up
bef?re wetting, as otherwise they will not absorb the
moisture, and while sand is being riddled over the pat-
tern, a small shower of dry sand will fall into the mold,
and will fail to cohere to the tempered sand. The result
will be a rough-a broken casting. The more thoroughy
Foundry Practice
sand is tempered and cut over. the more easily it will be
worked by the molder.
8. Tell what Important Safety Precautions Sho1tld be
Taken to Protect the /!Vorkers in a Foundry- B)' the
Employer ?-By the Employee?
The greatest enemy to is Em-
ployers may make every possible f<?r of
the employed, but if there is an attitude of
on the part of the employee, the safeguards may be in-
effective.
The sense of caution, then, must be recognized as the
chief factor in accident prevention. In the development
of this attitude of personal caution, the by
his initiative, energy and intelligent superv1s10n, counts
most in the education of his workmen.
It is not practicable in a pamphlet of this s?rt to take
up in detail the matter safety 111
practice. Foundry work 1s necessarily an occupat10n
involving special hazard, and to cover th:e gro.und com-
pletely would require a very lengthy d,1scuss10n.. The
scout is therefore referred to Alexanders Safety 111 the
Foundry, where this subject is fully and interestingly
discussed and is also urged to consult foundry workers,
iron-masters, and foundry foremen or superintendents.
Information gained at first hand will be most serviceable.
The followina suggestions merely touch upon the sub-
ject, and should not be accepted as the matter
adequately. Concerning the precaut10ns to be
by the employer, the following are most obv10us :
Danger signals should be placed 111 any place :vhere
unusual danger exists, or where unusual danger is not
apparent. .
Orderly arrangement on the foundrY: floor , wide, clear
aisle space reduces the hazard of hot metal.
Safety and health of employees 1s promoted by plenty
of good air and sunshine.. daJ'.ligh.t shop and day-
light foundry should be the ann. This will mean _frequent
window cleanina as the windows are very qmckly ob-
scured by the dust and _fumes in tl:e foundry.
Where artificial light is a necessity, every effort sho:1ld
be made to keep the window glass clear, and thus give
the maximum of direct light.
Cranes and hoisting apparatus should be frequently in-
spected, and equipped with every safety device known,
and finall y, they should be in charge of a craneman of
expert judgment. The handling of such machinery
should never be entrusted to an inexpert employee.
All tools should be kept in perfect condition. The clan-
ger of using defective tools should be frequently im-
pressed upon the workmen.
. In handling many departments of foundry work there
1s a safe and unsafe way, and it should be a part of the
duty of every foreman to instruct employees in the safe
way, and to insist upon its observance .
. Goggles for the protection of the eyes should be pro-
vided employer, and these should be so adjusted
to the 111cl1v1clual that they can be worn without discom-
fort.
The following responsibilities devolve directly upon the
employee:
First of all, he must cultivate the habit of caution.
Familiarity with a hazard too often breeds an attitude
of indifference, and a willingness to "take a chance."
Individual safety, and )n many cases the safety of
others, demands the habit of caution on the part of each
employee.
Safe clothing is essential to prevent accidents. The
of safe clothing in the foundry means first the
ehm111at10n as far as possible of thin, ragged, greasy,
loose and baggy clothing, and worn-out or laced shoes.
Men should wear the one-piece suit where possible
thus much of the hazard from loose or ragged
clothmg. Fire-proofed cluck suits will shed sparks and
small spatters_ of metal, and will not burn readily.
Asbestos sUits can also be secured, and are sometimes
necessary.
FIG. 17.
Bull Ladle and Shank.
1'rom Wendt's Foundry Work.
'
Foundry Practice
Safety shoes (the Congress shoe, with thick
should be worn, and leggings, of which there are several
types which absolutely will prevent burns.
For workmen handling ladles or hot metals, also for
welders and other operators, asbestos gloves, leg pz Gs
and aprons should be donned. These may be uncomfort-
able and heavy, but it should be the responsibility of each
workman in a foundry to reduce the accident hazard, by
taking every possible precaution in dress, and
111 the careful execution of each detail of his hazardous
work.
FIG. 18.
Hand Ladle and Shank.
This brief discussion merely touches upon a few
obvious points in this very large subject of foundry-
safety. The scout is recommended to inform himself
more fully, by reading, and by personal conference with
foundry workers and officials.
THE EARLY HISTORY OF FOUNDING
Looking back over history we see a period of many
thousands of years when primitive man lived in caves
or other rude habitations and was entirely without the
implements we now consider indispensable.
His weapons of offense and defense were clubs, wood-
en spears, topped perhaps with bone or shell, and hatchets
of chipped stone, tied with thongs of hide into a split
stick. With ingeniously devised snares and these crude
weapons he secured game and fish for the support of his
family.
32 Meri.t Badge Examinations
When grain began to supplement the fruit and wild
game diet, it was milled by being crushed between two
fl at stones, or ground in a stone mortar.
Scouts were not the first to kindle fire by friction.
These skin-clad ancestors of ours secured the desired
.flame only after long and laborious t wisting or rubbing
together of two dry pieces of wood.
From the trunks of fallen trees, aft er liberal burning
away of parts and with the help of his war hatchet, the
caveman fashioned a craft which would float on water.
This was doubtless after countless thousands had learned
that a floating log would support his weight. A second
step was doubtless the lashing together of several logs
with leather thongs or tough withes, in the construction
of a crude raft. But the raft was awkward, clumsy to
manage, and altogether unsatisfactory as a craft for
swift moving water. The canoe, or "dugout" marked a
distinct advance in man's mastery of the water. This
period was known as the Stone Age and iron and steel
were unknown.
Copper has always been found,, in various parts of the
world in the "native" or metallic form ; that is, without
the other elements which in combination with it make
the ore.
FIG. 19.
Primitive Forge.
Reproduced by Permission from Spring's
Non-Technical Chats on Iron and Steel.
In the course of time man learned that this soft red
metal could be pounded into thin edged implements more
serviceable than his clumsy tools of wood and stone.
Foundry Practice
33
Scm-: of metal were hard and had fairly
good cuttmg edges. This was due to t he accidental or
intentional presence of tin. Little did the man of this
period (the Bronze Age) dream that the t wentieth cen-
tury, on fi nding . his buried bronze implements would
think his crude alloy so wonderful and t alk
of a "lost art of tempering copper."
Gold, which also occurs native, was known to our
ancestor, pri1!1itive man .. The melting point of gold is
low that it could easily be formed int o ornaments,
and other articles for religious purposes. But dur-
mg the t housands of years of t he "Stone Age" and durino-
much of the "Bronze Age," copper, bronze and gold
the only. u.sed. Although the smiths developed
_great skill .m and modelling these metals, t hey
knew ;iothmg of n on or st eel. Little did t hey dream
that, rightly t reated, certain of the heavy red, yellow or
black earths lying right at their doors could give up to
them the most useful of all metals, iron.
. Unlike copper and gold, iron never occurs "free,' ' hav-
mg too great a tendency to chemically combine with
.elemei:ts, . such, for. example, as the oxygen in t he
au, with which m most climates it so readily forms "iron
rust."
Moreover, its melting point is high and so great a
degree of heat and so much carbon are required for its
"reduction" from the ore t hat during thousands of years
it had never been produced.
But one day, by accident, and under the for tunate co-
incidence of r ich ore, high heat and an abundance of
carbon. in. the form of charcoal from wood, a lump of
metallic iron was formed underneath a pile of logs
which had got afi re and burned fiercely because of a
high wind.
When pounded between t wo stones this metal proved
to be superior t o anything yet known for spearhead or
other weapon.
The art of from the ore spread slowly,
but eventually it became more and more generally pro-
Eyidences show that in Egypt , Chaldea, Borneo,
India, Chma, etc., roughly similar processes and crude
furnaces were used:
34
Tubal-Cain is mentioned in the Bible as an "artificer
in iron and brass," and a wedge of wrought iron was
buried in the great pyr amid of Cheops, probably as early
as 3500 B. C. This wedge is now in the British Museum.
The Chinese made use of iron many centuries before
the Christian Era, and the Assyrians used the metal on
a r eally extensive scale.
At Delhi, in India, is still standing a pillar 22 feet high
made up of several wrought iron sections cleverly welded
together. It is supposed to have been erected about the
4th or 5th century B. C.
FIG. 20.
Catelan Forge.
Reproduced lJy Permission from Spring's
The earliest furnaces were crude things, being mainly
heaps of wood and charcoal and iron ore on the crest of
hills where high winds fanning the blaze gave the neces-
sary heat.
Later, with the invention of crude bellows, smelting
was done in small holes in the side of clay banks, charcoal
being used as fuel.
Foundry Practice
35
The early Britons made iron in crude furnaces called
"bloomaries" and there was little improvement up to the
time of Elizabeth when strict laws were enacted to pre-
vent the utter destruction of forests for the production
of charcoal.
The Catalan forge, named for Catalonia, north Spain,
where it originated, is the forerunner of our modern
blast furnace. The Catalan and furnaces of a like nature,
produced a variable kind of what we know as "wrought
iron." Our modern "cast iron" did not appear until about
the middle of the fourteenth century, when, with larger
furnaces, an excess of char.coal, with greater heat and
other favorable conditions, t he Germans found that they
could make t he pasty metal absorb enough carbon to
make it easily fusible.
Summarizing, iron ore is the metal iron in combination
with the gas oxygen, which forms one-fifth of the air we
breathe. Under the influence of intense heat the oxygen
can be released by carbon. The result in the small, crude
and inefficient furnaces of long ago was a small ball of
crude iron, pasty and difficult to melt, but malleable when
cold. This was "wrought iron."
When, however, much more carbon in the form of
charcoal was present in the highly heated furnace, than
was necessary simply to combine with the oxygen of
the ore, the liberated iron greedily absor bed enough of
the extra carbon to liquefy it. This liquid iron could be
poured into molds and in t hat way made int o various
useful shapes. It became knovvn as "cast iron" because
of this property.
It has been estimated that iron forms 5 per cent of the
total substance of the earth, but it is very unevenly dis-
tributed. The amount of iron in rock varies from a
minute trace up to 70 per cent of the whole rock. It is
only when the percentage of iron is 25 or above that it
can be profitably mined.
Iron does not occur as pure metal but in combination
with other elements- oxygen, carbon, sulphur, etc.
Recent investigations show that the iron ore resources
of the world are practically inexhaustible.
Russia and China have immense fields which have
never been t horoughly investigated.
I
I
The most important deposits of non-phosphoric ores
of Great Britain are the ores of Cumberland and Lan-
cashire. Spain has the most important deposits of this
ore in Europe.
In the United States the Lake Superior District sup-
plies the principal non-phosphoric ores . . The enormous
supply of this ore and its excellent quality account largely
for the great development of the American iron and steel
industries. Pittsburgh's great advantage as an iron and
steel center has been due to its proximity to an extensive
seam of bituminous coal and ore in adjacent counties and
its location so near the Great Lakes, which provides
cheap water transport ation for the Lake .Superior ores.
The first iron works in Pittsburgh were established in
1790. The development of the Birmingham, Alabama,
district is also of great importance.
We can have but a slight appreciation of the debt which
civilization owes to iron, for practically everything with
which we come in contact contains or has resulted from
application of iron in some way or other.
Our cooking utensils and implements, the kitchen
range, water and drainage pipes and furnaces and heating
plants of our houses are largely of iron.
The steel frames of skyscrapers and bridges are largely
of structural steel. The wood, brick, stone and cement
are either shaped, molded or made by iron machinery.
So with the conveyances by which we travel and most of
the materials and articles which we wear, use and have
constantly about us, would be impossible but for the
machinery and tools necessary for their production.
The iron industry is sometimes spoken of as the
barometer of a people's civilization. If all iron and iron
products and their influence on the world were obliter-
ated, it would set us back to a stone age civilization.
No matter how hard we try, few of us realize the
immensity and importance of the iron and steel industry,
with approximately 460 huge blast furnaces here, 5,000
cast and malleable iron foundries, about 1,000 Bessemer
and open hearth steel and some 3,000 puddling furnaces
and the many thousands of factories which are daily
turning the products of these into pipe, wire, rails, plate
Foundry Practice 37
and the infinite var iet y of ar t icles which are mighty
factors in our civilization.
Yet wit h t hese furnaces and factories at our very door,
the vast majority of persons ar e . obli:rious to their sig-
nifi cance and only annoyed by t heir noise and smoke.
THE HISTORY OF THE TRADE IN IRON
Reprinted from Chapter X, I ron and Steel, Ch ristopher Hood, by permission
of I saac Pitman & Sons, London and New York.
Such a history begins with t he barter by the hunter,
fresh from t he chase, of t he skins of his quarry for an
iron t ool with which t o take off t he pelt , or by t he t iller
of the ground, of the grain he had grown for iron t o
make a shoe for the point of his wooden ploughshare.
There is no record of these early transactions, t here
were no weekly iron market s, no quoted prices, no ques-
tions of "bull" or "bear " or "corners," or any of t he
mischievous devices of modern commerce in those days.
The necessities of the seller and the wealth of the buyer ,
who were also producer and consumer, fixed t he price
to be paid and received. As t he production of iron in-
creased and t he use of it ext ended its value as a regular
article of commerce would become more fixed. There
seem t o be no records of pr ices until about 1638, when
Dud Dudley sold iron made with pit coal at :12 per
ton, but t his is comparatively a modern date.
The earliest record of iron-making is the r efer ence
in Genesis to Tubal Cain as "An instruct or of ever y arti-
fi cer in brass and iron." He was evidently the fir st ex-
pert in t he treide which must , ha:re reached a
very considerabl e degr ee of efficiency 111 his day. The
records of the earliest civilization of t he worl d, that of
Egypt , contain many refer ences to st eel and iron, and
the metal was known to the Chaldeans, Babylonians and
Assyrians. Early Biblical r eferences t o iron are numer-
ous, one of the most curious being that of the iron
bedstead of Og, the Ki ng of Bashan. Gol iath' s spear-
head weighed six hundred shekels of iron. J ob refers
to the iron weapon, and the bow of steel and various
tools of iron are referred to by David. Daniel wrote,
"Iron breaketh in pieces and subdueth all things," and
Elisha made the iron axe to swim when it fell into the
water, and the servant lamented because it was bor-
rowed. The Medes and Per sians, and the natives of
India, were acquainted the manufacture, and Wootz
steel ha? been famous for ages and is yet preferred by
the native swordmakers for the best weapons. The
Arabs were early makers of fine steel and iron, as also
were the Turks. It is recorded of Saladin that his sword
was of such fine edge that he severed with it a down
cushion thrown in t he air.
The Greeks were well acquainted with the manufac-
ture of iron, and reference to it is made by Homer. I n
later times the ores of the Isle of Elba were worked by
the Greeks. The Romans knew the value of iron but
they were not great manufacturers of it
The Celtibarians of Spain were famous makers of iron
and says their swords "cut through
everythmg m their way that neither shield, helmet nor
bone can withstand them." The ancient Britons knew
value of iron and used it for various purposes, and
1t 1s probable that they were acquainted with its manu-
facture from the ore, although it is quite possible that it
was at first imported by the Phcenicians and other trad-
ers who came to the Cornish ports for t in. By the time
of the first Roman invasion iron was made in the island
and during the Roman occupation the manufactur e of
it was carried on in various parts of the country on a
large scale. Enormous cinder beds in Monmout hshire
and similar remains of iron smelting in other parts of
the country in which Roman coins have been found
testify to the Importance of the industry in those times'.
In Anglo-Saxon and Danish times the manufacture
of iron was an important industry, the monks even en-
in it, and St. Dunstan is said to have had a forge
111 his bedroom. In Domesday Book, ironworks in Som-
erset, Hereford, Gloucester, Cheshire and Lincoln are
referred to. Gloucester appears to have been a center
of t.he trade, and its tribute to the King was paid in iron.
Scnvenor says that from the Conquest to the end of
the reign of King John iron and steel were imported
from Germany, which probably indicates that industries
F oundry P ract ice 39
in England were fl ourishing and iron could not be made
in sufficient quantity. During the Crusades, the art of
making chain armor was carried t o gr eat perfection in
England, and the same perfection in making weapons
had been r eached by the Saracens. In the r eign of
Edwar d t he Third a law was passed prohibiting t he ex-
port of iron, whether made in the country or imported.
The magistr ates were authorized t o regulate t he
and to punish anyone who charged t oo much. I n t his
reign cannon are fir st mentioned, and these wer e first
made of iron. Scrivenor says t hat during the fourteenth
and fi fteenth centuries iron and steel were imported
from Germany, Prussia and other places, and iron from
Spain, but as several improvements in the manufacture
had taken place during this period in England laws were
made t owards the end of it against importing any of
the articles of iron and steel which were manufactured
in this country. The makers of these articles in London
and ot her towns presented a petit ion t o Parliament in
1483 and an Act was passed prohibiting their i mporta-
tion.
The t rade continued t o flourish in t he Forest of Dean,
Sussex, Somersetshire and Yorkshir e unt il 1558, when
an Act was passed prohibit ing the felling of ti mber for
burning iron excepting in Sussex and part s of Kent and
Surr ey. This prohibition was extended in 1581 and 1585
so as t o include all t imber "of the size of one foot at
the stub," and prohibiting t he erection of any new
works in Sur rey, Kent and Sussex, and here commences
one of the gr eat crises in t he t rade, viz., that due to t he
change from charcoal t o pit coal fuel.
Up t o this neriod t he manufacture of raw iron was
more perfectly underst ood on the Continent than in
England. T he Germans and the Swedes had developed
the Blauofen and the Osmond furnace from the Cat alan
forge and made better iron than was made in Engla.nd.
But a ided by the earlier necessity to use hard coal owmg
to the .denudation of the forests and by t he invention of
the steam engine, the English now took the lead and re-
tained it unto our own time through many changes
which resulted in a complet e revolution of t he trade.
Dud Dudley, in the seventeenth century, succeeded in
making good iron by using pit and sea coal, but his
invention was attacked by his rivals, his works were
destroyed by floods, "to the great joy of many iron-
masters," as he says. A staunch Royalist, he saw a
patent for making iron with pit coal given by Cromwell
to another-though he had the satisfaction of seeing
it fail-and on the r estoration of Charles II he got no
redress. So, in disaster and ruin, ended t he first attempt
to make iron with hard coal, and it was not until fifty
year s lat er, in 1713, that Abraham Darby succeeded in
using coke in the blast furnace. Dudley had estimated
that in 1660, 300 furnaces were in blast , each making
fifteen tons of iron per week during forty weeks in the
year. This would give an output of 180,000 tons per
annum. Owing to the scarcity of charcoal the number
of furnaces in 1740 had fallen to fift y-nine, making only
17,350 tons per annum. Dudley's fi gures may not be
ver y accurate, but it is evident that during these eighty
years the trade passed through a very sever e crisis in
which the manufacture dwindled to very small i m e n ~
SIOnS.
The imports of iron were from Sweden, Russia and
the American colonies. The policy of Great Britain with
regard to her colonies at this time had the effect of
stimulating imports of raw iron. The idea at the back
of the policy was that t he colonies should supply us witb
raw material, t hat \ Ne should manufacture it into fin-
ished articles and return it to them in that form. To
carry out this policy the importation of raw materials
was. encouraged and the manufacture of finished goods
in the colonies was prohibited. Scrivenor says: " In
1750 an Act, 23rd George II, was passed for encourag-
ing the import of pig iron from the British Colonies in
America. Every well-wisher to his country reflected
with concern on the nature of the British trade with
Sweden, from which country we imported more iron
and steel than from all the other countries in Europe.
For this article a great balance was paid in ready money,
which the Swedes again expended in purchasing from
the French and other mercantile states those necessaries
Foundry Practice
and superfluities with which t hey might have been as
cheaply furnished by Breat Britain. In the meantime,
our Colonies were restricted by severe dut ies from tak-
ing advantage of their own produce in exchanging their
iron for such commodities as they were under the neces-
sity of procuring from t heir Mother Count r y. This re-
striction was not only a gr ievance upon our own settle-
ments, but also attended with manifest prejudice to the
interests of Great Britain, annually drained of great
sums, in favor of a nation from which we derived no
advantage in r eturn ; whereas, t he iron imported from
America must of necessity come in exchange for our
own manufactures. The Committee having appointed
a day for taking this affair into consideration, carefully
examined into the state of t he British commer ce with
Sweden, as well as into the accounts of iron imported
from the plantations of America ; and a committee of
the whole House having resolved that t he duties on
American pig and bar iron should be repealed, a bill was
brought in for that purpose: 'That pig iron, made in the
British Colonies in America, may be imported duty free,
and bar-iron into the port of London ; no bar -iron so
imported t o be carried coastwise, or to be landed at
any other port, except for t he use of His Majesty's dock-
yards; and not to be carried beyond ten miles from Lon-
don.' The Act, however, contained the following clause:
'That from and after t he 24th day of June, 1750, no mill
or other engine for slitting or rolling of iron, or any
plating forge, to work with a tilt -hammer , or any fur-
nace for making steel shall be erected, or, aft er such
erection, continued in any of His Majest y' s Colonies of
America.' " Scrivenor goes on to show the results of
this Act. The Governors of t he colonies were ordered
t o make a ret urn of the furnaces, etc., in t heir jur isdic-
tions. This return showed that there were four mills
for slitting or rolling, one not in use, eleven plat ing
forges with t ilting-hammers, t wo not in use, and fi ve
steel furnaces, one not in use. The ironmasters peti-
tioned against the bill on t he ground t hat it would not
lessen the import of Swedish iron, as that was brought
in for purposes for which the British and American
were unsuitable, and that the colonies would be able
with their cheap fuel to undersell the British manufac-
turer to the ruin of thousands of laborers, who would
have to emigrate; also that if the British iron manu-
facturer had to depend on supplies from America, which
would be liable to be captured by enemies or lost at
sea, the trade would decay for want of materials.
Against this view the ironmongers and smiths "of the
flourishing town of Birmingham in Warwickshire," peti-
tioned that the ironworks of Great Britain did not make
l1alf enough material for the trade, and that if the colo-
nies could supply the deficiency, the Swedish importa-
tion would cease "and considerable sums of money be
saved to the nation." They pointed out what was evi-
dent, that the importation from America would be no
different in its effect from importation from elsewhere.
The bill passed, and in 1756 tlie Society of Merchant
Adventurers of Bristol petitioned for bar-iron to be
allowed to be imported into any port as well as London.
This was urged because great qua-t1tities of bar-iron were
being brought in from _Swede n, Russia, and other coun-
tries, and the curious old argument was again used that
this was purchased with ready money, whereas if Amer-
ica sent it in it would be paid for by goods going out.
The petition was opposed and a great controversy arose
on what was considered a national affair. The opposers
said that the fear of American imports had stopped the
development of mining and iron-making, that the mines
were inexhaustible and the growth of wood in coppices
for iron-making utilized land which was otherwise of
no value and improved pasture land by the shade it
afforded, that the destruction of the coppices would
reduce the bark available for tanning, that neither Brit-
ish nor American iron could stop the import from
Sweden because the latter only could be made into steel;
the import from America, therefore, could only inter-
fere with the British. The promoters replied to all this,
and ultimately the bill was passed with a clause repeal-
ing a previous enactment which prohibited the conver-
sion of wood and coppice into pasture or tillage. A
curious comment on all this agitation and fuss is the list
Foundry Practice 43
of exportations of iron from the American plantations,
y; _ _ich is as follows :
Years. Tons.
1717 and 1718 together 7
1729 to 1735 average 2,111
1739 " 1748 " 2,423
1750 " 1755 3,305
1761 " 1776 4,045
b 1776 the imports of iron into Great Britain from
Eussia were 34,000 tons, so that in spite of Acts of
Parliament the "line of least resistance" was not devi-
ated. There is little doubt that the irritation caused by
these selfish trade regulations in the interests of British
manufacturers and trade had much to do with the re-
bellion of the colonies.
In 1788 the quantity of iron made from coke was
,;8,200 tons, and from charcoal 13,100 tons . The effect
on the trade of the substitution of coke for charcoal was
to concentrate the of pig iron in those parts
where coal was found. Thus the iron trade of Sussex
a:1d Kent disappeared and that of Staffordshire, South
Wales and Yorkshire greatly increased. In Scotland the
manufacture of iron from charcoal appears to have been
0:1 a very small scale, as the first furnace was erected
in 1750 and in 1788 two furnaces .were blowing with
charcoal and producing 1,400 tons a year. But the use
of coke as fuel and the discovery in 1801 of the black-
band seam of iron-stone laid the foundation upon which
the great iron trade of Scotland has been built.
While this great change in the iron trade was taking
place the invention of cast steel by Huntsman, in 1770,
brought about an equally great change in steel, for by
it the makers of fine Sheffield goods were provided with
an ideal material for the manufacture of the finest cut-
lery. Huntsman was a watchmaker, who took up the
question of improving the quality of steel. Whether he
knew or learnt anything of the method of making W ootz
steel or not it is impossible to say, but his invention
was very much on the same lines as those by which
steel had been produced for centuries in Eastern coun-
tries.
It is interesting to look back at this when Great
I
I
I
44
Britain became self-supplying in the matter of iron to
the fluctuations in the imports in earlier years. As
early as 1216 the home supply was so small that impor-
tations had to be made from the Continent, but the
home production had so largely increased by 1483 that
importations were forbidden, and late in the sixteenth
century iron in the form of cannon was exported. This
trade led to the complaint that Spain armed her ships
with English cannon to fight against us, and conse-
quently the export was forbidden. In the seventeenth
century the civil war paralyzed the industry, and in the
eighteenth the exhaustion of the forests led to recourse
again being had to the Continent for supplies. But now
came the change which put England in the leading posi-
FIG. 21.
Beehive Ovens.
Reproduced by Permissior1 from Spring's
tion. While the Continent, with its large supplies of
timber, continued to use charcoal fuel, the English
works were driven to use coke. As experience wit h
coke was gained it was found to be much cheaper than
charcoal and the output of iron much greater. The
abundant supply of coal and its proximity to the ore
gave Great Britain a great advantage over the conti-
nental nations. Germany, her great competitor in mod-
ern times, up to the close of the Napoleonic wars in
1815, was constantly devastated by hostile armies which
destroyed all industry for the time being, and America
had not begun to develop her resources. Great Britain,
with peace within her own borders, took advantage of
the opportunity to develop her iron industry which the
\
Foundry Practice 45
possess10n of coal and ir on-st one in vast quant ity en-
abled her to do. The lead which she was thus enabled
to establish over her continental competitors was in-
creased by t he early development of railways, and it
was .not until 1890 that she had t o take second place
owing to the growth of the t rade in the States
with its huge stores of iron ore, its great territ or y ancl
large population. In 1903 Germany also pass_ed her
owing t o the development of t he basic steel
process for which her ores are specially smtable.
We in Great Britain may regret that we no longer
Lo:d the blue ribbon for iron production, but it is .not
a posit ion which any action on our part
have altered, and it is wisdom to accept the mevitable
without getting angry. If we could have treat ed the
United States as t he American col onies were treated
in the Georgian days and prohibited them from making
any manufact ured iron, or setting up any plant for
doinrr so then the American output of iron would have
b '
kept down, or if we could have suppressed t he Thomas-
Gilchrist process of steel-making, Germany could not
possibly have become a great maker of steel, but under
no circumstances was it possible to do ) either of these
things. We cannot say t o the United States, "You shall
not develop your minerals without our permission";
nor to Germany, "We will not allow you t o use the
Basic process," nor to nat ure, "You had no right to
provide t hese countries with more iron or e than you
gave to us ." Only very foolish people would take up
such a position, for it is cer t ain that in the progress . of
nations, all other things being equal, that country with
the greatest natural resources will make t he
quantity of goods from natural products. Great
can no more hope to rival America in the product10n
of iron than t he Isle of Wight can hope t o rival Eng-
land in the growth of corn, nor is it to be th<1:t
the 208,627 square miles and sixty-one million mhabi
tants of Germany will not require more iron than the
121,305 square miles and forty-four million inhabitants
of Great Britain.
From 1836 to 1860 the British iron trade grew at a
great rate, and the output of pig iron reached 3,826,752
t ons in the latter year. a1'.d manufa.ctures of
a'.l kinds called for an ever-mcreasmg quantity. The
discovery of the main seam of Cleveland iron-stone led
to the establishment of great works on the banks of
the Tees, which were able not only t o supply the home
market with pig iron, but to export it to the Continent,
ivhere a great trade was built up. It is to be borne in
mind that the whole of this pig iron in the home market
was used for making malleable iron in the puddling
furnace or for castings. The rail and plate trades were
principally carried on in Staffordshire, on the North
East coast and in South Wales. The most successful of
these was that of Mr. Danks, which has been referred
to. The success of Bessemer's new process however
put a stop to all attempts to improve the puddling
nace, .which for the manufacture of rails and plates was
practically abandoned. The transit from the puddling
furnace to the Bessemer converter for the manufacture
of ra.ils began in 1873 and was completed by about 1879,
and m the case of plates it last ed from about 1880 to
1890. In South Wales great di stress was caused amoncr
the workmen who were dismissed as the puddling
naces were put out , no less than 734 out of 1,251 of these
being extinguished between 1873 and 1880. In 1890
there were only eighty-three in operation, and in 1906
the number in North and South Wales together had
dwindled to twenty.
The great development of the iron and steel trade in
modern times began with the invention of the Bessemer
process in 1855. Up to the time when Bessemer steel
was made in 1860 steel was only known as the raw
material for the cutlery and similar fine trades. It was
very c<;>stly!, being made b}'." an expensive process from
expensive imported material. In 1841 Russian and
Swedish bar-iron imported by Hull merchants cost from
20. to per ton at Sheffield, the price being artificially
by the restriction ot exporta ticm by the
Swedish Government. . All other requirements for rail-
:vays, shipbuilding, machinery, pipes, etc., were met by
ir.on made in the puddling furnace or. the cupola. The
discovery of mild steel, as it has come to be called,
changed all that, and although the foundry trade has

Foundry Practice
47
altered little, the manufacture of malleable
shrunk to comparatively small dimensions.
iron has
HISTORY OF IRON FOUNDING IN THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA
It is fairly well established that the aboriginal inhabi-
ta.nts of the Continent were unacquainted
with the of iron. The highly civilized people of Peru
and used copper only, and the Indians of North
America did n?t _use iron until it was introduced by
Europeans. This ignorance of iron is very striking evi-
dence of the early period at which America was first
inhabited, for is very improbable that any people who
once knew of iron would ever entirely lose that knowl-
hist.ory of iron in America, therefore, begins
with the mvas10n of the Europeans who brought with
them their. knowledl?e of the Catalan forge. Iron ore
was. discovered 111 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh's ex-
pedit10n on Roanoke Island. In 1608 a quantity of ore
was shipped to England and smelted, and seventeen
tons of metal produced. This was the first iron made
from The first attempt to establish iron-
works 111 Virgima ended disastrously and the first works
put down were in the province of Massachusetts Bay in
1643. The industry flourished and was gradually ex-
FIG. 22.
The First Casting
Made in America.
Reproduced by
permission f r o m
Spring's Non-
Technical Chats on
Ir0<1 and Steel.
to other provinces, the abundance
of timber available for charcoal being of
great advantage. It has already been
panted out that the British Government
interfe'red with the development of the
trade by prohibiting the use of mills and
forg:es for making finished iron, com-
pell111g the trade to be restricted to the
manufacture of pig iron for export to
England, except such quantities as could
?e used in the forges and mills already
m work. !tfter the War of Independence
heavy du!ies :vere put on imported iron,
and the immigration of skilled artisans
and workpeople from Europe was en-
couraged. In 1810 the annual value of iron and its

manufactures was estimated at twelve to fifteen million
dollars, and the value of imported iron at four million
dollars. Heavy duties continued to be levied for the
purpose of protecting the native works, and a great
troversy arose between 1828 and 1833 upon. these duties.
In 1850 the quantity of pig iron made m the States
was 564,755 tons, so that 60 per cent. of the iron used
was home made and 40 per cent. imported. From 1850
the manufacture of iron rapidly increased, so that in
1860 the pig iron output was 821,22.3 tons, in 1870
1,665,178 tons, in 1880, 3,835,191 tons, m 1890, 9,202,703
tons, in 1900, 13,734,860 tons, in 1910 it was 27:298,545
tons, and in 1916, 39,434,797 tons. The product10n has
therefore been about doubled every eleven years on the
average. No other country in ca? show such
a development as this at any period of its history .. Ger-
many comes nearest with abovt half the product10n .at
each decade, but in the earlier years before 1870 the dis-
trict of Elsass-Lothringen, which now produces a large
quantity, was not included.
The- American expansion has been brought about .by
the development of the country and by the possessi.on
of great resources for iron-making in Lake Supe:10r
ores and Connelsville coke. The enterprise and orgamza-
tion necessary for bringing these
gave an admirable opportunity for the display of Ameri-
can energy and ability. The transport of ore the
Lakes and its conveyance to the furnaces at Pittsburgh
and other places is a triumph of engineer_ing skill and
business capacity which has no parallel 111 any other
part of the world. . .
From time to time the output of iron m the States
has exceeded the demand, and the ironmaster there has
then had to consider whether he should dispose of the
surplus in outside markets or reduc.e . his make.
Pittsburg furnaces are too far from tide-water to admit
. of any iron from them being shipped overse3:, but the
Southern furnaces in Alabama are able to put iron f.o.b .
. at Pensacola for about a dollar per ton. Pensacola is a
cotton port, and there are, therefore, of
shipping iron in ships ta_king cotton to Europe which are
..
T
Foundry Practice
49
not loading their full carrying weight. In this way it
has been possible to ship pig iron to Northern European
ports such as Bremen, Hamburg, Rotterdam, etc., and
to Mediterranean ports such as Genoa, Savona, etc., at a
cost which would compete with British iron. But the
geographical position of the American works generally
is such that any serious competition in outside markets
is not to be looked for. The Canadian markets, on the
other hand, except those on the St. Lawrence river, are
open to American competition, and as Canada has up to
the present not developed any ore or coal-fields which
will provide for her rapidly increasing population it would
appear to be in her interest commercially to cultivate
trade with her best market, which over a great extent of
her territory is that of the States. In the Western
States the absence of coal and ore in large quantities
renders it difficult to establish the manufacture of iron
as a national industry, and supplies of iron are obtained
from the Eastern States. Imports into Western ports
such as San Francisco and Seattle are received from Eu-
rope, but recently the Chinese works have sent in con-
siderable quantities. It is probable that as the Chinese
iron trade develops the requirements of the Western
States of America will be largely supplied by that market.

50
GLOSSARY OF FOUNDRY TERNIS
Air-Dried
Air-Furnace
Alloys
An ch qr
Anneal .
Baked Core
Bars
Basin
Bath
Bead-Slicker
Bed Charge
Bedding"In
Bellows
Bench
Bench Molding
Binder
Refers to a core that has dried or
partially dried in the air before bak-
ing.
A furnace for melting iron, princi-
pally used in malleable practice.
A combination of metals melted to-
gether.
Appliance used to hold cores in
place in molds.
To soften by heat.
A dry sand core which has been sub-
jected to heat, usually in an oven,
to render it hard, and to fix its
shape; the' opposite of a green .core.
Ribs placed across the cope portion
of a fl ask. ~
The portion of a q1pola below the
tuyeres in which the molten iron
collects.
The iron on the hearth of an air fur-
nace.
A t ool for fini shing a hollow place in
a mold.
The fir st charge of coke put into the
cupola.
Sinking a pattern into the sand.
An ordinary small bellows used for
blowing sand from the joint of a
mold, and for blowing it from deep
pockets in the mold.
The framework table at which small
molds are made.
Making molds on a bench.
A bar of wood or iron, with slotted
ends to receive bolts, placed across
a cope to hold the cope on the drag.
Block Sand
Blast
Blow Hole
Bod
Bosh
Bottom Board
Break-out
Breast
Bricks-Fire
Brush
Buckles
Butt-Ramming
Butt
Bull-Ladle
Calipers
Foundry Practice
51
Heap sand. Sand which has been
used in molding.
A current of air blown into the
cupola by blower or fan.
Hole in t he casting caused by
trapped air or gas.
A ball of clay used for closing the
tap-hole-also called a bott.
(See swab}
The board t hat the mold rest s on.
A ruptur e of a mold permitting
metal to flow out at the joint. Also
call ed a run-out.
The clay put into the opening, above
the spout, t o form t he tap-hole.
Bricks made of fire clay used for
lining cupolas and air-furnaces.
A brush for sweeping sand from the
joint of molds. The brush is made
of wire.
Swellings in the surface of a mold
due t o the generation of st eam, be-
low the surface, which cannot es-
cape.
Ramming with flat end of rammer.
The large round end of a rammer.
A two-man ladle used in carr ying
molten metal.
A measuring tool for ascertaining
the outside diameter of cylindrical
bodies.
Camels' Hair Brush A brush for applying blacking to
the surface of molds.
Casting
Chaplet
The ir on, brass or alloy art icle or
pari. that is obtained as a result of
pouring molt en meta! into a mold.
A piece of metal, shaped in various
ways, placed in a mold to support
a core.
52
Charge
Charging Door
Cheek
Chill
Chilled Casting
Chuck
Churning
Cinder Bed
Clamping Bar
Clamps
Clay Wash
Cold Sheet
Contraction
Cope
Cope Down
The iron and fuel placed in a cupola
or air-furnace.
The opening in a cupola or ai r-fur-
nace through which fuel and met al
are introduced.
The middle part of a three-part
flask.
An iron surface, sometimes water-
cooled, of a mold, used to chill the
molten iron rapidly and thus produce
a hard surface on the casting.
A casting made in a chill mold,
which has cooled very rapidly.
Small bars set between the cross
bars of a flask.
Feeding metal into a casting with
an iron rod, through the feeder or
riser.
A layer of cinders placed beneath a
mold. Gas, from the mold, escapes
through the cinders and is led off
through pipes.
A bar used to tighten clamps on a
flask.
Devices for fastening copes and_
drags together.
Clay, thinned with water and used
as a coating for gaggers and flasks.
An imperfection in a casting due t o
the metal entering t he mold by dif-
ferent sprues, and cooling, failing t o
unite on meeting.
Decrease iri volume due to cooling.
The upper half of the mold.
To build projecting bodies of sand
on the surface of the cope to form
surfaces of the casting which are
below the level of the joint of the
drag.
,..
Core
Core Box
Core Oven
Core Plate
Core Driers
Core Print
Core Wash
Corner Tool
Crushing
Crucible Zone
Cupola
F oundry P r actice
53
A body. of sand, either green or dry,
placed m a mold to form a cavity in
t he casting.
The box in which the core is formed.
An oven in which cores are baked.
An iron plate on which a green core
is baked.
A form which holds the core in
shape while it is baking.
A cavity in a mold in which t he ends
of cor es are set; also a projection on
a pattern which forms in the sand
an impression used in locating a
core and in holding it in place.
A blackening mixture with which
cores are painted:
A t ool for slicking the corner of t he
mold, inaccessible to the ordinary
form of fini shing t ools.
The pushing out of shape of core or
mold, when two parts of the mold
that do not fit properly meet.
The basin of a cupola.
A shaft furnace for t he melting of
iron, the iron and fuel being charged
in alternate layers, and combustion
promoted by air blown in at t he bot-
tom of the furnace.
Daubing Fining cracks in cores or plastering
. a cupola after heat .
Double Cutter A molding slicker and spoon-slicker.
Draft The taper on a pattern that makes
it possible to draw it from the sand.
Drag T he lower half of the mold or fl ask.
Drawing the PatternLift ing a pattern from the sand of
a completed mold.
Draw Plate A plat e put into a pattern t o be used
for drawing the patt ern.
54
Draw Nail
Draw Peg
Draw Screw
Draw Spike
Drop-Out
Dull Iron
Dryer
Dry Sand Mold
Ears
Eye-Bolt
Feeding
Fin
Flow-Off Gate
Flange Tool
Flask
Flat-Back
Flat Gate
A pointed rod of iron or steel driven
into a wooden pattern to act as a
handle to withdraw it from the sand
in the mold.
A draw screw,
A rod screwed into a pattern to act
as a handle for drawing a pattern.
See draw nail.
The falling away of a part of a mold.
Iron not as hot as it should be for
best pouring.
A metal form, of the same shape as
a core, in which the latter is placed
while being baked.
A mold which has been baked in an
oven to fix its shape permanently
and to give it a hard surface.
The lugs on the cope part of a flask
into which tfre pins on the drag fit.
A bolt with a ring welded at one
end.
Pouring metal into the feeder while
the casting is solidifying.
Metal that has run into an imper-
fect joint in the mold.
An opening through which the metal
flows after the mold is filled.
A tool for furnishing the edges of
flanges in a mold.
The framework of wood or iron in
which the sand is packed while being
molded around a pattern.
A pattern with a flat surface at the
joint of the mold. Thus a flat-back
pattern lies wholly within the drag
and the joint of the cope is a plane
surface.
A wide gate with a narrow opening
into the mold, used for pouripg thin
flat castings.
Floor Molding
Flux
Flow-Off
Follow Board
Foundry
Frozen Iron
Gaggers
Gate
Gate Stick
. Gating Patterns
Green Core
Green Sand
Green Sand Core
Green Ladle
'B:and Ladle
Hand Squeezer
Hot Metal
Hay Rope
Heap Sand
Hearth
Foundry Practice
55
Making molds on the foundry floor.
A fusible material containing lime,
such as limestone, charged il;lto the
cupola to thin the slag.
A channel cut from a r iser to permit
metal to flow away from it when it
has risen in the riser to a certain
predetermined height.
A board in which the pattern lies to
the parting line.
A place where castings .are made.
Iron which has solidified.
Metal supports used to reinforce
the sand in the cope.
The hole in the cope through which
the molten metal is poured into the
mold.
A stick set in the cope while it is
being rammed to form the passage
into t he mold through which the
molten metal is poured.
Arranging patterns on a backbone,
so that sprues will be formed by the
backbone and its connection to the
pattern when the mold is made.
A core that is not baked.
Sand that is in a damp state.
A core made of green sand ; one that
is not baked.
A ladle whose lining is not dry.
A small ladle carried by one man.
A molding machine in which the
sand is compressed to the proper
density by pressure applied by hand
to the outer surface of the mold.
Metal hot enough to flow easily.
A rope of twisted hay, used to form
the basis of cores made on arbors.
Green sand from the foundry floor.
That portion of an air furnace on
which the iron is melted.
,
"
ll
I
'
Heat
Hern Gate
. Hub Tool
Jarring Machine
Joint
Lifter
Loam
Loam-Mold
Machine Molding
Malleable Casting
Match Plate
Melting Zone
Molding Board
Molding Machine
The melting period of a cupola or
air-furnace.
A semi-circular gate to convey iron
over or under certain parts of a
casting, so that it will enter the
mold at or near the center. Also
used as a skim gate.
A tool for finishing the mold of pul-
ley hubs.
A molding machine in which t he
sand is packed by the sand pattern
and fl ask being raised and dropped
upon a table, the sand itself forming
the ramming medium.
The portion of the mold where the
cope and drag come together. The
upper surface of the drag and the
lower surface of the cope.
A molder's t ool with a flat end at
right angles t a the stem, to lift loose
sand from deep pockets in the mold.
A mixture of molding sand and clay
used for making loam molds.
A mold built up of brick work, iron
plate, etc., covered with loam which
is afterward baked on.
The operation of making molds on
a molding machine.
A hard brittle casting of white iron,
which is rendered tough and malle-
able by annealing under certain con-
ditions.
A plate to which the pattern is
fastened at the parting line.
The portion of the cupola above the
tuyer e Zone in which the iron is
fused.
The board on which the pattern is
placed when beginning to make the
mold.
A machine, operated either by hand
or power, for making molds.
-
Molding Sarid
New Sand
Paraffine-Board
Parting
Parting Sand
Patching
Peeling
Pattern
. Peen
Peen-Ramming
Pee Gate
Pins
Pit Molding
Pipe Tool
Pouting Basin
Foundry Practice 57
Sand suitable for forming into
molds.
Sand that has not been used for
molding.
A board impregnated with paraffine
on which patterns are mounted for
use on the molding machine .
The place on which a pattern is split.
A fine, sharp, dry sand dusted on
the joint of the mold to prevent the
cope and drag from adhering to
each other.
Repairing broken parts of the mold.
The ready dropping away of sand
from a casting.
The object of wood; metal, or other
material, whose shape it is desired
to reproduce in metal. The sand of
the mold is formed around the pat-
tern, which is later withdrawn, leav-
ing a cavity of its exact size and
shape to be filled with molten metal.
The flat -pointed end of a rammer.
Also, the operation of ramming
with the peen end of a rammer, as
peening the sand.
Ramming with the wedge end of the
rammer.
A round gate leading from a pour-
ing basin in the cope to a basin in
the drag, whence sprues lead to the
mold.
The projections on the drag of a
flask which guide and hold it in posi-
tion with relation to the cope.
Making molds in pits in the foundry
floor.
A tool for finishing the surface of
pipe molds.
A basin formed in the cope into
which the iron is poured.
Power Squeezer
Pumping
Rammer
Ramming
Rapping
. Rapping Iron
Riddle
Riser
Roll Over Machine
Runner
Runner Box
Scabs
sand is compressed to the proper
density by pressure, applied by com-
pressed air to the outer surface of
the mold.
The action of feeding iron to a cast-
ing from a shrinkhead by forcing it
in with a rod moved up and down
in the shrinkhead.
The tool used by the molder for
packing sand in a flask around a
pattern. They are made of w.ood in
the smaller sizes, known as hand
rammers, and of iron in the larger.
The action of packing sand around
a pattern in a flask to form a mold.
Striking a pattern to loosen it in
the sand.
An iron bar used to strike the draw-
nail in order to jar the pattern prep-
aratory to dr;wing.
A sieve for sifting sand on a pat-
tern.
A gate formed over a high portion
of a mold to act as an indicator
when the mold is filled with metal,
and also tci act as a feeder to supply
iron to the castings as it shrinks in
passing from the liquid to the solid
state.
mold is rolled over before the pat-
tern is drawn.
A deep channel formed in the top
of a cope, connecting with gates,
into which the molten metal is
poured.
A set-off box in which a runner is
formed.
Imperfections in casting due to por-
tions of the surface of a mold break-
ing away.
Foundry Practice
59
Scabbed Castings
Scrap Iron
Sea Coal
Skimmer
Skimming
Skin Drying
Slag
Set Gate
Set-Off Box
Shrinkhead
Shot
Skeleton
Skim Cores
Skim Gate
Skin-Dried Mold
Slag
Soldiers
Castings having rough surfaces.
Metal to be remelted.
Soft coal, finely ground.
A piece of iron used to prevent dirt
from flowing into the mold when
pouring a casting.
Holding back the dirt on the iron
when pouring.
Drying only the surface of the
mould.
Impurities fl uxed from the cupola.
A gate patt ern used to form a gate
or sprue set against the pat tern.
A small box, open at the top and
bottom, fastened to the top of a
cope to contain portions of a mold
projecting above the cope.
A large riser containing a sufficient
body of metal to act as a feeder as
the metal of the casting contracts
in solidifying.
Globules of metal formed in the
body of a casting, and harder than
the remainder of it.
A metal framework on which a fl at
core is built.
Cores Bet in skim gat es to act as
skimmers.
A sprue so arranged as to drain any
impurities from the surface of the
molten iron, as it flows into the
mold, and restrain them from enter-
ing the mold.
A green sand mold whose surface
has been baked for a depth of an
inch or more.
The earthy impurities fused in the
melting furnace, together with the
fused flux charged with the fuel and
metal.
Wooden blocks used to reinforce
sand when molding.
Spongy Castings
Slag-Hole
Slicker
Slip
Slurry
Snap-Flask
Spindle
Spindle Seat
Split Pattern
Spoon Slicker
Spring Draw-Nail
Sprue
Sprue Cutter
Stack
Stool
Castings in which the iron 1s very
open-grained.
The opening in a cupola through
which slag is withdrawn.
An elongated, flat, thin piece of
steel used for smoothing the surface
of molds.
A wash applied to the surface of
loam molds.
The mixture used to fill in the joints
of cores.
A flask hinged at the corners, and
separable at one corner, so that it
may be opened and removed from
around the completed mold.
The rod or .center on which a sweep
is revolved.
The socket in which the Spindle re-
volves.
A pattern made in two or more
parts.
A finishing tool for a mold, the end
of which is spoon-shaped.
A tool used for drawing patterns,
especially green patterns.
The channels leading from the gate
to the mold. Also, the metal which
solidifies in these channels after the
casting has cooled.
A piece of metal, used to cut chan-
nels in the joint to conduct iron from
the opening gate to the mold. Also
a brass tube used to cut the pouring
gates in the copes of machine-
made molds.
The part of a cupola extending from
the top of the melting zone to the
level of the charging door.
_The support for a green sand core
on a molding machine.
Stooling
Stool Plate
Strickle
Strike
Foundry P r actice 61
The process of supporting green-
sand cor es in machine molding while
the pattern is being drawn.
The plate on a molding machine
where stools are mounted.
A strike with a form cut in one edge
to form a regular surface on a mold.
A fl at bar of iron or wood used for
striking or sweeping excess sand
from the top of a mold.
Stripping Machine A plat e on a molding machine on
which the mold is made and through
which .the patterns ar e drawn from
the mold.
Spout
Swab
Swabbing
Sweep
Sweep Finger
Sweep Work
Tap-Hole
Tight Flask
Trowel
Tuy ere
Tuyere Zone
A trough through which the molten
metal fl ows from the cupola to the
ladle.
A sponge or piece of waste used to
wet t he sand around a patt ern be-
fore drawing it from the sand.
The action of applying water t o a
mold.
A piece of wood or iron revolved
about a center to for m the surface
of a mold.
The metal piece by means of which
the sweep is attached to t he spindle.
Making molds with sweeps it13tead
of patterns.
The opening in a melting furnace-
cupola or air-through which molt en
metal is wit hdrawn.
A fl ask wit h rigid framewor k-the
opposite of a snap fl ask.
A molcler' s t ool used for slicking the
surface of a mold.
An opening through which t he air
passes from the wind box into the
cupola. .
The port ion of a cupola in the region
of the t uyeres, where combustion
takes place.
Upset
Vent
Vent-Wire
Vibrator
Vibration Frame
Weak Sand
Whirl Gate
Wind Box
Alexander
Palmer
Spring
Wendt
Moldenke
Payne
West
West
Hood
Whiteley
A shallow frame set over a flask in
which is formed a green sand mat ..: h.
A small hole formed in a mold
through which gas and steam may
escape.
A wire used for making vents.
A device for rapping patterns by
compressed air.
A frame in which patterns are
mounted when they are to be drawn
in connection with a vibrator.
Sand that will not hold together.
A gate or sprue arranged to intro-
duce metal into a mold tangentially,
and to thereby give it a swirling
motion.
The surrounding a cupola
through which the air is conducted
to the tuyeres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Safety in the Foundry-National
Foundries Assn.-Chicago.
Foundry Practice-John Wiley &
Sons.
Non-technical Chats on Iron & Steel
-Frederic K. Stokes Company.
Foundry Work. McGraw - Hi 11
Book Co.
The Principles of Iron Foundry-
McGra w-Hill Book Co.
Founder's Manual, D. Van Nostrand
Co.
American Foundry Practice, John
Wiley & Sons.
Moulder's Text Book-John Wiley
& Sons.
Common Commodities and Indus-
trial Iron-Pitman & Sons-Lon-
don.
Iron Founding-Pitman & Sons-
London.
20 Cents per Copy
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