Philosophy and Education

The philosophv of the classroom is tJre philosophl- of the governrnent in the next
generation.
-,1ltrahatn
LinL:oln
ii\ft,r,,
' s l u e u o d o l d J o l e u i s l r s E
I I O 1 \
s u
' l u a u l s s e s s P
P U B
( J e q J E J l
o r { l J o e [ o J e q ] ' t u e r u u o J r ^ u e
u r o o " l s s e l J a r l l ' u o t t c n ; t s u t
p t T E L r l n l n l r J i n c ' 3 u l 1 c l o q r .
- ; o
s a s o d r n d a q r S u r p . r e S e r s - r a r T e q s l r p u c s e l d r c u r . r d ; c i [ e u r s ] t 3 o s u l J a t t I I
P s s s n l s I P
s I
q J e E
' u r s i u . r a p o u r l s o d
p u e ' L u s r u o r l J r l r l s u o o o J
i e l l o 5 ^
( u s l l t l l l u o s s a
' u t s l . t l s s a ; 3 o ; c { ' r u s l
- l u i u u e ; e d ; c i s e r q d o s o l r q d
l e u c l n c c n p e
o q l o r s u . I n l u e q ] u o n u a t l y
' s t u a u o d o r d S u i
- p u a ] s ^ l r q r r . t r S u o l e ' p a s s n c s t p s r r e q l e s l e q l l o 3 [ o r 3 g ]
P U B ' . r e u l e e 1
e g l J o e r u r r u e q r
, u o r l c n r s u r ; o
s l l o q l e u p L r E u r n l n J r J J n r a l e u d o ; d d t l s o u r e q t ' 8 u l t r o o L l f , s g o s e s o c f u n t i
e q l o t p r E 8 e r u r i q d o s o l q d q r e e
, + o
u o D r s o d e g 1
' s a r q d o s o [ q d
( c n - ( 1 c u D ' u r s r l E r ] u : l
- s r x e
, L u s D B r u 8 e - r d )
L r e r o d u r o l l r o J p u u ( u r s r p a . r J r l s r a q ] ' r u s r l e a r ' r u s q e a p 0
I E t I o t l I P u l l
r o l e u r a r p , t q u o n r : t e r d J e t u r r r a q t p u r z - , G o 1 o x e p u e ' . ( . S o l o u r a l s r c l a ' s c r s i q d n a u -
- i q d o s o p q d l o
s a g r u u q c a r l l l a q t l o u o t l t n e l c l x a u u q l l ! \ s u r 8 e q
' r a l c l e r l o
s r q a
( i S t ' d )
. . L t o l l c l n p e ; o , u o a q l l t r e l l a 8
e L I l s E
P a u q r f
o q u e , \ e i e u r , { q d o s o p q d ' t r a r u , \ \ o l [ o _ +
P u s
a i n - ] e l l p - r e r r o ] ' l u u o t l o u t e
P U B l e n ] J a i l a l u .
i s u o r t r s o d s r p
I t l u a r u e p u l g
S u r u u o l
1 o
s s a c o - r d a q l s t t I o l t l l J l l p o e r I e J L r o J o l 3 u i 1 1 r , u a - i ' . ,
c r \ , , 1 R L l l t u e t x e a q t o ] t e t l l i r s o l s e r ? , + o s l u o r \ ( q t O t ) r ( a , u a g u q o [ ' l c r , ; u 1
' . { q c l o s c ' '
- r q d q t r r i \ p ? u l a c u o J S u r e q r n o q t r . r u o l l E l n P o
! 1 I 1 \
p e u J a J u o l o q l o u u e J e u ( )
' - i q d i '
- s o p g d
I r u o r l B 3 n p o
: n o ' } : r e g a u r - 8 u r r - r r e a 1 p u u ' S u t q c e e t ' u o D l n ; l s t t l
P L I E
L U n I n J I J - I I 1 - '
, 8 u r 1 o o t 1 c s l o
s a s o c l . r n d a q t l n o q e s t \ e l t J I 1 0 e l t q e P t E t l l s a l d r : r u r . r d
l e u o r l e l n p , r
e z L u . ; ,
- r e r o t s n s e ] q e u a u o t - l R r l l P a - r o s a r q d o s o p q d a q l l o , t p n r s e I { J ' e r u o l s l x e
l e u o s . r a d : n c
; o
S u r u e e u r a q t a z r u S o c e J o t S 1 1 s r a , t r o c l u r a t 1
' S u r o 8 e J t s o r t \ e l e q , t t
P L I I ?
' e l a q
a l e : r ' '
, t q , u ' a , r e a ' ! \ o q . \ \
P l l e t s r a p u n
r e l l a q o ] s n s d l e q i q d o s o p q d
1 o
, t p t u s
i t s L L l r o 1
e q J -
' t s B d
a L I t t c - i c 1 . t : :
- r r r a , \ \ . t t , t a q f s e ) L I e n l l L I I l u e s a r d a q l a c u s u a d x a e , u , i u , l t a q l
' t r 1 e s r a , r u o ' - )
' l u a s c - r c l
r - t ' -
; o
a , u t o e d s t e d , m o ; o 1 o c r s e d a q t ; o s , \ \ a t , \
P u E
S u o B d e J J a d J n o ' s I I B L [ ] - - s ^ L I o I I J t i - l l s u t r :
i c t J o s
e J E , u o r s r q p u e , t q c { o " ^ o p L I d
' s t u a ^ e
l s t c l t n o q u s u o t l s e n b s a s l t r - i
P u t
s . - r z - i 1 t ' u
'
, u o r s r 1 1
' l r n p u o r
p u e ' a 8 p e l , n o t q ' , b r 1 r : a ; t n o q c s u o l l s e n b s e s r e ; i q d o s o p q . l
' l s r : d a " . :
S t r r p . r e 8 a . r s J e { e q . r n o u o r t s a n b o l s n e S u a l l e l l r r l ] o g
' s u o l ] r e
] u e s e ; d
P u P
s l u e . \ r l s f r :
q l o q J o u o t l e l a r t f u a l u l J n o a J L r e n E u r . ( q d o s o l r q d p r r e , { . r o l s r 1 I
' o P
J - t \ l E t l l
[ l E
1 1 1 1 1 1 , : . : ' i . .
, i l p r o r q o s l t s r i q d o s o p q d ' , { - r o t s r q e 1 l . 1
' ( x 1 ' d
' 2 0 0 2
t a u o t r u I
P e l l r
' u t , u 1 t g ) . . r ' :
c r r \ l t q l
i 1 e
u t t u e s a . l c i , ( 1 1 e - r o f r 1 s r . { - i o i s r q p u e ' s i e , r t
l \ u u u r u r f r . l q p a l o . U u o . r i l s n o t - '
- t r ( ) J U n J J U ' s n u l q l r . \ \ ' t r U l c . r r . n t t : r . . l l I J P J E r . l . l r . u o { s J L t l o . ) . i . l o t s r q J ( ) ) J J o l l P e r i
: L l J
. .
u i , . '
l \ : .
4 Chapter
I
Branches
of Philosophy
Asadiscipline,philosophy-issaidtohavethreebranches:metaphysics,epistemology,
and axiology.
These brrr.h",
;;; .."."r""a
with answering
three
questions
that are
i*pott'"ti"
describing
any philosophy:
a
.
ffiI I H: liH::
3f
',ji]#,10,"'
What is the nature of values?
Metaphysics:
What Is the Nature
of Reality?
Metalhvsicsis
the branch
of philosophy q':
is concerned
with the' naflIre of reality
,rrd .*iit.n.e,
as well u'-Utt'tl'tt
nature of th" pt"on ol
ltlfl
It addresses
such ques-
dons as whether
rr***
"r*r.
i, basically
gooal
"uit,
spiritual,
mental, or physical'
:t
MJ;;hri*
can be subdivided
into
.ontof-
.* ;; ;;; ologY'
ontolog
raises some.tud'-
,i.l"ili-q".t,itr,,""bout
*Il^t *t mean by the
naflre oi e"istente
and what it means for any-
'*rJnia
be." Cosrnokg
raises questions
about
the
oriein and organization
of the universe
or cosmos'
"""-
di;;"th,."
b"i"
questions'
what is the
nature
of reality?
is perhaps
the most diffrcult
to answer
because
its elements
are
vazue, abstract'
,,d
';l';Lid;'#;;i;'
r;;;;;'
ln spite of its abstracdon
and
.,,[',,",,..,,*o,tphiloffi
"--i11,:::*{**X1"""ril:ilXri-emeaninsof
:ffi il::;'tffi
: :|il: i"? ;"'"p"
i"Lderstandin
g anv philos ophv'
Epistemology:
What
Is the Nature
of Knowledge?
Thebranchofphilosophythatisconcernedwiththeinvestigationofthenatureof
knowledge
is known ;y;i;;;";;;* *]';'
th"
"'*"
of knowledse
is to raise
questions
about
the lt#;";;
k";*l"dg",
th"-rources
of knowledge,
the validity
ot
knowledge,
the cognrtive
p-rocesses'
'."d
l'.?;
;; mo*'
tn:::,:lt
many "ways
of
knowing,"
including
rJ""tint
inquiry'
intuition'
experience'
sensing'
feeling'
trial and
error, scientin.
r",""tti,;;i"gic.
i-ogic is pti*'?ilv
cotrcerned
with making
infer-
ences, reasoning,
or arguing
in a.rational
:"'J";;
;#includes
the subdivisions
of de-
duction
and inductio
i' d'du'tl"
logic i2 reas.oning
tc,*
1
g":ral
statement
or
principle to a specific';"i';-;;;;'^it"'
naunne
lo"gic is reasoning
from the specific
,o
"
*or" general conclusion'
Axiology:
What
Is the Nature
of Values?
whereas
epistemologv
explores
the nature
of knowledg
e, axiologt
seeks to determine
what is of value. *
"JrtT#;,ii;lioq*;
o"J"a"'
fiErailv
means to applv
a set of norm, o. ,.rrriuii;;.
h;r"
.orrailt
o, t"ro.y.
Axiology
is divided
into two
spheres:
ethics and
'*t'"tit''
Ethics rs t"";;;J
with the stoJy
"f
human conduct
Traditit
@
ForYour
ReJlection
andAnallsis
Should. schook be inaolaed'
in discassions
of the
olnisiru of tbe tmiuerse?
Wy, ot'why
not?
' l - r e r u r r d
s r u o s e e J p u r ' s e e p r ' p u u r
e q l l o
P I J o ^ {
e t 1 r
' } s r p a p r
e q l J o g
' o l e l d
P U B
a J e e J C
] u e r J u e o t
{ r e q
S u p e p ' e m t y n c
u J e } s e r , ! \ J o , { q d o s o p q d l s e P l o e r p
P e J e P I S u o r
s t t / . t $ q o a p l
u r s r l B e P I
' U o n E Z I T I
I J U J e l S e r , ! \
y o l - l o r s r q e q J q e l o r J o f e r u u p e r ( e y d e ^ E I { s q l r u l p e g s l l q s l s e e J d a s e q r
; o
s u o n e c q d
- d e p u e s u o r l e t a r d r a l u t e I { J
' s q l r L l }
p c r s , { q d e i a u l
P e q s q q e } s e e J d
u r e g a c u I
J a I T e q
e W
e p n l J u r
1 e
s a r y d o s o l q d e s a q a ' ( u l s r u r o q a - o e u ) u r s q e a . r J D S I a T I J
P U E
( I u s { e e J
' t u s r J e a p t
; o
s e r q d o s o l q d u r a t s e
\
l s e p l o a W e P n l s u l s a l q d o s o l r q d
I E u o I l I p E r P e l l u c - o s
a q J
s u o l l B r r l d * I
I s u o I } B r n P E
r r e q l
P u B
s e r q d o s o p u d
I B u o I } r P e J I
. . ' e c u e u e d x e
c r l e g l s e e , , e q }
P u e
' e J n l e u ' l f n e e q
u I s e n l e ^
r p r / r l . p e u J e J u o ) s t $ q a q $ a v ' p e q p u t ' p o o 8 ' S u o l n ' l q 8 t r - s a n p l I B J o I u
s e u l l u e x a
P U B
' [ 5 1 ' r a , r 1 Y
a 1 p p e 5 ; e d d 6 " l u l ' u o l l l n p f u o s r e a d
1 o
u o t s s t u u r a d l q p e r u r . r d e 6 ' O O Z
@ ' u o l l l P a \ t ,
' u o l l
- r r , n p e u D ) u e w y J o s u o n o p u n o l
' ( 6 9 9 7 )
s 1 q . r o 3
' ;
' u e p . r o [
6
r a u a l J v ' e L l ] o l
' u a q
' - l
' q q a M . ' a ) r n o s
l q d o s o l r q 6
, o
s o q f , u e r g e q t ; o l . r e u u n 5
l ' l : I U n g l J
o ^ l l c n p u l o ^ r l c n p a c
* - \ - - - -
c r 0 o 1
s 6 u t 1 a e 1 p u e s o s u e g o
U O l l l 0 l u l o
f u r n b u r c r ; r 1 u e r c g .
S o l l o Q l S e S o
s c l L l l f .
I 6 o l o u - t s o 3 .
{ 6 o 1 o 1 u g .
t I
1 '
I
C O I 0 t X V e o t o t / \ = r _ s l d f s c l s A H d v " t f l / !
i I 1 l
I
s f n r v A f e 0 S t M o N ) A l n V f U
i I 1 l
H d O S O I I H d
s
u o l l e l n p l p u e l q d o s o l t q d
l J n P U o J u s r u n r { I
o r \ 1 o l u l
P e P L \ I f r
:
, { 1 d d e o r s u e o t u . \ i
e u r r u r e l e p o r q a ;
o g r c e d s a q l u o r l
J O l u o u r e l B l s
I e l
- e P
J o
s u o I S I . \ I P q r
- ; e ; u r S u q e r u p r
p u u
I B r r ]
' 3 u r 1 a e - 1
'
3 : o
s i e , t r , , l . u e r u :
3 o
l r r p r l e - t e q l
' a
e s r e r o t s r a 5 p a l . r
J o
e r n t B u o r { l
- l o
3 o
S u r u e a u a q r r -
P U E
u o I l J E J l s q E !
o J ? s l u e r u e l a s l I
a q l s I ] B I { , ! \
' s u L )
' s o u l s o c
J o 3 s . I 3 - \ l - '
e q r l n o q E s u o u s a r
- i u r ; o ; s u e e u l l
a q ] i q u e e u l r , \ \
- E P u r y a l u o s s a s l i
- l o l u o o l u l
P . p L \
' y e c r s i q d
- r o
' 1 r
- s a n b q c n s s a s s e :
- , f i r p e ;
J o
a r n r l u
e J E l E r l l s u o l l s a n i
' , { S o l o u r e r s r d a
' s r
I
6 Chapter I
Metaphysics
Idealisrn stresses mincl over lrlatter. For thc iclcalist, nothing exists or is real except
ideas in the rnincls of people or the rnind of
(iocl,
the Unir.ersai ,\'Iincl. The universe
can be erplained as a creative ancl spiritual realitr,- that inclucles the notions of perma-
ncn( c.,,r,ler. :t ntl t'erta i rtrr'.
If the rnind is prior, or ultimate, then material thines either clo not exist (i.e., are
not real)r or if they clo exist, their existence clepends in some fashi<xr on the mind. For
exan-rple, an idealist rvould contentl that there is no sucl.r thing as r chair; there is only
the idea oi a chair. The iclealist's cor.rcept of realiw considers the seif as one in mind,
sor.rl, ancl spirit. Such a nature is capable of elnulatir.rg the Absolute or Suprenie \'{ind.
Episte.mologr
Becausc idealism eccepts tr prinrarilr, mental explanation fbr its metaphvsics or realit1,,
it is not surprisilrgl that idealists also rrccept the premise that rli knou.lcdgc includes a
mental grasp of ideas ancl concepts. Arcl, because the mind is the prirnary reality-, it is
in:rportant to master the science of logic-in particular, deductive logic. Logic pro-
viiles the frarneu.ork for unifyingl our thoushts. Nthough traditional idealists con-
sider reason, 1ogic, or revelation to Lre prirral'v lvat's of "knoling," moclern idealists
also accept intuition AS a \\rev of knoli,ing.
Sorne idealists bclieve that the search for truth, rather than truth itself, is the ul-
tirnate chrrlleng1e. But ther.- also beliel'e that most of us resort to the 1o\rest levcl (merc
opinions about truth) anci never reacl.r "Ultirnate tuth." Nonetheless, althoue'h r.r-e
rnalr never g'rasp LTltimate Th-rth, r,r,e do have the potential to espire to n-isdom, im-
prove the quali$, of our ideas, and rnove closer tti Ultim:rtc Tiuth.
Axiohgt
Just
as the idealists believe that order is an irnportant clement of realitl', they also be-
lieve that order is basic to unclcrstanding the natllre of values. \'nlues, thel believe,
can be classified and orderecl into a hierarchl, or classific:rtion system. To the idealist,
values are roriterl in existence ancl are part of realjtv-. "\\/e enjov values not only be-
cause our emotions and scntiments are appropriateh' aroused but because the things
ll,e r,alue are realities tl'rat irave existence thernselves and are rooted in the ven, stmc-
ture of the cosrnos" (Btitler, 1966, p. 71).
Values also are absoiute. The good, the true, ancl the beautiftil basically do not
change fronr
generation
to gcncration, or lrorl socieq. to society. They are not cre-
ated br. man but are part of the very naftrre rrncl being of the universe (Kneller, 197 1).
'I'hev
arc, in fact, reflections of the Absolute Good, the Absolute
'Iiuth,
and the Ab-
solute Beau$.,-God.
Leading Proponents
The Greek philosopher Plato (;127-347 e.c-..'7 is considered the father of idealisrn. In
his farnous "Nlegorv of the Cave," lrom Tlte Reptiltlic (360 p,.c./[)2
1), Plato inferrecl
that each of us lir.es in a cave of shaclovr-s, iloubts, and distortions about realitv (an
excerpt of Plato's "Nlegory," appears as a Prinran, Source Reading at the end of this
a s o r { r ! \ s l s r 1 ? e p r J o g
' r u n i n J l J r r l J q l s I T E a p I e q t u r o J B I d } u e u l u l o J d e i d n c c o o s l e s a l u a
- r r s
I E r n l E u
p u e
1 e c r s , { q d
e q t s E
l l e , t r
s e ( s n 1 n c 1 e c p u e ' . t - r } a u r o e 8 ' e - l q e 8 1 e )
s r l l e t u a q l u t r V
' r s e
d e q r
1 o
s 4 0 0 g u a q a q t s a s s e r l s u l n l n r l r r n J a q t ' S u r 8 u t q r u n
P u t s I E u J e l a
e r B s e n i e ^
p u B s r p n . l t S u r r n p u e e q l e s n u J e q ' p t r y s l r e o q l
P u E
' l - r o r s r q ' s c t l t 1 o d ' L q d o s o l r q d ' e : n l r
- J e l r l J o s l : o , t r l e e ; 8 a q l u o t J a L l e J p u e ' I p n 1 s ' p t a ; o t p a 8 e r n o c u e a J E s l u e P n l s ' l o o q c s
. ( r e p u o c e s p u u
I o o r { J s
e l p p l L u s e , t p e a s y
' r s u d
a r l t
J o
s e e P r
I e u r e l e
a q l s e s s a r l s l e q l
a u o u n l n J r r J n s
( ( l B e P r , ,
3 L [ ] J a P I S U o J s l s I I E e P I ' u O t T J M 4 s u I p u , o r u n l n r x " L , t n J
' ( 9 6 6 1
' s 8 u r p p o 1 1 1 )
e t B t s o q ]
J o
s u a z l l l r
I r y a s n
e i u o r e q
I I I ^ {
o q , r s t l n P e p e z l p n l l t s - J l e s
P u E
l u a l e d u r r i c
a c n p o - r d o l p a u 8 t s e p s I p u c
I e p o u
q o l e l d s e l e l n t u o
I o o I { J S I E a P I
a i { J
' q l n { -
o l s u l
- u 1 l o t r o s o l r r u e q l o l o u l p u e s e e p l r l e l { l
3 o
& r 1 t n b a g l a , r o r d u t t
I I I A
l e q l l L I r I U u o r
- r l u o
I e u o r t e J n p e
o q ] e p r , t o r d u t r
l o o r { r s
a q t ' q r n r J - a t e t l l r t l l f a - \ ) I I { J e r ( 1 1 r y r e , t a u i e u r
s t u e p r u s q 8 n o q r u e r a 1 E I { } e ^ e l l a q s ] s I T E e P I
' t u a u r d o l a , r a P
l e n ] J e l l a l u t P u e l p n l r r r d s
e t o r u o ; d o ] s r
I o o q r s
e q l g o a s o d r n d a q r
' r s r p e p r
o L I t r o g
' S u q o o q c g
t o
a s o d , m 4
s w o r t o n l d t a l p u o t w r n p g
' ( s r s e q t u i s )
E e p I e r l S u a { a ; d r u o c
o r o r u E u I s t l n s o r ( s r s e g r r r u e ) a l r s o d d o s t l p u t ( s r s a q r ) c e p i e q l u a a , n l e g u o l l e l u ( ) {
- u o c e q J
' ( s r s e q t r r t i e ) e u s o d d o u , \ \ o s t l s e q ( s r s e q i ) B o P I L I I P a
' 1 e 8 e 1 1
o l S u I P r o r r Y
' , f i e r c o s
p u e
I e n p r ^ r p u r
' e r t q p u e e , r o l
' q r e o p p u e a - ] I I s E I { J n s
, , ' s e l t s o d d o J o
l s a l u o J , , E
s e . , h r 1 e a r p a q c e o r d d e ( t
S S i - O f t t ) 1 e 3 o 1 1
u l e L I I I / r \ 3 : o a 5 I S I I E o P I u e r u r e q e I { J
' ( t O O Z ' . t e , r e ; 3
*
u o u I Z O )
u o r l e J n p e r r r ] u a r u d o l a ^ o p J e l J e r e l l c . r o S u r u r t . i t
[ E J o r u
r o 1 s I S E q , { - r e r u u d E a u l o J e q
s e l l u r r x e u r
I e r o r u
s q l
, , ' P [ L I J
E
J o
J a ] J B r t L [ J e r l ] u I 3 J 1 U l l o , +
I ? E u e s s s
u E s I a J u s l P e q o
' s 8 u r g t
I I p
a l o q e , , s t , n s e , r r t e ; a d u t p c t . r o 8 a l e r q l u t ) J o e u f )
' s r o I ^ E L I 3 q r o s L I o I l r B r n o
e p r n i s a a 4 o . t a d u u
l a t t t o 8 a T l r
s B u . \ \ o u { s , t \ E [
I e r o r u I e s ^ J e ^ I u n
u I R ] J a J l e q r S u n e p r s o d
, ( q r u s r p e p r J o s l a u e l . r o ( r u r a q r p a l t r o d . r o r u i o s l e ( 1 r g g 1 - f
Z / I )
l u r r y
l e n u e r u r u l
' ( 9 6 9 7
' r e , t e r 3
{
u o l u z o ) s a o u e t c s e q r S r r r p n l c u r ' & r n b
- u r J o s p l e r J J o r e q r u n u
p
p e r u e n l + u l s e ] r t r s a c l
' p o 1 ;
r o S u r a g l c e l ; a d J o E a P I e q ] s I J I e s
- ] r u e q t r e l J l o E e p I - r t u e u o p u a c l a p t o u s a o p l c t l t E e P t i l u o a q a
' s E e P I
r e q l o u o p u e d a p
' e u o
e l e s
' s e e p r
1 1 e
t B L I t p r s r u u a r e p o s l u r n q
' o r e i d
I q p a c u e , t p e s E s t a P r p u t p u l u t o l l u
- S e L I t
3 o
s l d a c u o c e q r p a r d e c c e , r 1 u o t o u s ? t r r r s a q
' e r u a t s l x e u . t r o r n o l q n o P l o u t i r J
o . t t t n q ' 8 u r q l & e . l e t q n o p i e r u e . r s u t u l n q s E l u l l t
P o . I e l l e P , , ' * t I
a r o - + a r e L [ ] ' l r H r
I
o 8 . L a
' 0 i l f l 0 2 , , ' u r n t c l p
s n o r u e 1 s 1 q u 1 ' ( g - c 9 l - 9 6 S
I )
s e l r e r s e C - r a g d o s o l r q d q J u a r L r
a q 1
' 1 e 8 a g r { r l J p e l r d u l e H I I i ! \ 3 , r o e 3 p u e ' t u e y
[ e n u E I U r u J
' s a 1 : e c s a q
9 u e 6
S u r p n l c
- u r ' s . r a q d o s o l r q d " r o l e r u
J o
r o q r u n u e , 1 o s 8 t r u r r . u e q ] p e J u a n g u r r q 8 n o q r I s I T B a P I
' ( i O O Z
' . r a . r . e . r 3 r y
u o u r z g ) s a l r n l u e r r o ; r q S n o q l u l e
- t s e
\
p o r u a n l + u r ] E t l l u r s l l e o r c R S I a L I I p u ? l u s I T E a p I s n o r 8 r l e - r a q t r o 1 e l e u o l t e r a q r 8 u r
- p r , r . o - r d ' r q 8 n o q r u e O S I r t l J o l s u o r l d u t n s s e s . o l E l d
J o
r e q l u n u e p e r l d d r ' s a u n l u a f , I I U I J
p u t r { t r n o J a q r S o u t r 8 o l o e q t l u a u r u o : d e ' ( g g 1 - . p 5 g ) e u r r s n 5 n Y ' l S ' l n o s e L I l q 8 n o ; q r
p o 3 q p u n o J a q u e c . & r 1 e e r e t e r u l t l l l r e q r s r s a l i S n s S u r q c e e r u e l l s l r t l . - l - o o p n f
' p u r u r
a q i g S n o ; q t
. . t e p l , ,
a q t u r p u n o j e q u t r i r r 1 r e r e t s u i u l n ' o l e l . I o t S u r p . r o c c y ' u I S I T E a P I
3
o ' { q d o s o , q a ' ' ' r '
t a .
j 1 , l j ; ; 1 i . " f f i ' , : , x
J l i x , i
- l
l ; 1 i l : : ; , ; : \ ? , l i l J :
I
H
j , , .
r ,
e ; n d
; o
p l r o . { \
F e J
e q t
( l u a u l u o r q 8 r i u e
p u e u o l l e t n p a q 8 n c l . r q r ' ; e . t e . , u o 1 1
' ( l a r d e q c
/
u o r t e ) n p f p u e l q d o s o l t q 6
s r r { t
J o P u o
0 r l l l
u e ) f t r l t e ; r n o c t r
p s r r e ] u r o l B l d
' ,
u I
' u s I I E e P I
J C )
t r
- q Y e q ]
P u u
' r { l r
' ( 1 1 6 1
' ; e 1 1 a t r y
- a J J l o u e J r , \ a L I
l o u o p i l i e c r s r , c l
- J n J l s i r e - \ a q l
' .
s 5 u r q t a q r a s n r r
- e q , ( i u o l o u - q r :
' ! t s r l B e P r o q r t ) J _
'
' a , L a r 1 e q
l e i l l
' s .
- o q o s l s , i e q l u
- t u t ' t u o p s r r r t
o f
e , t t q 8 n o r p p ' s s
e r a t u )
1 e a a 1
r a - t
- 1 n a q l s t
] 1 a s r t
t
s l s I T E e p I u r e p o { r
- u o 3 s l s I I B s P I
[ E
- o r d c r 3 o 1
' c l F <
s t t r ' & q e e t
l r e u
e s e p n l o u r a 8 p a l
' l l l v a t
r o s c i s , t t l
' p u l 1 g
e r u e - r d n 5
' p u t t u u r e u o s E ,
. { 1 u o s r a r e q l I , n e
J o c
' P u r u r
3 r I 1 u r
e . r e ' ' e ' r ) ] s r x e f o l
- e r u - r o d g o s u o c r
e s J e ^ r u n e q J ' p
l d e c x e
I B e J
s r J o
8 Chapter I
"..,,.ffi)
For htr ReJlection and Anallsis
What, iJ- oq,, eterilal ttttJss or i:alues do 1'ott
heliet,e slsould be shru'ecl t-ith nll sndettts?
religion is an iuportant aspect of their value ori-
entatioit, the curriculum includes a variefi' of
hol,v and secrecl books (Gutek, 200'+)'
-l'he
pref-erred methocls of instruction fbr
the idealist eclucator are lecture, discussion, re-
flection, and the Socratic method. The Socraric
methocl or tliaittgue is :r questirlnine process used
bv the teacher that las enrploved bt' Socrates, Piato's teacl.rer' The teacher asks ques-
tions to leed stuclents to ceitain conclgsions baseci on their oll'n experiences'
Natur"e of tbe Leunrct. Nthoush the iciealist niigl-rt perceive the student as
imrnarure and perhaps rnisgriirled, the basic philosophy of idealisrn is that every stLl-
dent h:rs
"
t',ir-t.l, ,,,.ri, ,,r,i s-pirit capable.f etl.r,latinq the Abs<ilute Nlind' The expec-
trition is that stuclents rvill broaclel their understanding of tl-re lvorld bl- absorbing
ideas trom books and teachers.
Role of tbe Tbacben
'T'he
idealist teacher senres as the "ideal"
role model u'iro
has extensirl kr-ro,i.ledge abo*t the Creat Bociks of the \\restern \4rorld a.d is able to
motivate stuclents ,o ,1"n, to become finiiliar rvith the universal and timeless lcssons
fiom the classics. Ile or she is f:irniliar u-ith ancl erlrplovs a varietl- of processes of log-
ical thinking and reasoning.
'lhc
iclealtst Yieu's thc teacher as the source of nuthoriw
fbr students.
Realism
Reolisrtt,like iclealisrn, is one of the oldest philosophies of \,\''estem culture, datilg to
.,cie,t Greece an<l Aristotle. Classical, cx A'istotelian, realism is the :rntithesis of
idealism. tror tl-re realist, the r"tniverse exists u'hether the human mind perceiv-es-1t or
not. X{attef is prirnan'enc1 is consiclerecl an inrlepcndcr-it realin'' The lvorld of things
is superior trt the ri'tlrlcl of-icleas'
Mettphysics
Realisrn stresses the rvorlcl of uature or plwsicai things and our experiences and per-
...ftio,-,, of those things. For the realisi, iealitr, is compos.ed of both metter
(bod1)
"r.i
fbr,,, (mincl). M^ti.. can onlv be shaped or orEfanized into being b-v the rnind'
N,Ioreover, the irrteraction of rlratte, and fbrln is
governed not bl' Gocl but bv scien-
tific, natural larvs. Unlike tl-re idealists, u.ho believe realin'is in the rnjncl and internal,
reaiists belier''e realin'is erternal and can be vcriflcd'
Epistemologt
The rnajor lva1,s of knou,ing 1or realists are perception, ratiolal thinking, ar-id sensing'
Settse riolisru is I school ri rcalisnr that asscrts thirt kno-'r,1ec1qe colres through the
senses,
q.hich gather data and tralrslnit thern to the mind to be sorted, classified, and
categorized. F?om these ciata $re make
gencralizations' Some realists, such :rs Aris-
totlel believed that perception
(trnou.-ledge acquirecl through-the senses) u'as not suffi-
cier.rt to understani ,errlin fuistrtle arg.ed that the use of deductii'e logic is more
' a 8 e n 5 u u y ' e J u e r c s ' s c r J e u r e q t e u r S u r p n l c u l
' s c r s e g e q l s e z r s e q d r u e p u e s 1 ( B I
I E J n ] E u
e q l
u o s a s n J o J l e r f t r u n l m r J J n s E e l B s o A P B s l s r l E e u ' a o q x n " q s u l p a u a r n r n r , t r t n J
' L n n b u r
J g E u e r J S
J o
s e l d l c u u d a r l ] r e t s e u
u a r p d l e g o t p u B S u r u o s e e . r g o r e . t r o d
( s t u e p n t s
d o l e a a p o ] p e u 5 l s o p t u o r u u o J r l u e
I B u o R r c n P e
u e a p r , r o . r d p l n o q s
I o o t l 3 s
e q } e ^ e r l e q s l s r l B e u
' ( 9 6 6 1
t a l 8 u e d g ) s 8 u r g r y o
s e s n e J e q t l E a A T J J E o t p u e
( , t r . o r q
o t l u e p n t s e q r d l e q o t
' e n t J r l
I e n t c a [ e ] u r
p u e
I E J o r u
r { r e e } o l s r S u q o o q c s
3 o
e s o f u n d e q t t e t 1 r a n 5 * s r s q e a g ' & q 1 o o q c g
t o
a s o i l a n 4
s u o t l u c g d u 7
l o u o t l o x r y I
' u o P ? 3 n P e
e r u s s e r 8 o . r d u o e ) u e n u
- u r p r m o g o r d E p ? r { n B e s s n o g r p r . , r a . S u o l r t z z o l a $ e d
' 5
r a r d r q c u t p e s s n J s r p , ( q d o s o l q d
p e r e t u e r - p l r q c s H r o J u . 4 a o u { r o t e r n p e s s L { \ S e q t
' ( t Z A y g U t D
r u z o l q s e d q r r r u r e l {
u u e q o f s E , ^ A . n e e s s n o g
J o
r e , & \ o l l o J E p u c t s r l e e J J e W o u V
' ( g
r e r d e q c u r p e s s n c s r p r p o q )
s e r r o e r f J
I e u o p m n p e
p u e p c n u o d s l r l r o J u , { . o r D I r e q d o s o p q d r l r u e { e W
' @ L L l - U L D
n e e s s n o g s a n b c e f - u e e f p u e
' u e r S o l o e r p
p u c r o t r r n p e q ) e z ) e W ' ( 0 1 9 l - 2 6 9 1 ) s n r u
- e r u o 3 s o u r y u q o f e J e , { ! r u s q e o J o } p a t n q r . D u o J o q ^ r s r e q d o s o p q d ; o ( e r u . r e q r g
' u o n d a c . r e d L r o s u e s q S n o r q l p e - r m b r e u e r l J s r e ? p a l z . l . o u S l ' ( u s a . r ,
E n q w
e ) e r B I S
{ u e l q
E a > l r 1 p u r u r B t 1 r l , ! r p l J o . & \ e r p o ] u r e u r o J e y s c e p r e ] e r r u r s e s S u r q l
r { r n s o u e r c e J a r l l t d e c u o c s r r p o t S u r p r o c a y
' t d e c u o c
o s o n o l n q u e r p s e , l a . s } d o c u o c
- r o ( e u r s , e l c o T
J o
e u g
' e 8 p e l m o u l
u u r u n q ; o , ( p n t s s r q u r o { p o r u r u e l s t u s r l e a l e s u e s
; o
l c e c o r r p e q e r y o T
' L r m b u l
J o
p o q l e u r e ^ D c n p u r e q J u o p e p u a d a p l t r l l u s r l c e r
J o
r u r o J c g n u e r r s B p e r u e ^ p e ' u r r c n r l o d e p u e r a g d o s o p g d e q l o q
' u o c e g
' ( + O t t - Z t g t )
o { c o T u q o f p u e ( g Z g t - t g S D u o c t g s r r u e r d e r e , ^ a r u s r l t e r y o u u e u o d o r d r e q r g
' ( 7 9 6 1 t e , . r . r o 4 ) r r e d e p e , t , r
J e r y e 1 s r x 3 o ] e n u r t u o J
1 1 1 r u
, { e r p p u e ' e c u a } s x e r r e r p
3 o
a 3 p a 1 , , r , r . o u 1 J n o o f . r o r . r d
' e u r D
; o
S u r u u r 8 e q e q l a J u r s p e l s r x e a a e q s 8 u l g l
I E r J e t B r u
' e p o l s r . r y
o t S u r p t o c c y
' s e o p r
r n o d q p a r e c r p e . r d ] o u s r e c u e l s r x e J r e q l p u e ' p u r u r e W
J o
l u a p u e d e p u l t s r x e e n l t l
p u e
' e 8 p a 1 , t r o r r 4 ' l r r p a r ' e p o t s u y
J o d
' l E e J
e J E s c e p r d p o
r e t p o l p l d r l l r . { p e e r 5 u s l p
e p o t s r r v ' r u s r l e e r J o r e r { r e J e q l p e r e p r s u o r s r ' o r e l 4 y o p d n d e
' ( c ' s
Z z t * g g )
a p o r s u y
a u a u o i t r o , t 4 8 w p o a 7
' ( 7 9 6 1
t e - ' t o 4 ) l r e r c o s o r p u B
I e n p r r y u l
o w o r t p o q
l : n f u r e s n e c
i l 1 , t \
q ] r u l
I e J o r u
u o . r J S u n e r a a p t e r p e ^ e r 1 e q o p s ] s r l e e J
' s c l r p e S u r p r u 8 e r
s e l n . r t s e J - p u ? - p r e r { , ( u r o r e r e q p e t o u o p d e q r q 8 n o q r l v
' s , r \ B I
I c r o r u
p u e
I B r n t E u
r p r , r
S u r d a e 4 u r e u o ' e J q s n o n g r z l e S u l p e a l u o s p u a d e p s s e u p o o o
' p e n F ^
s l a . r n t e u g o l t { e
- u o R E J
P U E
s s e u r l J e p . r o a t p s t c e g e r r e ^ e l e q r , ! \
' p o o 8
s l ] e g . & J o s l u 3 u r r u J e t e p r o ( e u r e q t
e J B . , l , l . B I
I E J o r u
p u B , r \ B I
I B J r I ] E N
' e J n l B u r u o { p e r J s p e J B s o n l E ^ } E t [ r e ^ e { e q s } s r l B e u
1 6 o 7 o l x V
' s u o n B
r e s q o a r p u r o J J
p e t e l n r u r o J s e s e q r o d , 4 q g o S u n s e t e q J p u e p e ^ J o s q o s r t u r { ^ 4 . ; o s l s d l e u e p u e 8 u n - r o d e . r
c n e u r a t s d s e q J s e p n p u q r l q - & \ ' p o q t a r u
4 f i t a a 1 t s
e W t r q p e q s r l q e t s e s l a 8 p e y m o u l
, s r s r
- I B a J J e r p o r o d
' r u o r p
u t o 4 ( a u s f i o 1 r G ) u o l s n y c u o c e ; o S u r , L r . r . r p a W p u e
, e s r u r e . l d
J o u r r u
J o p u o o e s u d q p a n o l l o g
' e s r u r e r d
r o ( B u r r o t s J g e
J o
t u e r u g s r l q e l s e e r p s l r e t u e u o p
- c n p e p
J o
s s e c o - r d e u
I
' p l r o . , n
p c r s . { q d e q r S u r p u e i s . r a p u n u l u o n d e c . r a d u e q t o ^ B r a J J e
6
u o r t e ) n p f p u e l q d o s o ; r q 4
o J o u l s I r r - 6 o 1
= . ,
- r l J n s ] o u s t l \ \ i > :
- s r r v s E q f , n i
' s l
P U E
' p e r J r s s s l r
' :
a q ] q 8 n o - r r p s r - -
' S u t s u a s
p u l r ' { i . r .
' l e u . r e l u r p u e p i r .
- u e t c s i q l n q
i r ( . ,
' p u n u
e q t - i q ; r :
( { p o q ) r e } l e l r r
f
- . r a d p u t s a J t r l I . .
s 8 u r q r . l o p l r o . \ \
:
. l o l i s a . r r a J - r e d
1 .
J o
s r s e r l t r l u E a q l
c u S t r r l r : p ' e - r m t . ,
& u o g t n e
J o
e 3 r r
- 3 o 1 1 o s e s s e c o r d
s u o s s a l s s e l e u r B
o 1 a l q B s r p u e
P I -
o r { , &
I e P o u
e l o r
S u r q r o s q e . , ( q p 1 :
- c e d x e e r { J ' p q l
- n l s & e ^ a ] B t I ] s r
s e l u o p n l s e r p a
' s e J u e I l
- s e n b o l s e r e i l e e r
p e s n s s e o o . r d 8 r m
r E E r r o s e r { J ' p c
- e l ' u o t s s n f , s t p ' :
J o J u o R J n I S u I
J r
' ( l o o ;
; o
l l a u e a e s a p
- r J o a n ] e ^ r r a l F J (
l0 Chapter I
Iiterature, and history. Realists give theoretical subjects such as mathematics and the
sciences a higher prioriw than dre "practical arts'"
Realist's p..i.. , ,ra.i"ty of insiructional methods, including the use of deductive
logic; obsen'ation, classifi.rriorr, ancl categorization; and the scientific method' The
.o-rr,".rt of the curriculum is deterrnined by authority* figures or experts'
l{atr.tre of the Learnen Realists view the student as an orderly, sensing,.and
rational being lapable of understanding the
q'orld
of things. Both the teacher and the
srudent
"r"
.lo.,rid".ed learners, ancl teaching and learning are considered an unend-
ing interactive process
flacobsen,
2003).
Role of tbe Tbacber. The role of the teacher, accordine to the realist, is to em-
phasize ani model reasoning, observation, and experirnentation'
Teachers' major
hrrr.tion is to teach sntdents h"o*'to think clearly and understarrd the rnaterial u'clrld'
Theistic Realism
(Thomism)
Theistic realism or its antececl ent, Thomisrn
(sometimes referred to as neo-Thonti:'m or
religious realism), dates to the time of st. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1271). Theistic re-
alisi-, represents a combination of theism (belief in God) and realisrn (belief in exter-
nal
".rd
tbj..ti"" reality g'uided by natural In1a,)(Gutek, 2004). For the theistic realist,
God exists and can be known by both faith and reason'
Metaphysbs
Theistic realists believe that God gives meaning and purpose to the universe. God is
the
pure
Being that represents thJcoming together of esse.ce and. eristence. Things
exist independ'ently of id.r.. Hou.ever, both physicai objects.and human beings, in-
;i.j"g
-lrrd,
,rrd ideas, are creared by God. Thus, although both phvsical objects
and God are real, God is preeminent.'Iheistic
realists believe that human beings are
rationai beings rvith souls, rnodeled after God, the Perfect Being'
Episteruologt
Although some philosophers believe rhat one can corne to know God onlv through
faith oi intuition, theisiic realists believe that u'e conle to know God through both
our faith and our capaciqy to reason. They aiso believe in a hierarchy of knou'-ing' At
the low.est level is s.iertific or sl, rthetic knowing. At the second level is analytic or in-
tuitive knowing. And at the highest ievel is mysticai or revelatory knowing (Morris_&
Pai, 1976i). Aquinas clarified ihrt t.trtl-t or knowledge could not deviate from, or be
inconsistent u''ith, revelation (Iacobsen, 2 00 3).
Axiologt
For the theistic realist, ethically speaking, goodness follou's reason' That is, values are
unchanging moral lau's estabiished by God that can be discerned by reason' As a
corollair, ilgrlor".,." is the source of evil. If people do not kno'q'' rvhat is right, they
7:-
E
' s a D I i l J P J
I e u o B l ] r , s l r r e P n l s
s a s r J r s x a
P u E
e u r l d r J s r P
I B t u o L u
s o r r o ] u r a . r l r r q t s a r P n l s
J o
t u r l r 8 o l d u S u r p r . r o . r d - r o - 1 a l c l r s u o d s e t o s l E s ^ r r a r l t E a l
e q J
' s l u e p r u s
r o j
I e p o r u l e n t u r d s
p u e ' 1 t t ; o r u ' i e r u c a l l a t u r
, u e l d u t a x s L r c e q o t s r , i q d
- o s o l r q d t s r l c e - r J r l s r o r l l L r r r o r l r t r e l a r p j o a l o r : o l e r u e q 1 : L a q r o a l a q t
l o
a p v
' r p r o . r
p u c e n l e ^ s a g q d u e x e t u e p r u s
e r i l
' u o n r e J ; e d
' p o 3 l e u t
P e [ e P o t u
s l n o s q ] r , \ L s 8 u r a q
I t u o r l r r
o r ?
P r r E
u r t e l o l
I E l l I I s l
- o d e q t e , \ e q s t u o p n t s
i l r
l e r { } o r e r 1 e q s } s l l B a r J u s r e q 1 u a l t , t o a 7 a q l l o a , m l o 1 q
' t r n p u o r
- + o
s e l n r e q ] t r r S u r u r r . r l p t r e ' s 1 p { s ) r s t q p l r p
i r r l l r t ? - + o
. , u a l s u u i r o g 8 u r
- L I J e a t e q l
( u o r t e l r J e J
' L r o u e . r l s u o u r a p ' e c l ] c e ; c l p u e
1 [ r p
e P n l J u l e s e q . l - ' p u r t u c q l a u r l d
- r r s r P t u q t e s o q l 3 r E t s r ] r r ) r J r l s r . r q l , r q r
- i q p e . u a l a r d u o ] l J 1 l - r l s u r J o s P o q l a u o q . L
' ( y g g 7
l e r n - 3 )
r s r l u e l J r t s r e r l t o r l t J o u r n l n c r r r n ) e q t o t
l e r t u e r
o r u s t r u e q l p u e
( s J I
- u r o u o J o ' t r S o 1 o r c o s ' o J u e n s
I B J r t r l o c l
' , ( q d e . r 8 o a B ' , ( r o l s r q ' o r u a r J s ' s c B e r u e r l l t u r ' e r n l
- u r a t r l p u e e 8 e n 8 u u l 1 6 o 1 o a q r ' ( c r 3 o 1 p u e s c r s , r q d u t a u - r ) i g d o s o l r q d s E L I J 1 1 s s t r e l q n q
' p o C
q t r , \ \ d r q s u o r t u l e - r e t 1 8 n o " r q r u o s c a r p u t s r i l l u , + S u r s s e r t s e [ I L I , t \ r u n l n J l r r n r s } r c
I E r e q r T
S r r o r l s e S u r " r a g o , l q p a q s r l d r u o 3 r u e r B e r l u e u
l e n l r r r d s
a L [ ]
- ] o
r u e r u d o l a r a p o q l
p u E ] r e l l o t u r o q t
J o
u o D E A n [ n J a t 1 ]
' s t s r F e l
c D
- s r e r { l J o g
' u , a l p l l n l s L r l ' 1 1 ' u 0 a t n l m t u n S
' s s o c o r d
3 u o 1 a 1 i 1 t s r S u r u - r e o 1 ' p u o
i u r u u o r l B c n p o
I E u u ( T
q 8 n o q t l e t u l l l e , \ e l I o q
o s [ e s ] s r l u . 1 J o B s r o r l l
' l P n P r . \ r P r i r
a L [ ]
- : l o
e l l u E u
i e n 1 i . r 1 { 5
i ) r p d o l a , n e p o l p u R l r a l i a } u r a q l e t P , \
- r l 1 1 r o l : a s o c l ; n d
l e n p
t s s E L l
l o o r l r s
e r l ] t s r l e a r
3 n s r a q l e q t r o L T
' S t n 1 o o q t g
t o
a s o r l , m , 4
i l u a p i l l s
a q l l o a , r , n , u t t
1 a n 1 t t , r c [ s
e c F p u l i
p a / / a ] u a U q p q
S t u r l o l a a a l t u a e s 7 t 0 t l u t n v n l f i r o t ' [ t t l J i ' l a q 4 q
s t s { 1 u u y p u t ) u o t t ) r U ; V . t n o t r t o 7 , d "
- { e q l ' t q 5 r . r
s r .
P S Y
' U O S E J J ,
a J E S e n l E , \ ' s I l i
e q J o
( r u o J , l
a l
r g s r . r . l o 1 g ) S u r
- u r J o J D , i l R u E
t y ' 8 u r u o u 1
- 1 ,
q r o q q 8 n o r p
q 8 n o - r q r . t 1 u o
e J E s 8 u l a q u E t
s r c e l g o
l e c r s , i r
- u r ' s 8 u r e q
u r
s 8 u r q a ' e J u a r '
s l
P o c
' a s r a - \ l l
' l s q e a r J r l s l a q -
- J e l x a u I
J a I l ! 1 .
- e r f , r l s r e r l l
'
t o t a s t ' r u , q q J - L :
' P l r o , t \
I E r r e r E
; o [ u u r
, s - r a q r e
- u l e o 1 s I ' l s l I t l
- p u e u n u 3 p a i
a r l l p u E r a r l l E :
p u B
( S u l s u a s
'
a L I J ' P o q l a r u
e ^ r t r n P a p
J o
a
e r { } p u ? s J I l E u
s t t o 4 a c q d t u y
P
u a u 0
r t l p g
' ( g g g 7
' - r e , r e . r . 3 - u o u r z o ) , L q d o s o l r q d S u r p u e i u r
u r s r u r o r l J s r e p r s u o J L L r s r J r l o r p e . ) u p r l r o U
' s r u r n b S s e i r o q l u o , r 1 e r s ] e l l e q u E I ] s I r q ' )
3 o
s t u a u r n 8 r e S u r t r o d d n s e q l
J o
r i u u l u ' t 1 n r ^ a . r e s \ i
' , ' i t r u u r l s u q f
p u t o J u a t s r x e . 9 u r p , i e 8
- a . r s u o r t s a n b J o , \ \ s l r e o ] e
i l o l s r . l t . , :
- L q p a t s a S . S n s q r e o ; d d e
[ B u o I ] t J
J t l t p e s n a t q
' r u d 0 1
- l a q J o u t r u n l . S ' 1 - r o . u p a t o u l s o u r s r L I r r l
' e s J o l r u n
a r l l o l e s o d ; n d p u e - S r r r u e e r u o a u r S p u r l
S t r r q l o t r
. + o
l n o . r J ] ] u u r p a l r ) r J p o 3 t c r l l p o ^ e r 1 e q s e u r n b y
' u o l l e s u e s
p u t u o s t o J E L \
l t r p e r p o - r \ . 1 r r \ s u u r n b 5 - p u e o l l o l s r r v r l l o g
' a u l l s ^ n 8 n 1 ' t g
- 1 o
s 8 u r q c e e t u e r l s u r - l 3 a L [ ]
p u B a l l o l s r r v - J o s E e P r J E I i l l a s a i { } S r i r J E J , r e l l r r q t r - \ \
P . t r P J l J
s r ' r l l r e u s } r s e l e l u l s r L L r o q I
J o r u s r l u o l l I - o e u u r o q . r \ r u o . r l i l u u ; l J r l l i l ? q l
l o
u e r 8 r i l o e q l r ' s r u r n b l -
s e u r o L l l
s 1 u a u o d o - t 1 S u t p a a ' 7
' ( 9 / 6 I
' l e . {
5
s r r r o l q ) l r a l l e } u r a i { t o : } S u r s e e l d p u n i 5 o s l u s r
I n J
- D n e o q s E p o n l r r s r L l f , r r { , \ ! r u q , 1 ,
' , u n e e q ; o
; e , r r a o - r e d e r i t o s ^ I e s r ' l c a l l a l u r ; o ' u o s ^ p a ; a q }
' s c r l a q l s a e
_ + o
s l u r a t u 1
' o P , ( a q t ] R L { , t \ r ( 4 e l q r s t r o d s a , r , i 1 1 t - r o 1 g
P I e i {
e q u e c r a q }
' t q 8 i - r
s r t e q , r \ , ! \ o r r , f o p e l d o a c l ' p u u q r e i i t o e q ] r r o
J 1
' r q 8 u s r l c r { , r \ c l p o r p a r c a d x e c q l o u u u r
I I
u o r l e r n p f p u e , ( q d o s o l r q 4
12 Chapter I
Contemporary Philosophies and Their Educational Implications
The modern or contemporary philosophies have their beginnings in the early 20th
century and include pragmatism, existentialism, and anall'tic philosophy. These
philosophies share the belief that there are no preestablished truths. At best there is a
relative truth.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism, also known as experimentalism or insfi'umentalisrr"L focuses on experience.
Metaphysics
Unlike the traditional philosophers, who view reality as a given, pragmatists regard
reality as an event, a process, a verb (Morris & Pai, 1976). As such, it is subject to
constant change and lacls absolutes. Meaning is derived from experience, which is
simply an interaction with one's environment (Garrison, 1994).
Epistemologt
According to pragmatism's theory of knowledge, truth is not absolute but is deter-
mined by function or consequences. In fact, pragmatists shun t-he use of the word
trutb and at best speak of a "tentative truth" that will serve the purpose until experi-
ence evolves a new truth. Knowledge is arrived at by scientific inquiry, testing, ques-
tioning, and retesting-and is never conclusive.
Axiologr
Whereas traditional philosophers concentrate on metaphysics and epistemology, prag-
matists focus primarily on axiology or values. fu \{.ith truths, values to the pragmatist
are only tentative. They are also constructed from experience and are subject to test-
ing, questioning, and retesting. For the pragmatist, whatever works, or leads to desir-
able consequences, is ethically or morally good. The focus on consequences is not to
imply that the pragmatist is only concerned with what works for the self. In fact, the
pragmatist is concerned with social consequences. "What works" is what worls for the
larger community. For Dewey, democrary was the key component of pragmatism. He
was convinced that democrary cannot exist without community. Democrary is more
than government; it includes a free community capable of influencing the political, so-
cia7, and economic institutions that affect its citizenry (Brosio, 2000).
Regarding aesthetic values, for pragmatists what is beautiful is not determined
by some objective ideal but by what we experience when we see, feel, and touch. Ac-
cordingly, art is a creative expression and shared experience between the artist and
the public.
Leading Proponents
fivo individuals who had a profound impact on the pragmatist philosophy were Au-
guste Comte (1798-1857) and Charles Darwin (1809-1882). Comte influenced prag-
matism by suggesting that science could solve social problems. For pragmatists,
p u e ' S u I u - I B e I
a A r ] E J o q E I I o J
' s e E r I r J J E
u o - s p l r e r {
' u o r l r l u e u r u a d x a ' 8 u i , l , 1 o s ^ r u a l Q o r d
' 8 u r o p
. { q 8 u r u . i r a 1 a p n l J u r s } s n e u r 8 e . r c i r o J s p o q l a u
I e u o n r u l s u r
p e . r . i a g a . r d a q 1
' ( S i - f
t
' d d ' _ q 6 6 I
' s 8 u r p p o 5 )
, , s r u a 1 q o . r d l e r c o s
8 u r , t 1 o s - l o , ( t r , r . u c t u e u r r l q S u r u r e l d
- x e g o s e l d t u e x e s B p e s n e q u r r , { a q t s e t u c ^ e l a r r ( 1 ; c p c r u r : d e - t e , t - i o t s r q p u e , r g d r " r 5 o a 8
s E I { J 1 1 s s r c e ( q n g ' e c u a r l e d x e u . t \ o J r e q l J o s L U J e l u r ' . r e l n c r t r r d u r ' a c u a r r e d x e u e u r n r { J o
s u r J a ] u r u r a q ] o l e s u e s s a { u l u l t q l e u o - u n l n J r J J n J p e l } r u n i l p u o s - r e d 8 , , e r u a r r e d x e
s l u a p n l s S u r , r e q p e t s e S 8 n s . { a , u e g
' s a r u e r c s
a q } p u e i q d e - r 8 o a 8
' , { - l o r s r q
s e r { c n s s t c e l
- q n s
I e J e ^ e s
s e t e . r 8 e t u t t B L [ ] L u n [ n J r J J l 1 J E s J o r t E J u r s r ] e r u 8 e r d
' s t c a f q n s 1 o l a s p a q u c s a . r d
E s s e r l s l e q t s a r y d o s o l r q d
l u u o r r r p t s l
e r { t a { { u l } ' u o q r u 4 s u l p c t u r u n l w L L L n J
' p o q t a L u
J U I t u e r r s e q t p u c 8 u r , r 1 o s u r e l q o ; d q 8 n o r q r
e c u a r r a d x a r o u o i t r u r y s s e l l s o t s r u o r t e r n p e
1 o
e s o d - r n d . i r e r u r r d e q a
' s p o 8
l e c i r r l o d
p u e ' J e u o r l e c n p a ' l r u r o u o c a ' l e l o L u o p l q J u r p u t s e r n l p u r r r c r t s r p ; n 1 c l a q o l i l r u m u u r o J
J u e J J o u r a p t s q J n s p a u o r s r ^ u e i e , n a 6 ' r i l a r c o s
J n E J J o L u e p e , r r s s e , r S o r d u S u r l e p o u
a g o 1
l o o r { c s
e q t ; o e s o d . r n d a q r l e p r s u o r s r s u r u 8 e J 4 ' S u q o o q t g
l o
a s o d , r . n d
s w o t t t n r y d u l . 1
l a u o q a r n p g
6 t t - O S t
' d c l
' 9 1 6 1
' , { a , r a q )
' s a - r r - L p a r o r d
l u a n b e s q r - r s u l e J l r s r e u r q u r n q l
J o
a p l r B s B p o r { t e u r t r : q r t d o p e
e r \ u a q t p u r ' s 1 , r o . n q c r q . t S u r r - l t r r u o s u o d n l r q e , l t p ] u l r S u l , i n u o d a a l p u e ' a s 1 a
S u r q l a r u o s o p o . n
' s 1 r r . ; l r u o L I , \ \ p u u ' S u r q t a u r o s o p r i l d t u r s a ; ! \
' ' ' ' t q r 3 n o r l t J o
t u o r r e l e
e u r o s l l l o q l r , \ \ a l q r s s o d s r S u r u e a u r r S u r , r e q o c u e r . r a d x a o N ' e r u a n b a s u o o r r r s u a c l c l e g
l q , r p u t o p o t , t n a , , r \ l e r l . { \ u o e . q o q u o r l e ] o r e q t
. } o
l u e u u l e r s r p e q l s r
[ t q 8 n o r 1 1 . l
: p o : l s l e J J e l u r e - r a , n a c u a n b e s u o J p u e ' t q S n o g r
' a c u e r : a d x e
t e , r e q r o ;
' l
r e l d r L l J u r
l r e t e p
e r o r l r u r p a s s n ) s r p y l u s r l r u r 8 e J d
u t J r J e u r y u o e J u e n l I u r l s e t e e ; 8 e L I t p B L I ' . L a . u a g u q o f ' . r , r u r o d r u a t l r o J s , s a r u e f
' ( g g g 7 ' " r a . r e - r 3
5
u o u i z g )
s s a c o r d u I p u e ' o E s r l t r n l d ' p a p u a - u a d o
s i a c u a r r a d x a a b ^ n e r a q s l u s J a , \ n m p u e s u o r t J e J l s
- q B r e ^ o e c u e p e c e r d e { E t p l n o L I S a c u a u a d x a l e l t p a t s a r 9 S n s a I I
' e s ^ r e ^ r u n
S u r 8 u e q c
- J e A o u B I l u o
' s p s r e . u u 1 1
o u ' s a l n l o s g e o u e J E e : a g l ' s a r u e f o t S u r p J o 3 J y
' a o u a r r e d x a
J o
. { r l F r r r i a c e g r p e z r s t g d u t e s a t u e f d q d o s o l r g d p u t i 5 o l o q o i s d q r o q u r r u s n E L U
- E e r d
3 o
s . t t e r ^ s r y p o t B r o d r o r u r l a q d o s o l r q d p u e r s r 8 o p q c i s c l r
' s a u r e f
u E I l l L \ {
' ( t O O Z ' u e l u r e N
r y
u o s r r r B q ) d r q s u o r r e l e - r t u e u o d u r s r q r p e ; o u 5 r u a 4 o s r o t u J n p e t e q t p e l u e r r r l
p r - r e S u r i a a ; p u e S u r o p
1 o
r r e d e l e l r r r t u r u e s e S u r , r o u 1 p u e ' 8 u r , r a r 1 a q ' 8 u r u ; e a 1
p e p r r 8 e l a r - r r e d
' a c u a r . r a d x e
. t q p e r s e t
[ E u n
s e s ^ a q ] o d , t g i 1 e - i e u r e r e s u a p l
' a c u a u a d x e
q 8 n o ; q r s e a p r
J o
u o n r ? r r l r J e r u o s p u e d a p a 8 p a l , r o u l e n r ] t e r l l p a ^ e r l e q e H
' r u s i l e r u
- E e r d
3 o
. u o a q t e q r 3 u r d o 1 e . , r . e p L [ ] r , r p e t r p a r J s r ' u u r c t 8 o 1 p u t u p r l r l e r l r e r { t E u r e ' a c ; r a 4
' l c u j u 1
' ( Z S O 1 - O S S t )
i e , u a 6 1 u q o f p u e ' ( O l O t - Z l g t ) s e u r e f u r r r l p , , l t ' ( l t O t - O g S t )
e J J r e d s r e p u r q s e l J e r l 3 s l r t t r J e u l y o r l t q t r , { \ p a l e r J o s s r i 1 r - r e u r - r d s r u l s r } e r u 8 r l 4
' ( g O O Z
' . r e . r e . r ' ;
r y
u o u r z 6 y ) l u e u r d o l a , r a p
I e r r o s
p u r
l e c r 8 o l o r q
o t ] r a ( q n s p u t
p e p u e - u e d o o s [ E s e . r p e r r e , + u r i a q t q o r q . n ' u o r ] e c n p e
o t s u e p r q i u r . r r r C p e 4 d d r s l s D r r u
- 3 r r 4
' a 8 u r q c
o l l c a f q n s p u e ' p a x g ] o u ' p a p u s - u a d o
s r . r - t r r 1 e e r r r q r p a r l d u r i u o r t J e l e s
I E r l u E u - 1 o
, t r o a q r q u r , \ \ , r B 6
' , ' L r m b u r
r r l r l u a r r s u r l u e r p a . r 8 u r - { e q e s r S u r . r 1 o s u r e l q o - r d
t I
u o r l e ) n p f p u e l q d o s o l r t l 4
' s l s E e u r 8 e ; d
r o 3
- 8 e ; d p a c u a n g u t
- n g e J e ; t \ i q d o s c ,
p u B l s I l J E e L I l u :
- r Y ' I { r n o l
P U E
' i
p e u l l u J e l a P l o u
:
- o s ' 1 e c n r 1 o d
a q l .
e J o r u s I , ( o t r c o u i
e 1 1
' u r s E e u r 5 u d
3 q ] r o J $ 1 r o . \ r l r . L
o q ]
( l f , E J
u I
' J l 3 s .
O ] ] O U
S I S A J U a n i
- r I S e P o 1 s P t s a l l L
- ] s 3 ] o l l J a l q n s
a
l s n e u r 8 e ; d
a P c r
- B e - l d ' l S o l o u r a l s
_ s e n b
, S u D S a t . - L
- r r e d x e
I D u n
e s .
p J o . { \ a q l
J o
e s f
- J e l a P s I ] n q
. l I
s r q J l r l , , Y \ ' e c u a t :
o ] l J e l q n s
s I l I
'
p J r 8 a r s l s l l E u 1 ; -
' o J U A I J e d x a u c )
E s r e J s q l l s a q l
e s e q J -
' I q d o s o
q r g T . { p e a a q r
S U O I } E J
14 Chapter I
...,:ffi|u
For Your ReJlection and Anallsis
Git'e extntples o.f'the use oJ-the scientiJic
meth0d itt d tttttsic closs ttn.d a Sprtnish clnss.
nretilods thrrt incorporate deductive thinking.
Prismatists also piace a high prioriq- on in-
structional meLhods that involve social interac-
tion and group
'.rctivities.
l{ature of the Leat'nen Pragrnatists con-
sider sruclents tci be et'olving and active beings
capable of interacting rvith their environment' Srudents are seen as individuals capa-
b1e of setting objectlves for their or,vn le:rrning. Thev are also cap:rble of rvorking
rog.ethcr ao iol""'colnmolr probiems, establishing the rules for governing the class-
.o'orrr, ancl testing and cvaluating ideas for the irnprovelnent of learning and class-
room life (Noddings, 199,5).
Role of tbe Tbacber Prasmatists belier.e that the teacher should model the
most lutheritic Bpe of knou,ledge, namel1., expcritnentrl knttri'1edge'
'l-he
teacher is
vierved rs the reiearch or project clirector and is expected tci model reflective think-
ing, u.hich questions a1l assurnptions, claims of knorvledge, er''idence, and one's or'r'n
th'ought p,ro."rr.r.
-fhe
pragrnatist teacher also stresses t1-re applic:rtion of the scien-
tific inetir6cl, u.hich inchides"the svstematic reportinq and analvsis of t'hat is observed
and the retesting of hrpotheses formuiated fror-n clbser-r''ation'
Existentialism
E:cistentiali-vn appeared:r centur! ago as I re'"'olt against the mathematical, scientific,
and objective philosophies thar prececled it. Existentialjsrn voiced clisfavor u'itl-r :rny
effbrt clirected at social controi oi subjueation. Existenti:rlism tbcuses on pcrsonal and
Pragmatists encourage instructional methods that stress social activities.
p u B S u r l r u e r u
l E u o s r e c l
q r e q l o e q t s s z r u 8 o J e J
I E n P I ^ l P u I
t l J E e i q a r o q a d I I { s u o I l E I e r
, , n o H I - L ,
u E s E
P e q L l s s e P ' a l d l c u u d
e q l
P e l e r o d r o 3 u l
e H
' u t s I 8 o l o 3 l p - r e r l d o s o l q d
. r '
r ^ " f
, ' (
s s o r -
g
r s 1 ) ' r
a q n g
" r *
u ; : I * T l f f i
f f i ' . T : ,
j , l
; : ' . 1 , : : x :
j
: ; ' i ' i l ;
0 . ,
1 o
, f i r 1 e a r e q t u I
P e ^ e I I o q
e H
' a J I o q J p . , o " t d p " t
' i r p p ' " 1 q n s
l o J / r r ' t r r o a f q o r $ I ] u o
1 1 6
p r r r r l o . r e r
o q . r \
' ( i S S f
l i f
S f )
p r " r 3 r 1 r r t 1 1
u a ; o 5 u e r 8 o l o a q r - - r e q d o s o l l q d
q s l u e q
e r p s E , { \ ' u I S I I B I l u a l s r x ,
j "
, r q r E a q l
P e e P u
' r u s r l e r l u e l s x a ; o
t u e u o d o l d
S u r p e a l a q a
s u u a u o i l o ' t 4 S u t P a a T
' i 1 , \ \ e e { r n o r o J , { t d o r a c l r d
i l e t u s
, { - r e , r . e s r s r g t
, t s a S 8 n s
s t s r l B r } u a t s r x e e q l 1 e
' o I B r x o . { t s e r l o t l r e q } l o J
' { l r l t q r s u o d s e ' i
a I E l o ] u ? r { t e n l B ^ ; o r o
, } s n f , t q 8 u
s r t e q . { \ a u l l u r a } e P o l
r y e l u q r l l a q
r o p r e P u B l s e
- o l
I o o l
o t J a r s B o r { ) n u l u e l o s r } I
' r . . , r r r
r , S u n t l e d s e t e p u e S u n t . n s n J . I s I e s l o t l J ' , ' ( p q S r - r
. r o , f i l c e J r o c u e s o l { J e ^ e q a , & \ l E q } s e r u E J n s s u ' r o ' s p ; e p u B l s ' s t u ' t o u
o u a J e e l a q l a s n ? J
- e g
: s l s l l ? n u a t s r x e o q l r ( e s ' e u u a l r p
e q ] s I e J e q p u Y
' u o I l R o J J
o l l l t l r
J o
l J B u E e J U e L l
p . r i , r r o q , e s r p r o . t t ' - { - r e ^ e p u ' r r r - r i r r , o E
' e n 1 e . t S u t u r r u r e l e P r o , o s ] B l n q a g p a l , t o u l
p u r & r r c a :
S u r u l r u t a l a p . r o 3 . { p o ] o u a . t r } e r a d u l l s I e J I O I { c ' l s l l e t l u a l s l x e
e q l r o c
, G o p t x y
J i a s
e l i l s r l l r - r o q t n r , ! u o a q r
' t s r x a
g ] r u 1 e q r o l t r e , u ] l e J J o J
. r o e 1 8 u r s o u
P u E
' s a B u o t l l n e
o u ' s e l n 1 o s q e o u e s n e c o g
. e d e c s e
] o u u E t
a , & \ l B r { }
. { r q r q r s u o d s e J
J o
u e P J n q s n o p u e l u e J l E l i q l l , { \ S a I J J E J a s o o t l : )
o ] l u o p a e q e I { I
' s s o o r i J t r 1 1 t n l u a , r a l s n u r e ' { \ l s q }
s I s J a } } B l x t e q ' u
i l u e l a l e J J l s I u o I l E I o
- A e J J o ' p o q t e t u
J g R u a I J S ' u o D l n l u l ' c t 3 o 1
e s o o q o e ' t t l o q } e q r ! \
' l \ o l r {
e a
' \ \ o t l
p u u e n J }
s r l e { a
, p r r " p d l J t r : u r r r p } s n u
J I e s I B n P I ^ I P u I
e q l
' e r l o q ]
' { q
s r q l r u r a \ o u { o l e t u o c
e . u . { e r r r , q l i r q l
, , , . r r i " q , t r r l r r t . r r t r r r e ' r $ r l t a . r
S u t u . r e c u o c u o t l t s o d r I e L I l o l T E I I I U I S
r G o p r u a t s t d g
' ] s E d J n o r t \ e t A e ' \ { '
' ' \ \ o I { i o
e J r o r { o a g r S u i p n p u r
, e s o o q c
o r - , { r r [ q r s r x i d s o J
a l ] l u t o r ; e d e c s e l o u u E J a , ' t t ' l s q r r l u e l s r
- r ,
" i p
o r E , r r p r o r r y
. l r r l u e r
e u r u r r e l o p e . { \ s e r l o l l r . r n o I g
i e J u a I J S i o l n l B f d i t l o s , e ,
i p o D
1 l
{
' l B e r s I } E r { , { \ a p I J a P o } s I e r ? e ' { { _ I B I { , . { \
P u e
o q ' r e P I l e P o J
' u r s l l E l } u e l s r x e
; o
s J r s . { q d e f a u e q t o t
I e , u e r
s r e r r o q J
; o
t d e c u o c
e q t ' a c u a l s r x a
o } u o I l I P P t u I
' ( 9 3 6 1
! e r n 1 ; )
S u r u t a r u u ' n o
J n o e l E a J J l s n u r e , u ' e s o d ; n d l n o q l l A
P I J o , , ! \
e u I a ^ I [ a ' ! r e s n e J a q ] E I { l a ^ a r 1 e q s l s l i e E u e l
- s l x g
' ( I
1 6 I
' . r e 1 1 a u y )
e r u a l s x e - r n o l n g e J n l t u o l S u r g l o u e r t \ o e ' r ' u ' r o q
a ; e a - \ \
{ J } { r u
o t " , t S " r q l
3 o
, * " q r t
I ? J r u e u
J o J a p J o p [ J o A \ o u s I e J e I { ] e s n t c a q p u e ' a c u u t l o
A q a s r a ^
- r u n a q ] o l u r u J o q 3 r B o r ! \
. a s J s ^ r u n
p r r s i q d e q t o l e s o d J n d . I o u S u r u t e r u J o L I l I a u s I
a J o r p l s r i e r l u o l s r x a
e q l J o C
' a c u e s s a s a p a c a ' r d e J u a l s r x a ] c q ] e ^ 0 1 l a q s ] s I I E I l u e ] s B e e q ]
. a c u e l s r x e
s e p a c e ; d o J u o s s e ] E q ] e ^ 3 l l e q o q , t ' s l s i l e e . r
J l l s l s t l l
P u e
s l s l l e e J 3 q ] e l I T u O
s : , p , C q d a t a l p
' , t - r e r u r , r d s r a l t l r q l s
- u o d s a l p u e
, a o r o q c
' a J u a t s i x e
J o P I J o , ^ .
a q l ' l s t l e D u e l s l x e
e q ] J o g
' a J u e l s l x e a ' l U c e ( q n s
S I
u o r ] ) n P : l
P u e
l q d o s o ; t q 4
;
I
. t
i l
e
P u e l u o s J a c
i u r : q l t , t
. l o
' f , $ D u a I J S ' l t
P A ^ J e s q o
s I
- u e l c s
e q l l
u t \ o s , e u o
i
- I u l q l
a - \ I l :
s r J e r { J r a l
;
e i i l
l e P o r i l
- s s e l J
P L I t l
- s s B i r
e q l -
8 u r 4 ; o - t
- 1 i
- t d t r
s 1 u n 1
s 8 u t a q
a , r t
- u o J
s l s t l r r
- J P J A I U I l t
- u I
u o , u
' S u q u t q l
16 Chapter I
reality. Buber suggested that both the divine and the human are related, and that
Ar",jgh p"rrot rGhtionships with others one can enhance one's spirinral life and re-
lationship with God (Ozmon & Craver, 2003).
Also contributing to the development of existential thought were Edmund
Husserl (1859-1938),
,iho
dereloped a philosophical method called phenontenolog, ot
the study of phenomena (referring to objects, events, or things we perceive or ex-
p.ri.rr."), ani Ma.tin Heidegger
Osag_lplq,
who expanded and revised phenome-
.rology io .r"rt" another
if,ilosophical
method known as berrneneutics, ot the
intffietation of lived .*p.ri"rr."
(Ozmon & Craver, 2003). Phenomenology had a
-rloi
irrflo.nce on the critical theory and postrnodern movements that followed'
Undoubtedly, the most widily known existentialist was
Jean-Paul
Sarre
(1905-1980). Sartre claimed that free choice implies total responsibility for one's own
existence. There are no antecedent principles or purposes that shape our destiny'
Sartre,s major work, Being and. Nothingnesi
(1956), is considered one of the major
philosophic treatises of tlie 20th century. According to Sartre, because there is no
tlod to-give existence meaning, humanity exists without any meaning until we con-
struct our own.
Existentialism had a major impact on educators such as
John
Holt (1981),
charles Silberman (1970), and
Jonathan
Kozol (1972, l99l), who were supporters of
ah. op.n schools, free schools, and alternative schools that flourished during the
1id--
1960s. One of the most well known educational existentialists was A' S' Neill
(1883-1973), who founded Summerhill School outside London shordy after-World
Wr I. Summerhill offered an educational experience built on the principle of learn-
ing by discovery in an armosphere of unrestrained freedom
Q{eill,
1960).
One of the current ,pok rp.ttotts for the existential philosophy of education is
Nel Noddings. Noddingt(l.OVZi otr red an existential educational model that stresses
the challenge to care:
As human beings, we care what happens to us. w'e wonder whether there is a life
after death, *h"th.. there is a deity who cares about us, whether we are loved by
those we love, whether we belong anywhere; we wonder what we will become, who
.\Me
are, how much control we have over our own fate. For adolescents these are
among the mosr pressing questions: who am I? who will love me? How do others
see me? Yet schools spend more time on the quadratic formula than on any of these
existential questions. (P. 20)
E da c ati on al Im.P lic ati o n s
parpose
of Schooling. According to the existentialists, the school should pre-
pare sftd;nts tl take responsibility for, and to deal with, the results of their actions'
Th" pr.por" of education is to fosier self-discovery and explain the importance of the
freedorrrof choice and the responsibility for making choices'
Cuwiculum and. Insrntcti.on. Unlike progressivism, which emphasizes group
learning, existentialism emphasizes the individual and personal,learning' The cur-
riculuni is srudent centered and provides a variety of existential situations that au-
thenticate the student's o* p".rorrd experience. The favored subject matter is the
'
a S t n E u e l
l u u o r s s e l o , r d T t I + L l u a
I J s
J o u o u r u r o r u r p a s s e ; d x e e J E p u t S u r u r a u r J u J I J a , \ u q ] u r { l s t t r . r e l E u r s o o q o q l i , \ \ s I u l a c
- u o J u r c u t . r r e q a
' l e C r l d u l s u o u p u e ' l e O l l o e . r d r u t ' l t l c t l a l o e q l
s t
, , ' , q i 1 e 3 1 , ,
J o
, , ' q l n J l , , - 1 O
s a n s s r D . r E S a J , { a g l e s n e c a q s J r s i r l c l r t a r u q l r , ! \ p a u l e l T o J l o u a r e s ; a q d o s o p q d c r r , i 1 u r r y
n p d r 1 d a t a l 4
. e 8 e n 8 u r l ; o
S r r r u u a u r p u r ' u o r l r r r g e p ' u o r ] r : c r l r r t [ J
e q ]
! 1 r a
p o u J a J u o J a . I o u l
P U E
s a r q d o s o p q d , t r e . i o d u r e t u o t
P u B I E I I o E I P E T I
a r { l t r q p a s s e . l p p t l s e n i r ^
P u E
' r 1 l n l 1 ' , U r 1 t a - r
r r ' t o q , r r o r i . I u r n s s e 3 u r , t 1 . r a p l r n e q t L l t r . l \ p e u , I o J t l o J s s e l s ^ E . r l u o u l a r o r u
r r l - { 1 t u t S u r l l n s
- r r r q a ' a s n s r e q c l o s o p q c l r c q r s l d e c u o c p u t a 8 u n 8 u r l a r l l - ] o u o l l E ) I J u E [ J p u t s r s - ( 1 t : u t :
t l o u o B u e ] ] E ] I e q ]
P e s n J ( T
S I 1 ? I o L I J S e s a q J
. a I J l I J
t ] u u a l \ a q ] S E u , ' \ t o u > l e u l e J e q ] E L [ , \ \
p e u J ( T s t s D u e I J S
I R I r o s
p u P s l s u u a l r s
l P J r l l t u
n e a d o . r n g
1 o
c i n o r 8 e u e q , \ \ t J e
I
r ? i \ \
p l r o r , Y \ { - t s o c l e q l S u u n p S u r a q o t u r a r l r t r t u s l u e r \ o l r r
. i q d o s o l q d o u , ( 1 e u e e q r
' a l q r q r r e - \
l o u p L I E u a p p l r u o 8 - r r : I a J E ] E I { l s l l i s L u e l e l s
l e c l q d o s
- o l q d E u r r e p u e J p u e ' s l u e r u 8 p n [
a ] \ r t e L u r o l t S r r r { u t u ' e - r D d r r c s c - r d
S u r e g . l o ; ' p a q t l c s
- e p e r B , i c q f . t e , \ \ o q ] s E
[ [ e , \ \
s P ' s a l q d o s o l q c l
u r e p r l u r
P U P , I c u o B l P t ] r l
a L [ ] s e z l r l l l r : )
, r q d o s o p q d u 1 , t 1 e u 1 , .
' S u r u e e u i 3 r - r r q s r l q r l s e p u t a 8 u n " S u r l 8 r u , t 1 r . r r : p L { 1 L ! \ p e l l r e r u o r
i q c l o s o i n i c i v . s t - , v s , Q u u a U s t t t F l t u l
r o s t ! [ l i l t r . t 1 y t . u q r { o s n p t l d
} ) e l l E )
o s l E ' , i q d o s o y q d
s u , { 1 a u 7
. { q d o s o p q 4 r P d l E u V
' J a I { J ? a l
l s l l u l ] l l e l s l x e
e q l
] o
s s l l
- r p n b t u e ] : o d r u i
o s l u e l r l q 8 r s u r p u e r r o r t c u l 8 t u l f
' e , u l l e l l e J
P U r
e , r i l c a d s o r l t r r S u r a q
q t t , \ \ e l q E u o 1 r u o r s r
( ) q , { \
I t l l p r r \ r p u r
u u s u p e - \ \ e r , \ s r T a L I J E O I e q l ' a s o d . r r . r d
p u u S u r u r a u r
r o J L { r r c a s , q t , , . . r r r 1 " i t . r . t . , r .
J o
l s l u q l ; o l e u a q ] e s n r r a g
' l i r n p r . l . r p l r t e q t
1 o
t r i a u r d o
- l e - t e p e r u l J e J ] E e L I l s E
[ [ e , ! t
s B a , r r ] r u 8 o r a L I l t l l l l t
P e u r e o u o l
s I 3 L [ s r o a l l
' d r q s u o U e l a - r
l u o p r l l S - J A L I J E O I
a . \ I l J e J o l u l
P u e I E L r o s J a d
a l ( ) l u E S o r 9 E J n C J L I e J o l B J n P a l S I I l l I l t r e l
- s r , x a e L l J . ' ( 1 9 6 1 ' a u c a . r r ) )
u o n u z r l E n l r E - J l e s - I o J 8 u l ^ t r ] s a l t L l , ' r \
i B l ] t r a l o d ; r a q l
e l o l L [ J R
r t . r r p r U t
1 p
a l e q o t s r
1 e o 3
s , r e q c c o ] a q l ' r a r r o e : o l , !
' s l t t o P l ' t l s
. i o . 1 , t . l r o t l u a q l n r
- 1 o
a l c i u r t
- x e u E o u r o r a q o l s I r 3 L l J u a l l s l [ E l 1 u e ] : - I x 3
e q l J o e l o l a q , L l a q r q a l a q l l o a p y
. S u r t r r r : a 1
u , \ \ o r t e q l . i o 3 a l q r s u o d s e t e q u E J p u r . L t r , \ o J s l F - - + l J s
P u t r
a u q d r c s r p l l a s ; c r
a l c l r c l e c a - r r i t u e p n l s
. a r o u u e q g n C
' s e r r o r l J
e l q r s u o d s a l
P u e
J l t u e q l n e j o e l q e d u c
1 e 1
- P I ^ l P L r l e a r - j l l s I l u a P n l s e q l l B t [ ] a , \ a l l e q s l s l l t l ] u e l s l x T . t a u ' r u a T a q l l o a t n 1 o 1 t r
' l - r a , r o c s r p - 1 1 a s
p u r a E p e l . t t o u l
- J I e s o t p e e l
i l r l r i \
a ^ e r 1 e q s ] s r 1 r r l u e t s r x e p o l l ] e u i e
' a n - 3 o 1 t r p
J l l t r J o q o q l q l l l \ u o q
- c u n ( u o : t u r p a s n a ; t s e g c t o r d c l c e , t n c e - 1 1 r
P J I l u r - o s
e s a q J
' s a c u a r . r e d x e e ^ I ] J a l - : p l q ] t ^ \
3 u o 1 e s u o r s s n c s r p e l r l r u S o t u r s l u a p n l s s c 8 e 8 u a q c t l J ' t t ' u o r t e l n P e
s a n l t ^ J I l s r u B r u n L I
o l q J e l l p u o u a p n l J u l ] s l 1 u t t u o l s r x e
e r { l - 1 o - + u o l l J n l 1 s l l r
- J C r
s P o q l a r l t p e . r . r a - 1 a r d a q a
r o
L u n r n r r r r l l r e r r r
( q l n r
e r n l o s q y s e s s e r s
i , ' J . , X ' 1 5 i l ; ] l f t . i i 1 T l l , l 1 i i [ i : : , 1 ' . r J i l 1
- r - I J T J J 1 J O L I I a l i l u a
. ( ' l u 3 L u o t u [ t I ] L i a ] S 1 x a
a q l , 1
P a l l p t r
5 - s e u 3 . I t , 1 1 u e l l l J e l q n s t o l J e u - I E a l
e q l s u e I E , \ \ E u l n l n c l r r n J B r l r n s
' c J i l u t a s o d r t d E
P U U
p t l t - I I e s J o u o n n u r r + J r u t e l t e - l r
, { 1 i r u . u r i 1 r - r a , n ' , t t r p . r 1 s q e
p u e r u c r x u t r . S u r ^ u t : d u i o r J p s t l
P u E
s s a u 8 u r g l o u r c l s s e u s s a l S u t
- u u a u r - + o e c 1 - r r t u u s r : e 1 d u n o q t u o i i u r t r : . r l u e c u o o i q t u l l l l J e s s E s l s t l u D l l e l s l x g
' u o I l t P u o J
u g r l r n r l a q t s e r u e d u o J J t r t r q ] 8 u r - r c ; ; n s e r l l
J o
J J l l e p t - r a s e p t . t o ; c l l I e s n t J e q s ^ o l l I u t u l n l l
t l
u o r t e f , n p f p u e l q d o s o ; r q 6
e q : I s I J e l ] ? u r l J a l (
- n B l E t l l
S U O I l e r u l
- J n r
o q l
' 8 u r u : e
d n o r 8 s a z r s r q d r u :
e q t l o a c u e t : o d r u
' s u o I l J E J l s q l
- I O
:
- e . r d p p o q s
1 o o q .
e s e q l
] o
i u r u o
s J e l { l o o P - \ l o H
3 J e e s e q l S l u a a
o q , r ' e r i l o J o q l l
d q p a . r ' o 1 a . t r ' :
a l I T E S I e l a l { l
j
s e s s e J ] s ] B t I l
I a p L
s r u o D E J n P e
J o
' r
' ( 0 e
- u f f e l
J o
a l d r c u t
P l r o ^ \
r e l B - \ i l . r
I I I a N I
' S ' Y s e ' 1
- p l u r e q l S u r r n P
5 o
s r e u o d d n s
a :
' ( t g o t )
l l o H
u
- u o c e , ^ d '
l n u n
; =
o u s I e J e l { l a s n
r o ( u u r a q r
; o
:
' , ( u u s e P . r n o a d
u , { . o q e u o J o _ l - l
e r u B s
i n B d - u r
' p a , { \ o l l o - l I
e p r q . ( 3 o 1 o u a i
e q ] J O ' s 1 ' , t 7 1 t d t t
- a u r o u a q d
P a s r
- x e J O a A I S J J a (
t o ' f f i o l o u a u t o t t :
P u n r u P g
e l a ' r \
- e r
P U E
e j i l
I ? n
l B q l
p u E ' P e l E
l8 Chapter I
Epistemolngt
Philosophical
cause of their
.r.,,..@
For Your ReJlection and Ana\sis
Gice extm.ples of u:ords 0r
Phroses
in
1ou"
disciptitte that cottld be considered
jorglil 0r
h ate .t r r hj ettiue n u lt i pl c m ett t t i tt.qs.
analvsi. assutnes that language statements have irnmediate meaning be-
irr,r", logi., or th'.rt they have the possibilitl' of being rnade meaningfirl
6y being siated in empirical terms, that
:?."
b"
".An.d
*a rcsted. According to analytic philoso-
phers, if lang'uage has no rnethod of verification,
it has no rneaning. Manv of the v'ords or state-
ments \\re use are emotional or subjective and
have tneaning specific to the person r'vho used
them
(Clutek, 2004). For example, the terms
or)nptatiott, ittcltuiott, otljustrnent, pt'rtssiona.lism,
,r1orro, grouth. and tolerance- irnpll' multiple
meanings and r.r.oulcl be defined in iiffererit $'avs bv different discipunes' Simi-
inA,u, pliforophical statements such :rs "Existence prececles
-
essence" or "Sell--
actualization is the highest goal fcrr mar.rkind" ilre not verifiable and hence have
limited meaning.
Axiologt
Analwic philosophers differ with the trac'litional and contemporary philosopl-rers in
theirconcern
*-ith dre foflnation of values and the encouragement
of particular-bel-rav-
io.r. .t rrl1.ti. philosop1rers are not i,terested i, v.hich val,es are true, u'-hich behaviors
u." good,'o.
-1rl.t
"i,
is most beautiful. T'hey are onlv concerned with questions such
^r,
do, these e olues or behoaiors he testecl empit'iull4, and do they haoe meatting to the reader?
Leading Pt'oPonents
Tivo leading ancl earlv spokespersons for the anall,tic philoloph"v lnovement \''ere
Bertrancl Rissell
(f S;i-iq;O) ancl Israel Scheffler
(b. 1921). Russell fbcused on the
connectioll betrveen language and reality and espoused that reality
-could
be analyzed
ancl reclucecl to
,,irredulibl!
elements or relations"
Qi-oddings,
1995). Scheffler, in
The Langtroge of Efurctticut(1960),
focused attention on hov'philosophical
analvsis can
fr.fp i"rif-r.?, io.rr,rlrt. their beliefs, argurnents, and assumptions about topics that
are particularlY important to the teaching and learning process'
Amorecontelnporaryanalyicphilornphe.,JonasSoltis(1978),alsounder-
scored the import:rnce of philosophical analvsis for teachers:
!\re must be clear about its intent
[ar1guage
of education] and meaning and not be
sr.avecl bv its imagery and poetn. The anll.vtic telnPeralnent and techniques should
prove very.,..firli, all prtrcticing edtLcators in getting thern to think through *'ith
.r." ,r-rd precision
just u,hat it is thet' are buying from theorists, and more irr-rpor-
tant\,,
jusi u.hat it is rhev're aler and hou.best it might be achieved. (p. 88)
E duc ati o n al Irup li c ati o n s
Purpose of scbooling. furalltic phiiosophers
.are
not concerned with state-
ments relatir.e to the p.,.pJr. of educatitn. Instead, thel' are concerned u''ith making
certain that the lrrlg.rrg. ,r.d bv educators in the school is not vague or ambiguous
and can be understood by thg student ar-rd the public'
Philosophir
q 8 n o q r 1 y , t q d o s o p q d
I t r r r c u e r n p a
s r q t L r i p a l u a s a " i d e ; a ; e s e u r n b y p u c a p o l s r r v -
- + o
s r \ \ e r ^ J q _ J _
' r i r l c +
p u r u o s B a l s e s a t n l o s c i e L l r n s p r r c s r l l n r l
I e s r e , \ r u n
o t ' , 4 . 1 e u r t u
' 1 s e d a q l o ] u r r u e J o t p a e u a l l t u o s L u t s q ' t ) t u 1 L a . r , a d ; o s r . r c o - 1
I E l I o u E J n p e
e q 1
' u o B u o
- n p a
J o
, ( q d o s o l r q d t s r l e r u u a r e c l e L I t u r p e p p a q r u a a - r u ( u r s r u r o g l - o a u ) u r s r l u e - r r u s r e q ]
p u r
( u l s r l r e r
' r u s r p a p r
1 o
s e r g d o s o l l q d o L I I
' t s r l e r u u e r a d
e L I t l o J
l e e p l
e q t e t n t r t s u o J
o i 3 o 1 p u r ' a t r l n u o D e - r i u u r e u a c
. r e p r o
' a r u e u e u r l e d ' s q l n - r t p r u u a r a d J o
[ r u - r a ] ' l l
r u s r l B r u u e J e d
' e u l l l
l P t [ ] l r s u o l l l U t l s u t
[ E r t o l ] 8 J l l P e
s l l
P u [ r , U ) I . r ( ) s P ) ] t r u l u l o P
g c r q ' n ' u c i s e a . r S : t r
a s u o r l x a a q l r c , t 8 o 1 o u L [ J O ] p u p a J L r e r 3 s u o s n J o - J e ; \ l s s e J . r o o r l l p r r u u o r ] E Z r J E I u J e s t s u r e 8 e
t s a t o ; d e s e l \
( l l a s s n J s r p
u o r l e J n i ) a
_ 1 o
, \ q d o s o l r q d r s r g a q t
l r u s r 1 t i u u a : e c {
' a l d u r e x e r o g
' e r u o
o g l
. + o
e l e r u r i J
l u u o r ] e J n p o
p r r c
I t r i l o s
E r u l r r : ' r e r d a l i l l s u r u 8 e t s a t o r d e s r p a d o l a . r
- a p s a r q d o s o l r q d a s a q r l o q c e g ' ( u r s r - r r l r n - r l s u o r u r e p o u n s o c l s B o l p a r - r a , + a r o s l e ) r u s r u - r e
- p o u r l s o d p u u ' r u s r u o r l l l l ; l s L r o J a - r p t c o s ' r u s r l r L l L r a s s a ' u i s r - r r s s a - r S o r d ' u r s r l u r u u a l a d
e r r ( t r o u e c n p e
J o
s e r r o e q ] s p o l p e r , r a - + e , r o s l e ) u o r t t r r l p a
. 1 o
s e r q d o s o l r t l d - r o ( t u r e q
I
s n o n 8 r q u i t - r o a t :
S u r q e u t q l l r t
P 3 u .
- e l e l s
t l l l ' ! \
P a u r ;
( s s i
- r o d r u l e J o [ I
P
q t r . , u q E n o ; q l r
p l n o g s
s a n b n r u
e q t o u p u t ; ' u r
- r e P u n
o s i B ' ( 8 -
I t g r
s c t d o l l n o q
u e c s r s i p u e
1 r ' : t t
u r t e l r j a q r s
' ( i
p a z i p u r
e q
P I n (
e q l u o
P e s n ) o - l
o J e . 4 & l u e u r S - \ O u
i r a p a a r
a q l o l 6 t r ,
q o n s s u o R s e l t b
i
s r o l B r l e q q r l q ' r
- ^ E t l a q J E I n r u l r l
u r s - r e q d o s o y q c i
a ^ E q e r u e q
P U
- J ] e s , ,
J o
!
a J i
- r u r g
' s e u r l d l r
a l d r r l n u r
, i 1 d r u
' u t s t l a u o t s s a ] ' o - t c
S U I J O ] o q l
' 3 1 c
p o s n o ! r \ u o s -
p u e a , t n o a l q n s
- e l B l s J o s P r o - \
' u o n r l g u a - r
- 1 c ' i
- o s o p q d
c n i p r
e q U E J I E I { I
s i
p g 8 u r u u a u
a P
- e q S u l u ? e r u
!
u o r l B r n p g
J o
s e r y d o s o [ r l d
' s e r q d o r ^ o 1 i q d ' L i r ; o c l t u a t u o c
p u e
I r u o r t r p u J t
a r { t
- + o
s u o B t r o r l d u r
l u u o r l p J n p e
e q l
J o
T L I B L u L U n s t s r u a s a r c l
I ' I
e l q r 1 -
' l l r e p n l s
a i { t o t
[ r 1 + " S L r r L r B e u r
p r r u J R c l r a J E l E r l t s u r r a l S u r s o o l l J o l e ^ r l u e l l r : e q s , ( e , u . 1 : p l l 1 o r { s r a r { J c a t a q t ' t l r e l - r o d l u r
l s o l [
' s e e p r
p u u e 8 e n 8 u c i . r r l n c n : u c l r r a l I ] a u 5 a p p u e l e . r r I - r a l u r s e u r l c l r c r ^ r p e s e q l - \ \ o L l
r i r p a s r e , \
I [ e ] ! \
3 q p l n o L I S . r o l l J e e l e q l ' ( L r o r 8 r l e r p u r ' , i S o l o r r o s ' . l . r o t s r g ' , G o l o q c i s d i t q c l
- o s o p q d ' ' a ' r ) s a u r l d r c s r p r e q t o u r p e t t u r 8 r r o e ^ B q l E r { t s E c p r - + o , u a u t , t t s e s s u d r u o c u e
u o r l B c n p e l ( )
P I a r J
e q t e s n e r e q ' p r . r 5
' c r 8 o 1
p u u e S u n 8 u e l J o a s n a q l
I e P o t u
o l s r ' s l a q d
- o s o l r q d r r l r i l r u c o ] S u r p l r c c e ' r a q c u a l e L [ ]
- + o
o i o r e L I
T .
t a q r l r a l a q r
{ o
a p {
' s
[ [
r l s u o r ] E J r u n u r n r o J
i r o o B
S u r c n c e ; d ; t 4 l r r a u r a J J o - + u r e - I p e e u
s t l r o p n t s ' . r a . L a , n o g
' s s e c o - i d
r u l l e u r e q t S u r d l c l d e p u e S u r p u u t s r r p r r n
; o
a l q e d e r a , r e
s e 8 r
l p J o
s l u o p n r l s t p q l a . \ e r l e q s l e q d o s o p q c i 3 q . { p u 1 , . ' r a t u t ) a 1 a q l { o a . m t a 5 1
' o r l q n d
e q l p u u ' s . r e a d
. i r e q l ' s 1 u e p n 1 s , r r J r l l o t S u r l e - . n r n u n l r o r a r u , i e q t t r t l , t r p u e r \ o l l
o l o ' \ r t u c ] ] E 3 q p l n o q s ^ s r a l l r B o t ' s r t c q l
' s s a l o l d
s j a q c l o s o r q d J r t i [ E u e ] E L [ a \
l e P o l u
o l s r e q r B e l r o ; s r s . r a q d o s o p q d c u t l e u e . r o J L r o r l J r l . r l s l r r J o p o q t a L u p a . i . r a l a . i d 0 q . 1 ,
' u o r l e r n p a
; a q 8 r q p u e , L r e p u o c c s q 8 n o q r p e J . r o J u r e r a q p F o r J S
p u e s a p u . r 8 , i r u t u a u r a l a o q t s E i l r e a s e p o r r l p o r l u r e c ] p [ r c i { s - s r s , { 1 u u e
- } o
s l o o ] e q l
] u q l l s o S 8 n s i e q 1 , ' u o n u c n r n u r l L r o r
J o
e u o l s ; e u J o J o q l s ^ r - l r e s n B J O q a 8 e n 8 u t l e q t 8 u r
- z i p t r e J o o n p r \ p u e a c u r u o d r u r a q t o ] p c r n p o r l u r a q p p o r l s s l r r o p l u s
[ r
] B r l l e , \ e r l e q
c i s P , t e q L ' o J n l t l J u e u r o u
S u r s n l u o c p u u s n o r u S r q r u c
J o
e s n a q t t s u r e 8 e p r e n 8 o t s e c u e
- l e g p u c s { r e q l g o r u a l s i s u s r e l J o t i o s n u o a q s ; c d o l a , r e p u r n l n l i r r l l r p u u s r a q l p e l r o - +
l o o t
E s e s r s l l e u e
l e r r q d o s o l r q d J o
a s n e q l e t p r o - \ p p . ( a t 1 1
' u r n p r r r - r n r
a r l l l u e u r e i d u r r
P u E
e q r - r J s e P c t ) t
P e s n
S u r a q s r a S e n 8 u r : 1 a q l , \ \ o L [
3 o
] u u z r u 8 o c a q r r i c r u c l o l e ^ e p L U n l
- n 3 r r . r n J u r p a , \ l o , r u r a l r ] o L I , \ \ s J o l r l J n p e I E L I I p : L l r J J L l o J : . r E
( : r 1 1 ' r r o B o r u l s r r r
J o u r n i
- n r r . u n J a c l r r r s e r d l o l r o p s . r a q c l o s o i r q d J n , ( l u \ -
' x t o t t r t t r l s l q
p u o t u n l m l L u r y
6 I
u o r l P ) n p f p u e l q d o s o ; r q ;
20 ChaPter
I
TABLE
I.I Educational
,lications of Traditional
and
faf
Role of the
Teocher
Leoding
Id,ealisrn
Realism
Pragruatisrn
Existentiaksm
Analytic
PbilnmPhY
Purpose
of
I
Promote
sPiritual
and intellectual
develoPment
.
Tiansmit
eternal
mrths and values
Curriculum
ond lnstruction
.
Liberal
arts
.
Great Books
.
Socratic
dialogue
o
Lecture
.
Discussion
.
Reflection
.
Liber:-ri arts
.
Basic skills
.
Drill and
Practice
.
Demonstration
.
Recitation
.
Rules of concluct
t
InteEratecl
.
Problem
solr-ing
.
Deductive
logic,
scientific
method
r
Group projects,
etperitrentation
'I{umanities
.
Student
centered
' .
Self-discoverv
.
Personal
truth
'
Socratic
methocl
'\ralues
education
'
r\nal)tsis
of
lanquage,
conl-
tnunicatirin
ski1ls
Noture
of
the Learner
.
Mind
'Soul
'SPirit
Stress eternal
ideas of past
.
Stress faith
and reason
.
Plato
.
Descartes
'Kant
'Hegel
.
Aristode
.
Bacon
.
Locke
.
Comenius
'
Rousseau
.
Pestilozzt
t
Augustine
'Aquinas
.
Teach moral and
'
Liberal arts
t
C)r<leriv '
Stress natural
intellectual
virtue
'
utj"t'i'i.lgit '
SensinEl
lat' scientific
'
sti"'-'iitit
t'teihod '
Rational
inqr-riru
being
Tbeistic
ReakYrn
'
Cultivate
the
(Neo-Tbomism)
intellect
' o
Develop
sPiritualiry
I
Retional
being r.vith
soul, n-rod-
eled after
God
T
[.f.,,'tr ,'.'
!,r,,,k: :: .,.
.:l',rr .i.;
iitti'l,i:r:. -'
.
Stress functron
and exPerience
.
Model democrary
.
Stress self-
discovery,
choice,
and resPonsibilitY
r
Stress clarifica-
tion, definition,
and meaning
of
language
o
fy6lyi11g, '
Research
and
acti.c
l,fing-
Pr'r!ett 'lircctor
'
N'Ioclel reflec-
tire thinking
.
Free, cep-
able, :ru-
thentic,
res-
ponsible
chooser
'
CaPable
of
undetstand-
ing tr.rd
appl,ving
lingtistic
analvsis
.
Stress ar.rthen-
ticiw, resPonsi-
biliq', self-
disco."'ery
and
choice
.
Stress clear
and rneaningful
ianguage
.
l,lodei and
use aPpfo-
priate ian-
guage and
r
Comte
.
Darwin
.
Peirce
.
James
o
Dewey
'Kierke-
gaard
.
Buber
.
Ilusserl
.
Heidegger
o
Sartre
.
Russell
.
Scheffler
.
Soltis
C
' l I o I l E l d u e ] u o J
p u t . i e - i t J d J o J u o l l E r J a J C I d E
u E s t l e l + e r o s l e ] R t i t t u e r u l t o f n u e S u t u : e a 1 t s s l q t o l p P t s l s r l u r u u a r a d
J t c r l s e
- r s a l J J a a L I I
' - r e P J o
P u E
' u o l s ^ I l a J d ' 1 s e l
u o e r u l l s a l . I ( T u l e l l E q l a u o a q o l
[ I ' \ {
a q ] 8 u I
- u r E J t J o J l u e u I U o J I u J I - L I o o J S s l l i J o t p u d o J d d e t s o L u . r q l r a P I S u o J - ( : q 1
' 1 p ' n
J q ] u l e r l
o ] r r P - r o u r l u c P n l s e q l e u I T d I r s I P o l u o l l E S l i q o e q l s e q l e q ) E 3 l o L I l l B t [ ] e , r e q a q - 4 . a q 1
' l l r , ! \
e L I ] o s l e ] n q ' t c e l l a l u r
e q l , { l u o l o u S u r u r e - r l q l r , r t p o u J a J u o l e l u s t s l l c l u u a J e d
L U A L U L L
O - t t O U , g ' , A t O O - r S S U I
J
' 8 u r a g
e u l e r d n q e L [ ] q ] I ' t '
l J B l r r o J I J J J T P o l l i l J e u J R e l e q l s S u I J q l c q l
P o q l a u l
S u r q c r : e l
J o
a d . t r , i u u a S u l n o c r t a
s l s r 1 c r u u e r e d
I E l I t s E I S e l o J ' d ' s r e t l . l , \ \ I E t I s S u [ J
e r [ ] q ] L t \ , , e n 8 r l 1 e t p , , u t e 8 r 8 u a o l L u o r l l
a J e d a r d o t s e r 8 e l e r t s S u r u o D s e n b p u r S u r l r u q l
I E T I ] I - I J - + o
s p o r { t a u t r 1 3 n e 1 a r t b ^ l r - t e P n l s
' e J u e r J S p u l l
( - u o l s r l l ' l q d o s o l q d ' e - r n 1 e , r a 1 r 1 . ] o
$ i J o , r \ r E e J B a r - p S L r r i p n l s o l l o r J d
' ( O - S ' d d )
. ( P a t t r l I e
s r e . \ \ s L l t r e q ] - + o s u o I S S n J s l P S u l l r n p r r o r i q p u r
S u r u o q s a n b i q S u r q o e a r r I l E r J o S ( g ) p u t r i p a s s a s s o d e l B s l p 4 s
I I e
L I r I I l , r \ q 8 n o l p s r r q e q
e q ] s u r r o . + t u r l l S u r l J r u o c ( 7 ) l u u e u r u 8 r s s r
1 o o < 1 t x e l
q S r i o . r q t r o s e r n l r e l , ( g S u r q c e e r
l n J r p r p ( 1 ) , , : u o n c n l s u l
J o
s p o l l ] r u r ; r g r r a d s a o r t { } p e l s a r 3 S n s ( 1 ' 3 6 1 ) r e l P Y
' s a l r i u
- u a l a r { } r a . r o e l d o e d p e 8 u e l p q r e A p t l 1 B I { } s u o p s a n b
P u R
s l u a l q o r d a q l S u n u o . r ; u o c
s e l l o , { . u r u o r l u l n p o } r q t p e u r t t r r r r l l r J e l p y
' S u t l e u r r l s e
p u e ' " 3 u t - r n s e e u r ' S u r t n d u r o o
' S u u r e s q o ' s u r u e l s r 1 ' 8 u r 1 u e d s ' S u E r r , n ' S u r p e a l
q i 3 n o - r q t s [ l r ] s
F n t r e [ l e l u r
S u r d o l e ' r . a p
l o j l x o l u o J a L I ] s B u r n l n J l l J n J a r { l
P e , , { \ e L \
J a I P Y J e u I E , I o t r ! s t s q r n s s l s t l t l u u a J e d
' r u n l n c r J J m e g t ; o u 8 l s a p e g t u r e c e l d a t e u d
- o - r d d e u E o A B I { t u a r u d o l e , t a p
I B J o t u P u E
S u r u r e r l
J e l r e r B r l c t E r I t
P u e l u o c
s l s l l B l u u e J e d
' u o r l r p p e
u 1
' I u n l n c r J J n r
l s q e r u u e - r a d e q l u I u o E I S o d p r l u a r e
, ( d n c c o e J u e r r s p u e ' ( q o o g t E e J C o l p t u l n c n r e d
u r ) e - r n l t r e l r l ' s u e
e u g e q ]
' s e 3 m 5 u e 1 ' & o r s l q
' ( l - u e t u o e 8 p u e e r q e 8 l e d l p r c e d s e ) s r r l e r u e t p e t u
( q d o s o p q d ; o
s n e ( q n s e A D I u S o r e q J
' p o l t e r c r
o J E s q ] r u l
I E u J o l a
p u ?
P a u I E r ]
s I ] J e l l o l u l r e l l B r u
p e f q n s ; o & e r s e u a q r q 8 n o - r q r e s n e r e q r e D e u r
)
s l u
a p t u s 0 l p a J t t . p 0 . t l l t t
l q . t ' , 1 i l t p l t t l f
l r i l
t y u t i t o l l t ' t u q . :
t l J ) . t . y t ) 0 8 t u ) . t \ ) i l t l t J ) s 0 0 q ) i l u l
l t l t t 0 . :
i 4 0 0 q
0 L
l u q : t ! ' . n q n a 1 o t l u r u u a n d a a t a n n o d . { 1
s u [ 1 a u t r , y u a u o r l t a { a [ , L n a t r n l
@ i 7 ' ; ' ' - ' '
s t l l { r g o
r a E J a r { r s .
I n } -
I l a s s n d
.
S J ] l E q .
- r a 8 S a p r a g .
I l a s s n H .
F :
. r e Q n S o
p : e r 6 - i ! -
- o l l J r y .
- -
i a , n a q .
s a r u e L .
e J J I a d .
u r . r r \ , l E ( I .
J L ) :
e l l u o S .
:
s e u r n b y .
a u n s r r 8 n y .
I z z o l e l s a d o
n e e S s n O { o
S n l u e l u o l o
e l J o l o
u o J e f e
e [ ] o l s r \ - .
1 a 8 a 1 1
.
t u r x .
s a l l B J s s ( l o
o l r l d o
-
s u w ; l o w -
3 w p o a 1
t c e l q n s J o - + u r e J u o ] e a z t s t q d r u a s l s t l l r t u u e J e d , i t l 1 p u e
I e J i l s l r l s e l r J e
e q l q l o g
' ( 9 / 6 I
' 1 , d
T
s r - r r o J f ) s l r o - \ \ r r l n r e s i l e ; n d
" r e , l o
a c u a p a r a " r d e ) i c ] s > l r o a J l l s l a r l ] ' e l q r s s o d
J e ' \ e r e t l \ \
' a l o r
l u e J I + I U E r s r
' \ t 1 d
P r u S o P u e t
- t s i l l [ . )
3 o
S u r q r u e l e q ] p u B , ( 3 o 1 o a q r ' r u s r q c a t r c a q t ' s a r n t d t r c s
i 1 o t 1 e L l I
' r u n l n r l l l l l J
J i { t
J o
l J a d s u t u c 1 r o d u t r u l r s r e u r r l l o p u E u s r - r L I J ' l s t l u r u u a - r e d
J t J I l s E I S a l J J e
e q } J o q
u o q ) n , 4 s a l p u a M i l l t t r l . L t n )
' P o c
q l l , \ \ r i o l u n s I u o I l E J n P e
1 o
p o 8 t s a q B r q o q l s l s r p l r u u a r e d
I B r n s t l r s e l r r e
a L I t r o d ' s q l n r l
I E u l e l e
a q t g o a S p c 1 , n o u 1
a p n o - r d o t p r , r B l r a l i o t r r r
i E u o r l B r
e l l l a l e r n l n . ) o ] s r S u t l o o l { r s
. } o
o s o d r n d e q } l B l l l
P u e t u o l
p l n o r r a u o ' l s r l E l u u a ] ; d
, i E [ J o
o s l r u o q J )
p c r l s r : r s a l c J a u R s I o u o J a L l ] e t L \ \
E u t l o o q t g
l o
a s o d , t l d
' s r o l R c n P e , r e 1 r - u o r - J u o d d n s p e e . r d s a p r , t \
P e , \ I a 3 e i
o s l B s E L [ ] I ' t l J J n q J
J I T o t [ ] u J
u t r u o 5 a q t - 1 o s 8 u r q c r a t a q l p u e r u s n u o q J - o o u L l t r r r r p o ] E I J o s ^ s E L l e a q s p L l u t s l l l l l u u a J e d
I t
u o n e ) n p f p u e l q d o s o l r q 6
72 ChaPter
I
Role of the Tbacher
Perennialists
r.ieu. the teaclrer
u.ho is \vell- educatet]
in the liberal
arts to be tlre
,.ru-
rhorifi,
figure
and i"r.t"'-tl"
thnt p'o"it1"t-;;;
;l'tt dissemination
of truth'
If the
teacher
is the dissemil;;;;';#.i.
.*a.rr.
ir'tL.
receptacle
for lear^ins'
The
rnet:rDhor
,,director
"tr-.ir"r
.rlisthenics"
i-r".-rr"",-,
,rr.,1 tt' d""ribe
the perennialist
*"\i.],til::ti,:,il;i#1f'r..",*,oes
the perennialist
teacher-rs
air "intellectual
coach"
r.ho can engage
snrdents
in Socratic
tiitlt-rgttt'
fhc pcreunixlist
teacher
lnllst
be a mocrer
of i,,,te1r.il,ri,.,J
.r,ioo.r
lr.*.;;:H:-,;.
rl-,. ,ust be capairle
of logical
anal\-sis,
be cornfbrta;il;;;h
ti"
"it"tifit
**t]na'
be $'e1l lersed in the classics'
ha'e a soocl
rnemor*
lici;;'ta;'t'tt
or tnt hiehest
fbr'rs of rnental
reus,ninq'
Assessntent
fl:':ffi
:'clize d, ob
j e ctive eraminati
on i s the f'ar
?i:i :1,,*::i::1 J::i,:,1:;:,Ti'J-
Ili*'.:T:ii:l:1il"'1'#';;;-;';;;i""q':i:,1:l:1:":'1,'*u'"*spromo'[esanex- n1ai1st. l1ecaustr
LrtL rlu\
ation is also used.
.tr"r-rg"
of icleas and insights'
the essav exalnln
i':#::
:;::,::;il'r
r r
-,
r r,,, a French
c athoiic
phil os. ph er, u'ho s er-v err a s ambas -
\ador t{) rhc llolr
Sce' srs pcrhrlps.rlle
lr1:1
'pokt'pt"''rr
ii'r the ecclcsirstic'll
per(r'r-
rrialist p,sitio,,.
fttt"ai"g
lo
f tt'i"in t ttr+ir'
inrelligencc
'tlone^i'
n.t suiltcicnt
to
c,,rnprelrcn.l
,t," unlr.l=.=li,il,
o
"
.il.ri,,nrhip
to i Sq.,irit'rul
Beinq is alsc' ncccs--
san. Rolrert
f f . H,,,.f.,ilr','i*niir;ri
,t,. U,...
c',rrrcellor
"[
the L rrircrsin
ol
Chicr{ro
t'liscus'e
J
'"
.. lt;;;;
;' -
il.t, ""::1 '1'okt'1't"t'n
lor the lrr ocrennialist
per-
srecrirc. B,rlr \lrrirai,
(lqJ.i)arrd Hurchi"rl'i;;;".rg-r.,1
thrt the i'leal ctlucatio,
is
one dcsigrred
ro.l.,.l'op',lf;;fir;;.n.1
tl,rt'.,rn
rr..,'-r-,..lune
h'I ctrrritulttrtt
thrtt
I"r..""rira.t
on the Great Books of \\Iestern
civihzation'
Asdiscusseclirrclr:rpteri0,thelgE0su,itnesseclaresr.rrgenceofpercnnialism,In
Tbe
pildeitt
proposil:
l,r''aa,u,rtirtar
ktrtnifesto'iifirt,
N{ortiiner
Adler, lrke Hutchins'
opposerl
the clifterentitttJ
t"";*ttt
!-:^::iiio'''"1'
t"tl-'nic"r1'
acadenic)
and con-
tendecl that a1l students
in . denrocratic
societv
sltot-'iti
hal'e access
to the same high-
qualitl, education'
'u'",'iir"iit"tr""t'
Adr;;'i.;;;cl
the Great'Books
tradition
ancl
riraintaineci
that bv
'tt,jvi''tg
ti-re great *"k"-,iirtt f'ut'
u'-tt can learn enduring'
rele-
vant lessons
about life'
NlanBloorrr,anotlrerprotninentpererrnialistfigureofthel9S0s,\vitsCon.
ccrtlcJ
rrith rrhrt lre pcrt'eiretl
as rhe crisis ,l lil,.,,l edtrcrtion.
o.trtictrl.trlr
irr tlre
rrnir crsiri. trr hi, book?
,c L,lusitts, o1'tt , A,,,.i,'irln,i,
it;,u,tt I
q87
). Bloom
c( )rrten(led
thrrr
"culntral
illiteracY"
;t th;;t;;
:f ;;t tit"ii'niiu''''
Like Elutchins
:rnd Acller' Bloom
ac1"'oc:rtecl
teaching
tnJ l"n"-r.i"g
about the. Great Books'
perennialist ..,;;j;i;
;Jbe
fburrcl
ir, .1.,-,r.,-,.r.v
and secondary
schools
rang-
inq from to--rr-r.orrr"
J.rt.l*ti.,..t
public ..f-r..ft
to .it" acadernies
(I{uenzel' 1997)'
The curriculum
ot st.
John,s
college
"t
Aurrrrpolrr,
r"Iarvl'and,
and Santa Fc, Neu
N'[exico,
rvhicl-r etnph"i-"'
t1-" in'pottoott"ui
ti'tayi"g
ti.'t Gt"tt Books tradition'
is
ln ercellenr.r.,npt.',)i,h.
p...n,-rialist
cuIricrrluilr
in lrighcI ctlucatiott'
-'
Danih
grade a
' ( 6 6 I
' e u q s ; r y
r e u r r a g r s e r l l ) p 1 r o , n p c r s d g d e l r r p a u r u r r
r l a q r S u r . r o 1 d x e , { q e c u a r c s a t u e u e d x e p u e
' s u o B r p u o c I B I J o s
p u e s d n o r 8
I E I J o s
e s J a A I P
u r o { s l e n p r l r p q
W p \
S u D c e r e l u r z ( q s a r p n r s
I B r J o s
a J u e l J e d x a ' s . r e t e e r p
P U B
s r u n e s n u r
S u n u e n b e 4 l q s r - r e e q t a c u a r : a d x e s l u e P n l s
' a l d u r r x e
J o d
' p e J e l u e c d l r u n u r u r o c o s l u
s r u m l m r J J n c a r I J
' u m J m r r J l t c
f s l l l s s e . r 5 o . l d
a q f u r p e l e r o d r o r u r e J B l e r p s p o q f e u l e q l
J o
a r u o s g o s a l d u r e x e a r u S u r u r u a l e a E u r a d o o c p u e
' E u r l e u r
u o I S I J e p
' S u r a . 1 o s
u r e l q o r d
' 8 u u 1 u r q l I E J R I J J
u I s o B I A R J E T U o o J S S E I J
' u o l
s r ' u o B r p u r l
s l o o
, L r a 5
t e g
B l u ? s
I
' ( 4 6 6 1
' 1 e z u e n 6 )
- 8 u u . r s l o o q c s i r t
u r o o l f l l e i p Y
P u
l e q l
P o p u e l u o f ,
u
e q r u r , { 1 - r r p c u r t
- u o J s B , t t ' s 0 8 6 I
- e 1 e r ' S u r r n P u a
u
P u e
u o E I p E D s . I c
- q 8 r q a r u e s a r P o
- u o c p u e ( c l , u r P
' s u r q c l n g
e 4 1 t l
u 1
' u r s r p r u u a r e d
] E g l
l u n l n r l J r n J
s I u o r } e c n P e
F e P
- ; e d t s r p r u u a . r e d
; o
& t s - r a , t ' r u 1 1
a q
- s e c a u
o s l e s r 3 u
o l ] u e I r I J J n s ] o u
- u a . r a d
] e r B S E I S e l
- s E q r u B s e p e J e l
- x e u e s e l o u l o : d
- u e r e d e r p
J o I o ,
' S u r u o s e a
' s c r s s e l c
e q ] u I
p c r 8 o 1 ; o e l q e d t
l s n u r J e g e B e l l s r
I B n ] 3 e ] l e l l r [ , ,
u E
t s r p r u u e r e d
e g l
e q a
' 8 u r u r t a 1
-
e q r
J I
' w n n
J o
- n ? e q l a q o l s
' a c u e r r e d x a
8 u r & r r e a
J o
s u t a r u e s B u o D u 5 n s e u r J g r t u e I J S
, t t a r l s l s r l r s s e r 8 o . r d
' t p n - r r
8 u r f i r . r e , r ; o s u u e r u E s e
p o [ r e u r J g R U o I J S e t l t
^ . e r , r
o q , u ' s ] s r p D u e s s e
P u ?
s l s q e r u u e . r a d a W e { 1 p m t e a a . t t o l l
' p o g l e u r c g p
- u e r c s e r l ] $ p o p e u r
p e ( o . r d e q J
W I r ! \
S u o p p e s n
l 5 e l u . r - l s p u o p c n - B s u l e I { J ' u o B c n r l s u l c r } E l r r e l
s t t J a q t u t p a s , a q p l n o r : i l : t : : r ; ' ; ' ; : ; : : ; : :
s t s { 1 a u y y u v u o t l a f t y r n o t r r o l J , &
- s . { s r u e u r e l d u l o r o t ( 9 e 8 e ) a p e . r 8 r u g s e , { . r e a s E
P e s n
e q u r r
r y o , u .
r e ( o r d l e t 1 r
P e P u e l
- u o c ( 9 6 9 7 ) p r e q : ) p v e z w 1
' P o p e u r p e f o r d
e r p
P u B 4 r o . t r
d n o : 8 e P n l r u l s P o p e u r
S u r q c e e l a l r u d o t d d e t s o r u e q t
' e 8 p a l m o u l
s e l n f n s u o c ] E r l i l r J o J
P r E P u E l s
a l n l o s q e
o u p u t t u e t u o J J e I l E I u f e { q n s p p p o u s I s J e t p e s n e s e q ' l s r t r r s s a r 8 o r d
e l p - r o d
' ^ E p o t
] u e p
- n l s e q l 0 1 ] u B A e l a J p u e p g 5 u r u e e t u s r r l J r r l , { . } B r p e l e c o ^ p t s t s r a r s s e r S o r d ' 1 s e d e g l 3 o
s l o o J J r J o l s r { p u
l e J f i } l n c
e t p e } e J o
P B
o I { \
( s } s l l u n u e s s e
P u B
s } s r p r u u e r a d e r l l o > l l l u I }
. t u a s e r d
e r 1 1 I q p a u a l o 8 s r t n q
( l s s d
e q r S u r r ( p n r s u t p e t s e J o t u l t o u s I ] s r , t r s s a r S o . r d
a q l
. p e J e t u e c
l f l u n b e p u u ' p e r e l u e c
e 5 u e g c p u e s s a c o r d
' p e r e l u a c
u o r l J e
' p a r e l u e c
q f . , r o r 8
, p e l a t u a c
. r a a d
, p a r a l u a 3
p l r q J s E r u n l n J r J J n J E q J n s p e q l J c s e p ( Z S O D J a u J a T
' u o t r E n t r s o t u o n e n t l s u r o . g , { - r e , t q c F I - & \
' p n p n t p u r
3 r [ r
J o
s ] s e J e l u r p u t s P e e u o l p
o ] e l r s u o d s e J s r u m l m r J J n c e r { J
' p e u r e S a q o t s a J u e l J e d x a ; o s e l J e s B s e p r a o r d 1 r
P e e l s
- u I
. s e s J n o c
e J o c p e q l J o s e r d g o t a s e r o
' a 8 p a l i t r o q J o
. { p o q r e p c p J c d B
( s r p r u 1
I B S J e A
- r u n 1 o e g e J l o u s o o p t n q s f c a ( q n s
I B J e A e s
s e l e J g e l q I u n l n c l J r n J E q J n S
' e ^ D J e B e J
P u e
' t u e , r a l e r ' p a r e l u e c
a c u a u a d x e S B
P e q I J c S e P
e q l s e q u r c r u n l m l J J n c l s r . t r s s e r S o r d e q a
a o ! 4 J n " , L l s u l p a u u t n l r u w n J
' s I D I S S u q e r u - u o r s l c e p
P U B
8 u r , r 1 o s - u a l q o t d d o l e . t e p p u e u o n e r e d o o c a 5 e r n o c u e
P F o I I S I o o q J S
e q l { l e l J o s J T I B J J
- o u e p r e 8 r q a q r u I p u e l c e . r c o u r a p s F p u l a l e r e d o ] s e q o l s l u e p n r s e - r r d a l d o a ' f t e l c
- o s J r l ? J c o t u a p e d l r u l n o n " r e d
' e ; t 1
I e P o u P 1 n o l { s I o o q c s
e g } l c r 1 r e ^ e r l e q s ] s w s s a J 8 o J d
& r y 1 o o c 1 c g l o a s o d t n 4
' s p u a e l q t r l s a p e e I I { J e t s e q t e q t s 8 u l r p o P o l
P u E
' > 1 . r o r u l e g J s e s s a c o - r d l n o
{ e e s
o 1 r a r l r e e l a q t s e 8 e . r n o c u e 1 1
' s u r u o s e e r e l q c n p u l J o p o p e r u J g q u e l c s a q f u l p a p u n o r 5
s r p u e u o D u J n p e g o d q d o s o p q d t s u t s s a r S o r d e q r u l
P e P P e q u e
s r u r s r l u u r 8 e r d
; o
d q d o s o l r q d
" q I
, , ' 8 u r o p
d q S u r u r e e 1 , , g o e l q e d e c $ o q ^ t u r s r u r S . r o S u r c u a r r a d x a u e
s l p g { c o r p t E q J u o q o u a W s e c t r q l u a r u q r d q d o s o p q d p u o p e c n P e u B s r u r s r . t r s s e r 8 o . r 4
u I s $ I s s e r 8 o r d
t l ,
u o l l e l n p f p u e { q d o s o l ; q 6
74 Chapter I
C las s"ro om Enzt iron'rnent
Theprogressivistteacherfostersademocraticclassroomenvironmentthatempha.
sizescitizenship.Teachersadvocateparentinvolvementanddemocraticdecision
;",-["g;t,h
r.gr.d .o ifr. ,a*i"istration
of the school. Srudents and parents are en-
couraged
to form tr,"i, o*,,
"ouncils
and orgarizatlons
to address educational
issues
and advance social change'
Rote of the Tbacber
The metaphor
of the teacher as facilitator or director of learning might best describe
tlle progressivist
teacher. Such a teacher is not considered
to be the authority
or dis-
seminator of knowledge
or truth, as is the perennialist
or essendalist
teacher'
Rather'
he or she is viewed *T
srrj"
*i. r*trioi"r
learning by helping the student sample
direct experi"rr"..
erog7""i'i""-tv
iT
-'"ry
"u*'J
it toti"lly oriented; thus the
reacher is a collaborJ;.;;;";
in making group decisions,
keeping in mind the ul-
timate consequences
for the sftdents'
Assesstnent
Because
progressivism
supports-
the group process' cooperative
learning' and demo-
cratic participation,
it
'pp-'"h
to
*"""*""t
diifers ho* th't of the more uadi-
tional appror"h"r.
f'o' Ii"*plt,
the progressivist
engages
in
formatizte
eztalaation'
which is process ori"rr-i.Jr-rra
ior..rr"d
*ith ongoing
feedback about the activity un-
derway rather than *;;;;"r;urement
of ootL*Jt.
Monitoring
what students
are
doing, appraising
,n"'Jf.iffr
A"V still.need
to develop, and resolving
unexpected
prob-
lems as they occur ,r"ffiJ
"',*rmples
of the type of evaluation
progressivists
use.
Lead.ing ProPonents
fudiscussedinchapterT,progressivismhaditsimpetusinthefirstdecadesofthe
20th century
"a
, o*"-r"ftJrr'*r'"y1in.ral
thinkers alieged that American
schools were
our of touch with ,h; ;;;;;ihr.
,r"r"
being madJ in the physical and social sci-
ences and t".hrrologi.
n'' Ji"o"ta
in that thulpt"t'
FrancisW'
Parker
(1817-1902)'
superintenderr,
or ,Jiootr-; O;;
Murr".i-,or"rrs,
and later head of the cook
County Normal S.h;;i ilChi.r-go,
ir'.on idered the father of progressive
education'
However,
as also dil;;i.hn"Dewey(1g
5g-1g52)
and his work at the laboratory
school at the t;niver;r.jr;?cilrgo
prorrid.d the clinical testing ground for progres-
sivism. From his poririJ, at the UYniversity
of Chicago and Teachers College, Colum-
bia University,
D.*";;;;;r
";.
of the chief Jpokespersons
for the progressive
education
movement.
Ella Flagg Young
(1845-1917),-a.colleagu"
{ P.-t*:y,t
at the University
of
Chicago and formeffiJrirr..rra*.
of.*r. Cnilrgo Public Schools, also served as an
important
,pot .rp",,oi
for progressivism
by emihasizing
the central role of experi-
menradon
ura a"*o.rr"y
ii .ri. .lrrrroor.,
urrd ,h" schoot. wlliam H. Kilpatrick
(1g71_1965) fur.h"r-;;;ced
progressive
education
by inuoducing
the experience-
i.rt"r"d *iri".rlo-,
including
th" use of the projec!--tth"{'--
'
'
progressivism'f;11-i;;; firf"rro. in the
yla.i following
world war II, but as Rav-
itch(2000)noted,i,*"t'reallydisapp""td'fudiscussedinchapterl0'inthelate
' l s l l u n u e s s e o q l o l e l q e l d e J s e o r e ] B t I l s e l 8 a l u J l s S u r q c t a r ; o - s e l d
- u r , x e J e r f l o o J E s p o r l J e r u ' L l o t e . r o q e f
y t u o r n r - o r p . *
p u e
' u o , c r u l s w P e , s l s s B - r e l n d r u o c
' , r o r ] r - } r l ,
p e s e q - , { c u e r e d u r o c ' s e o n c a t q o ' { q
8 u r u r e a 1 ' s u e 1 d
u o s s e l p u e r q e l l d s
p a l r u l e q
' J e r s e r u o ] p e l c e d x a e r e , ( e g r l e q ' &
' 4 6 ' o I D I
u " p o l t r e q r
' { e ' t l
B I { J n s u 1 p e c u a n b
l " J ' p . r r - p r r r d e r r i e q r
s l e l r e t e r u
I E u o D r n ' E S u r
r e ; e ' l d s l - s l l e l l u e s s e ' p r e u a S
u 1
-
' i J o i q r p . , o n " n P e
J I e r p J o e a r u o d d n s s e t S o l o u q c e l
I E u o E E c n P e
s n o r J E A p u n o J o S I B e ^ E g s l s l T B l t u s s g
' u o p c r u ] s u l r o ; u m l P e r u e l e u d o ' l d d e u B s E $ I o o q
^ r *
, r r r T r n . r r r r i ' t r t r p r u u i r a d
3 > l I T
' l o o r I J S l s l l e n u e s s e
e l p
J o
n e l 1 u r
I e u o n c , ' r l s
_ u l
e t p . r i , r q a l u e u r u r o . r d
e . { d n c c o o s l E u o - r } B J r u r u u u r o 3
I B J o
p u B u e t l r J ^ \ . e n - 8 o p l p
, U r r r t g p u e
, u o l s s n c s r p
' u o r t e l r c a r
' a r n l c a l
$ u r p n 1 c u l ' s e r f e l u r 1 s I B u o r , l r r , l s u l
F U o R I P
- E J l e J o r u a r p e p n l r u l t u n l n J u r n f , E q r n s r r o d d n s
o 1 u o B J r u l s u l
J o
s P o q l e u r e q l
' s e 8 r n 5 u e 1 u S r e r o ; ' p u n o q - a 8 e l o c
e q l
r o r
p u B
' e J u e r c s
. r a l n d u r o c p
j r e e ' l
1 1 e ' q u
' s a r p n l s I E I r o s J o
s ' r u e d
5 ' e c u e I J S ; o
s ' r e a ' (
5
; i p i l ; ; ' ; ; ; r ; r i |
' q i , 1 s " E
1 ' o
' i " r . , ' " p n i c " r
r , r l r
e r o r u o u r u o r e u o s r s e s d
- o r e r o ( u ; e s e r e l d , " d - r . r ; ; J t f r
' 1 ' , \ t 1 / - r e p u o c e s
" F
l Y
' s e p u r 8 L r e t u e u r a l e r e d d n
" . f , " ,
s e 8 e n 8 u e 1 u 8 l a r o ; p u e ^ ' a c u e r c s ^ l u J n l B u
d q d e ' r 8 o e B ' & o r s l q
p u e
' s e p e ' r 8
f : e r u
- r r a t q l u I s c R 8 l u e q l s r u - P u B ' S u r l r r ' t ' t ' ' S u r p u e r
S u r p n l c u r
, , ' s l B n u e s s e "
e t p u I u o l l J n ' r l s
- u I S e P n I c u l B I p u o I ] E J n P s c I S E q r s e p l , l o . r d I o o I { J S } S I I B I ] u a S S o e r p J o u m I m I J J n c e I { J
u o r l x t l 4 s a l p a u a ' t ' n l % ) l J J n 3
' l t e r c o s c n
- B J J o I u e p B u r a l e d r c D r r d d l l r y s s e c c n s o } l . r e s s e c a u e S p a l z r t o t q p u E s l l q s e q } I p l , ^ ' \ l u e P
- n t s e q r e p r a o r d o i 1 , p p o q i i 1
' r s u d e q l
J o
s u o n l p r r l
P U E
e r n l l n c e q l $ u e P u s
l { r e a l
p u , , , e l l e t . , ,
e W u l B r l b r , r , S t " I o o g o s
J o
s a s o d r n d l r u r u d e q ) l s l l , r l u e s s e
e r p J o C
S u t 4 o o q c a t o
a s o d " m 4
' r s e d a q r
3 o
s u o n l P
- e r l p u u e r n t l m e W u r a p S u l q c e s r t r q
" J I
r o J s l u e P n l s e l e d e ' r d p u e r c e l l e l u t
e q l I n e r l
o r ' e ' s o d r n d
r o f e u r ' s r r
1 o i q S r s
i t o l
l o o q r t
e q ] l p q l
P e P u a l u o r
' { e g l
t a a o a ; o W
' P e r a s
a l E I e l { l q ' | O I i
- . ^ . e u s B l n q
' I I i l
- a c u e u e d x a
a l P
l c r r r e d l r Y
' g
r :
- t r a d x e
J o
a l o ' l I
u B s B p s l J a s
o s i
; o
i t i s : e , r r u - - 1 :
e , r r s s e r S o . r d
a p
- r u n l o J ' a E a 1 1 o '
- s a - r 8 o . r d - I o - l
L r u
. f t o t t - r o q e 1 a r P :
' u o 0 e J n P e a - \ I S \
I o o S
a l { l
, + o P
' ( z 0 6 I - l t 8 I )
' '
- I J S
I ? I J o s P u r
e r e , , \ \ s l o o q r s u t
e q l
J o
s e P E r a P
. E S N
S } S I , \ I S S :
- q o - r d p e r e o d r - -
e J E S l u e P r u s l t r r
- u n , 0 l t D o t
a q l
' u o u a n l a o a
a . : i :
- I P 8 J ] e J o l u a u
- o u e P
P u ?
' ; u
- I n e q ]
P u l r u
u
a q r s n q r : p a l r
a l d u r e s t u e P n l :
' r e q l B u ' r e q J t r ;
- s r p r o r h r . r o P
a q r J r s e P l s a q I
s a n s s l
I E U O I l E J
- u e e J E S l U a l E (
u o I S I J e p f , I l t l l
- e q d u r a t r q r
I
. ! p e q a r e - , n s t u e P r u s a l q e e J o r u e q l
P U E P e r a a o l
u i a q p e g s P r E P u E l s
I s u o r l s c n p e
' l r r p n b e
a p r l
- o r d o t t d u r e r e
u e u I l e p p u e ' q y 4
J o I I r y P U E
u , & o P
P e J e l E ^ t
s B / r u r n l n s l J J n J a q l l E t p p e 8 r e g c
$ s l l e B u e s s g
' s l o o I { J S e l p q s P J B P u B l s
I E J o r u
p u u - r o 8 r " l
1 r u j r 1 1 . r . r t J o
e u I I J e p p a a ' r a c : e d , a t p
] s u r e 8 B l s e l o . r d
e s e u u 8 e q u s l l u u u a s s e ' g
r a l c l u q c
i s n o l o a t " {
t a p t s u o t , { 1 q u q o , t d l s l l a u L t ' a s s a
L r u
p y t o m f a 1 t o l r u n l t n t - L t n l a q l u t s l t a f q n s w q t 4
s s ( 1 v u y y u o u o r l r r l { a 1 n o t r t o g
r y f i
u r p e q l r r s e p
s V
' u o n e r n P e
3 o
' { q d o s o p q d
r s r
- l B n u e s s o
e r l ) u I
P e P P e q u e
e r e I u s I I B e r p u e r u s r l t e P l
S o . s e r g d o s o l 5 l d
e r { J l l u a q a e g
d l q e q o r d p p o ^ r , ' l t t s q u q u a s s a
s e q I J J S e P l s o q l t r p
e ' t n c e ( p u u E e s o o l { r o } e J e ^ ' e u o J I
I u s r l B t } u e s s g
' t a r d e g c s l p u l r e l e l
P a s s n c s l P
r u s r u o n c r u ] s u o c e J
I E I r o s J o
L r o a q r p c r S o 8
- t p a d a q r . p r ^ p a r i r o s s e u e o q o s l e s e g l I
' r e z l s e r o P o e - I { I s E q r n s s l r n p l ^ l P u T
J o l r o ' &
e r I J u r u e a s e q u E J p u 8
I E
r a e J 3
J o
] E q , & e I U o s
p a c u e r r e d x e
u r s r , t r s s e - r 8 o r d L r n r u a c r p g T
S Z
u o l l e c n P f
P u e
l q d o s o l ; q 6
25 Chapter I
Classroom Enaironment
Esssentialists
not only advocate intellecmal
discipline, but thev also maintain that
*orrr air.ipline and character training desen e ,r, irrpo.tnrt place in the curriculurn'
Accorclingly,
air. .rr"rrairlist classrooi is clefinecl by clear expectations
tbr behar-ior
and respect for others.
Role of the Tbacber
The essentialist educator is vieu.ed as either a iink to the so-called "literary intellec-
tual inheritance,,
(idealism) or a clernonstrator
of the u'orld model (realism). To be an
essentialist teacher is to be$,e11 versecl in the iiberal arts, hurnanities' and sciences; to
u. , ..rp"o.d mernber of the intellecrual communit.v;
to be technicalll', skilled in all
fbrms of communication;
and to be equipped
u'ith superior pedagogical
skills to en-
sure competent
instruction. one of th. ,r-st important roles of the teacher is to set
the character ofthe environrrent
in which learning takes piace (Butler, 1966)'
Assessment
of all the philosophies of educadon, essentialism
is perhaps most comfortable with
;;;,i;g. I. fr.t, thl entrre essentialist curriculum
reflects the influence of the testing
movement. IQ tests, sandardized
achievement
tesm, diagnostic tests, and performance-
based compe,.rr.y a"*., as u,ell as the curre.nt "high-stakes
testing" mandated by the
No Child Left BehinJr., tzoorl
discussecl in ch-apter 11 are examples of the u'ide-
,p..J ,pplcation of *.rr.rr"r,r.rrt
techniques.
competencv,
accountability,
mastery
iJr*i"g, and performance-based
instruction
have gainecl increasing popuiariw as a
result #the essentiaiists'
influence on educational practice.
Leading ProPonents
Nthough essenrialism can be traced to Piato ancl Aristotle, its greatest popuiariry has
com. ii the 20th and 21st centuries. As discussed in chapter 8, the major proponents
of essentialisrn
in the micldle decades of the 20th century u'ere \\'!lliarn C' Baglev
(|874_t9+6),ArthurE.Bestor(1908-1994),andAdnriralF{vmanG.Rickover
(1900-1986).
Arnajorrevivalofessentialismoccurredinthelg70su.iththeback.to-basics
ntuaementand
u-as echoed in the recommendations
of the education reform reports of
the 1980s discussed in chapter 10. For example, A l'lation at Risk (National Commis-
sion on Excellence ln Bd.rcacor-r, 1983), the premier of these r-eports, recommended
a
core of new basics: English,
-rih.rorri.r,
r.i.rr.", social studies, and computer sci-
ences, and for the .oll"g.-too,'d,
a foreign language' Many of the other reports not
or(
i.opor.d
.i*ilr. .[.es, but also calJd fo. i-p.o".ment.in
their content and in-
creased rigor in their standards.
The success of the .rr.rrtialist position is evidenced
by the steps taken in a number of states to strengthe"
gtl*"]?" requirements
and
.irfor.. high-stakes ,."i"g to meet the fecleral
-a-rt,l.tet
of the No Child Left Behind
ict
fzoor)]
nsse'tialism iithe dominant educational philosophf in our scho.ls todav'
:
Ho;::.:o:,.
propo:,r lj :
irtt-t'i c rt,';,
,
S u n u o c e q i ] r u n u n t r o c a q t u r e r u D p u e d s s l u a P n l s ' , { ] e t c o s
- 1 o
s t u e l q o r d J I { l l n o q e
S u r . a . p n r s p u r S u r p e e ; i l a r a u 3 o p e a l s u l ' ( g g g 7 ' S . r e q u l e r S
{
' . f i a u e 1 5 ' a o l e q o u r Y )
s s e u
- I u e s n r r a q t e l u r r e r d d c s t u e p n t s s d 1 e t 1 r r : q r . t E , t \ E u I
l o o r l r s
] R p a u r B e l s l i r { s e z l l t n ] x a l
- u o c e s e q l s E L I J I 1 s s e B r , \ D J y
' u o n e 1 s i 8 a 1 l e r u n s u o J S u r t o u o ; d : o ' l t t r o l r p a
u t S u t l u ' t
' s l c a f o r d
c l n - u t a 1 c c q q r i d ' d 1 e q p o e u o l l . t r s ] u a P n t s r e 5 u n o i S u r q o u e l s E L l r n s ' l o o q c s
e q l o p r s ] r o s e I l I A I l c l r u o s n J o 1 p r r e 8 u r , r 1 o s u r e l q o ; d e P n l J U I s a r 5 a l c , r l s S u r q c r : e a
' ( O t
t
' d
' ; 9 6 7 ' 1 a r n 9 )
, , s 1 o o q c s
e q t s l o r l u o o t e g l s s t l r r c i d n o ; 8 ] u c u l r u o P a r i ]
J o
s e n l B l p u t s u I I E I r e 8 p a l , n o u l
a q l s l u a s o " r d a J , , r l J r q . \ \
. ( L I I n l n l t r J n J
u e p P l L L , J t l l o ] L I a ^ I S s I u o D u a l l t ' t u n l n J t t L n c
] B r r r J J o
r o
I e L L r r o I
a q l o l u o B I P p t s u I ' u I S I T E u o I l u u
P U B , r : r 1 o d
u 8 r e l c 4 J o s e n s s l a q l
P u B
' s o J J n o s e J
l t J n l l l u
J n o e . \ J e s u o ) o l
P e e u
e g r ' a 1 1 1
g o , i r r p n b a q ] S u l l o l d r u l L I I s J I L [ ] e
l t J l [ r e r u o t q
- i o
a r r l d e q l s E r { J n s s r u a i q o . r c l
l R l e I J o S ^
r e P l s u o r
s ^ ] u e p n l s ' s l r e l q n s
e ] E l E d e s u o e l B l l u e J u o J u t l q l
r a q l u d
' ( g g g ;
' u t e l c L I J S s E t r [ 5
a - ] E I $ r u s r l u u o n
- E r r p r r B ' e c u r ' l " t t l u n x e s ' r e p u e 8 ' s s c p
o l p a r l c l
- d r : s e ; a , r o d u o s a s n J o - ] p u r s d t q s u o t l u l a ; r e , l t o c l
l e n b a u i r 1 1 r
s a 8 u e l e r - 1 o r r ' - r a q l e 6
' u o l s l l l J x e
J o
s c u r l o d a q l j o L u J o J l u u s e c u n o u a p L L r n l n l I - I r n J
i r u i l . l f i J t - L t l l J
) q t r u u . \ t t o r n p a s a q i l t a p t r y r r t t o l q a s o d o . d
o 1 p t t o t f s a - t , ] s t u l r p n . t l - t t r l J a l
/ t ) t J l s
o p l f i l n i t l H
. . - l
s t s { 1 a t t y y u u u o t l : a 1 f i v t n o ( t o g , w " ,
d r p o r s l o o q c s r n
p u l q a f l
T e ' I P I I t i -
p u e s l u e r u e - r t n b a :
p a J u e p h e s I u o l l
- r I I p U E l u a l u o J
l
] o u s l J o d e J l a r l l o
- r o s r e l n d r u o c p r
B p e p u o u u l o J a l
'
- s r r u u r o S
I B U o I l c
; o
s l r o d a ; u l r o - + a l
s r $ q q - 1 r { i l q a q }
r e ^ o l r l u
' ) u r :
i a 1 8 e g
' J
t l l e l l l l -
s l u e u o d o : d ; o l l u
s e q , b r r e l n d o d t s ,
u s e , t r r r t l n d o d i
. f u a t s e u ' t r l r 1 r q u r ' ,
- 3 p L { \ e q l
J o
, s a T C
a q r . , ( q p e t e p u t r L
- e c u e u t r o l t e d
p u
S u r l s e t e q t
J o
a r
q l l - { \ e l q B l r o - + l u L ,
' ( 9 9 0 t ' :
l e s o l s l J e I l J e J l
- u e o 1 s l i q s
l t r r l -
I I E
u I
P a l r { s
\ l l r
o ] : s o f , u a l J s
P U E
u E o q o I ' ( r u s t l t r
- J a l l a t u l l l r t : a l r i
J O I A E L I a q J o - J s u i
' u r n l n J I . I J n J a r { l
l e q l u i B l u I E r u
( - l
E q r n s
' s l l q s
S u r { u l t l l
I 8 f , I } I r r ; o
l u a r u d o l a ^ 3 P e q l p u r , [ . t a t , a v 1
l t : n t l t - L r
s e z t s e q c l u r a p u e
s l B e p r J r ] E J J o r u e p s t 3 e l ] e l
l o o r l J s
t s r u o n J n r l s u o J o J
I t l I J o s
s r l l
J o
u m l n J I J J n J e t [ ]
' r b o l f ,
- o s u J e p o l x u r u o B n t r l s L r r
i p l u a u r E p r r n ]
a l l l s r
l o o l { r s
e L I ] l u r p u o r l r s o d o J d e q r p u e i c e . r
- J o r u e p ; o a c u u l . r o d u r r e q l u r a ^ a r l e q s ] s r L r o B J n J l s u o ) e J
I t I J o s J o
, t i J o [ E u I e q ] e s n e J a g
L t o 4 x t x . t l s t t l p w o l a a l r l J t - u n )
' s l u a 8 r
e s u e q c e u o 3 a q o t s l u e P n l s a . r e d e r c l o t s r S u r 1 o o t l ; r s - ] o
o s o d J n d e L I l ' l u E u o d t u i l s o l y
, , ' e q
l g 8 t u t l t t l , \ \ , , ] n o q e r u E e l P o l J o r l l e J l n g
, , ( s I
l e t l , t \ , ,
r o J e l l l e s o t t o u c r l q r r d e q t
P u E
s l u o p n t s L l f , E e ] o l s r e s o d ; n d q l o o t l r s a q ]
' u o q l p P t r
q
' p e p e e u
s E u l J o l a l p u e e 8 u e t l c p u e r u u r o J o . r p L r E s r l o l l l u D s u r
l t ] u o n l l J n P e P U E I e r n l
- l n J
I I B
e u r r u t x e , { 1 1 e c r r r . r o o 1 s r S u r i o o q c s
1 o
e s o d , r n d a r { l
' s } s l l l o l t J l l J l s u o J e r
[ e l ] o s
J o J
S u q o o q c g
t o
a s o d . r n d
' s s c 1 c
8 u r 1 , r o . t r . a q t . ( c 1 s s u l c 8 u r 1 n r e q l l s u r r : 8 e u o l t n l o , \ a t
I ? I r o s
l e t o l
E p e p u o r u u o J e J s 8 u n r . r , r r J o ] B I s . x J E l , V
' l J o r \ \
J l e q l u t a s o c l ; n d r o S u n r e a r u a p t t l
p l r l l o 1 o L [ ^ \ e r r o J > l r o . \ \ p e ] e u J I T E u e o l p e l a \ c ; E J o s p u e t l o q t u r . i 1 - r a d o r d g o
I o r l u o c
3 I { l
p u e u o n u e d u r o r u o s t s u q d u r e s t l p L I p r u s i l c l r d e c ' ( t S g t - g t 8 1 ) x . r e 1 g
l r t l l
o l S u l p ; o o
- c y
' , ( q d o s o p q c l
t s u r e l q u I s E u I u L I I S e q 5 - ] I p E L I t t t s f i r l r l r u . t l s t t n a . t
l t l t r l s
u r a P o I , V
' ( O Z O
t ) , { c l d o s o y
r 1 4 t l t u u p n r l s u l r ) A
' 1 o o q s r q
- + o
o F D e q l u t u l , s t u 0 u J n - t t s u , 0 r a - t r u J e t e L [ ] p e r s e S 8 n s . i e , n e 6 1 u r l o l
' u o r t J n J l s
- u o J e l s r q l u r p B e l e L [ ] e , \ [ E ] t s n u r u o r l u J n p e l t q t o s [ u ] n q ' u ( ) I l J l l . t l s L I o J o J . r o a . S u u q c ; o
p e e u L r r s r , ' h e r J o s 1 e t { t - i 1 r , l o u J . \ ) t l r q , i a q r l e q f u I s o l l e u o B l l l o ^ e J L U o { ; a g r p s l u e 8 e
e s u e q c J o s t s r u o r l J n J t s r r o J e r
i e r J o s
e s a q J
' s u o r l r l t r t s l r r
l e u o n t ] n p e
s t r S u r p n l o u r
' , g a r J o s u r J o J e J r o ' a B u B L I J ' e , r o . t c l u t t
o l p e ; r d s t a ^ r L I s l c n P r l u p u r - i i o t s r q r n o q 8 n o r q l
r u s r u o D J r u ] s u o J e u
l e r J o s
g , u o l l e l n p S p u e l q d o s o l ; q 6
28 Chapter I
acquailted r,r,ith antl immci:sed in the problems atld their possible solutions' Thev an-
"1rr.,
..r.rrch, rncl link the underlr'ing issues to institutions and structures in the
contrnunit\,- and larger societv. FinallV, dlet't:rke sonlc rlctiorl or resp'rnsibility in plan-
ning for chang'e.
C la ssro ont Enoiro'nment
'I'he
classroom elvir6nrrelt of the social recollstructionist is a clirnate of iilquirl in
r,r-ir;ch teachers :rncl stuclents question the assun-rptions of the status quo and exat.nine
societ..rl issues and ftiture trends. In such a cl:rssroott] there is less e[rphasis on nlan-
agement rrncl control, ancl more fbcus on communitr- building
(Kincheloe et ai.,
:6OO;. 1", atrlosphcre that promotes analysis, criticism, ancl actior-r research best de-
scribes this Wpe
of classro.rnr environurent. Conf-lict resttlution and diff'erences in
\\,oridviews are enco ur:1
gecl an d reinfbrceci.
Role of the Tbacher
The rnetaphors "shaper tlf a neu- socictl'," "trallsforln:rtional
1eader," and "change
a!fent,, apil,v descrilte tl-re social reconstructi{)nist teacher. Social lcconstructionist
tiacl'rers i.,ri'iot .1ro be r,iliing to ensag'e in ongrling reneu'al of their personal and pro-
f-essional iives.
'I'het'
rnust be willing to critique
...,,,,,,,,ffi,
For hur ReJle c tiott an d An al1 s i s
Hou run{bmble are tou
it:ith antbigtrity?
Constant chnnge?
and evaluate the conditions under which they
work and extend their educative role outside the
domains of the classroom and school. They must
have a high tolerance for ambiguity, be comfort-
able withionstant change, and be willing to think
about their own thinking and the cultural and
ucational reforme! such a teacher^detests the status quo and views the school as a
particllar culflrre in evolution. i\Ioreover, he ol she vicr,r's tire larger societ\- as an ex-
pe.i',,e,,t th:rt rr{11 alr'l,a\.s be i'rrrf]njslred arld in flux. The socill reconstructionist
i.a.l-,.. nusr be rrilling to engage in and fonn aliiances u.ith ccilltirunit\- groups.
neighborhoorl organiz.aiions, sociril rno\rements, tncl p'.rrents to critique ar.rd question
the practice of school deinocracl'and school policl'.
Assessntettt
'1-he
tvpe of evalu:rtion that is appropriate for both students and terchers in a social
reconitructionist school is otrthentic ilsessntent.'I-his includes fbnnative evaluation,
which entails a cooperatir.e eflbrt befti een snrdeut lncl teacher, stucler-rt and stuclent,
teacher ar]d adrninistriltor or supcn,isor, ancl ccimtnuttity and tcacher. Inforlnation is
shared regularly cluring periodiC fonnal and inforrnal conf'erences, and the student or
teacher bling walrat.,l L ,r, :ictive participant in thc process. Such an el'aluation re-
cluires participants ro har,.e the abiliw and r,i,illinEiness to think in criticai ternls and to
.*por"'.rr,i..iyir.,g ,.rorl,.pticins and practices. Standardizecl testing, including teacher
.o-n,p.t"r.,.r, testing, is onlr, usecl if tnandatetl 1tv stare or f'ederirl laui
. p e s e r q u n
p u r e ^ r t l a l q o s r ( p o q ] e n r r r + r t u o r r s a r l l r t r l n J l l r e d u t ) a c u a t c s ] t r q ] s r u l E i r
l e c r S o l o u r a t s i d a
S u r i r g a r , ' r c 1
, , u r s r 1 e e - r
J I J I l u e r J S , , u o t : I s a n b o s l l s l s l u J a P o [ I ] s o d
'
' ( g A O f ) , U r o g p ; u q c r y p u u ' ( - C g 6 r 1 ) p . I r r o , i 1 s l o r u t r r d - L I E e f ' ( . g i O D
B P I r r a ( I s a n b c e f
s E r l J n s s t s r u r a p o u l l s o c l y o 8 u n u , n a q l l n o q S n o . i l i l l l l e i s r a . i d s t e u r l l l
q F I - L ' ( 8 r , O I
, u e u i a l e H r )
u o B t l l J t s u o J B
J l e s t r
s r , r - r o t s r q t R L [ ] p u e e c u a r - r a d x a
l e u o s r e d
r - u o ' t 3 S r i r u t e u t
u l \ o J I a W ] J l l J ] S u o J
S { E n p i I I } ] u I ] E q ] e ^ e l l 3 q S ] s I u J a P o L l I ] S ( ) d
. ] o P I o L I e q
e q ]
J o
e ' \ a
e L I t 1 : 1 1 t n q
, t s r d
t u e r c u e J n o u r p u n o J l o u s r l t
i e , r t l c e l c l n s s t , u r l e e r r e q l l s a 6 5 n s
i a q . 1
. s e n l E ^ p u B S L I ] n J } I E S l e I I u n l t u J s ] e o u e J E e J e L I ] ] B t I } e i \ e t l e q s ] S l u J e P o r r q s o d
' ( 1 . , 9 1 , 1 7
! a r n 3 )
( P e E u e q r
p u r
, p e r e p u e 8 s u e r l
a q l ' s u r r q s a i ' s r t u 8 ' u e u r o . n ' s o r u e d s r l l ' s t t u l t l e t t r y
u t : l r - q 1 . i ' . r o o d
e q f ) s d n o - r 8
l e u r 8 r e u r
l o p e s r q r l i t l - + u a s r p p u e ( s s r 1 c - a 1 p p [ u ' e ] r q , 1 1 ' e 1 e u i )
a . t n ] 1 n c
] u g u l u l o p
e q t u e e , { \ l a q , U r n b e s r p ; o s a l d u r u x e r a l o r u l 1 i a q l
' s t t ^ L 1 e u e
J I a L I } L r t o r g
) ' r ' e : 2 0 d
a U s a q o q r T q ' t x t t y s u I
) s 4 7 \ q ^ c a l
a [ F s a l L r c 0 4 L l
P r - t E
) t 4 0 0 q $ u
a q l s a s ) 1 q ) 0 i : / / 1 1
i s r z T o a l
a q l s d - f i q 0 q 1 7 4
) t u , l 4 t t r t . L u r
a q l s a s l l q ) 0 r L 7 1
) l l l q r s
a q l s l L - L l l t u 0 t 7 1 1 ' s r , s u o r l s e n b t l c n s
a i r r - r i a q j . s u o q n l n s u r a s o q ]
J o
e r n t e u
l e r n r l o d
a l l l ] n o q p
s u o r t e z t l B r a u a 8 p u c s t t o t l
- d r g n s s e e { r l l r s l s r J o o L l l
I E J E T J J
' s u o E n t r l s u r
l E L I o I l E J n p a
p t r e ' l t r r o s ^ ' c t r l r o u o c a
' 1 t o r l r 1
- c r d S u r n b r i u c p u t S u r z [ 1 u u e
1 o
s s e c o ; d e s t , i t o a q l
l P J r ] I r ' )
' , t ' - t u t q l
l u - ) t l l - t : ; o
a n b t u q c e ]
e q t s e s n p u t s u r s r u o r l r r u t s u o r e r
l r r J o s
p u t ' i u s r l t u u e ] s t x a ' u r s t l e t u 8 t ' : . t d
- 1 o
s e i q d o s _ o p q d
e L l t
J o
u o r l e u r q L u o J u s l u e s o J d a l l 1
' s s e c o . r d
i l u u
' t L r a u l e . l o u r ' , G o 1 o e p r
t q d o " - o p q d - . - r e ' r
- o d n r a l u o c e s E p e u r + e p r r J a q s u q ' r u , s t r : t : r r ! . t J s u o : r t t . n p o r t 4 s o r l
P c l l t r J
o s l r l t / / s t t t ' t ) f o t | 1 l ! 0 d
r u s l t l l a P o t u l s o d
' l x a u
P e s s n J
- s r p s l u e r u a , t o r u u J e p o r u l s o d p u u : i r o e q r
[ E ] I ] I I J
J q t u I
P e l J a L ] a J
a - I R L u s l l l o l l J n f , l s
- u o J e J
I E r J o s J o
s e l c l i c r - r r . r d a u u r u ' u o r l r p p r
L r I
' u I s I L I o I t J r l J l s L I o J e J
I e t J o s
L [ ] r ' r p e u S q e
s e n l ^ p r r e s 3 a l l o q e l l l S l l l l u o r u a l d r u l p u r : S u l c t l o e . r c l t l l u e l r n c a l t :
- i u t r u t
' s l s l u o l l
- J n J l s u o r a r
l B l r o s
o q C ) 1 s e t { a s r u o l i l J a P t s u o J s - I O l u J n P e u J e p o u L u a 1 q 8 n o q r S -
' s e , \ r l u r \ o l l a r l l l o J L I o t l l P e r y ] p u c ' a l r t l r u r ' u t l 1 c l
u i : o p a S u l u u ' r
- p e s r p d l p o r r r l o d p u e l t l l e r t u r o u c l c e i i l l e r c o s a l e o I { , \ \ s } u a p n l s ' s l o l u e u r
P u u
s l o a d q l l n
r " r r . r , r r d * , ; r e q t S u r u r u e x e
P L I E
. S t t t 8 u u q c r a i q
' a . r r e , r g
o l S u l P . I o J J Y
' 8 u l u l e a 1 u ' n ' t t
r r e q ] u r p e r l o A u r o q p l n o r l s t n q p a l i o r l u o t r o p e l p l n d r u B u r e q t o u p l r l o q s s r u e P i l l s l B q l
p r , r r n r . i , r . . r ' e r l e r C
' ' k r c i
p a s s a . d d T l a q t . { o l \ o ; t ' p r d r s l q u I
' s r e u r u a l
e q }
J o
s e r u e u o d
- " "
" 1 1 1 i e p . L r a , r e
, q r . . r o r ; u r n e r p a q L r o r t e J n p o l e l l t p e s o d o r d ' e c r - r e u r y
u r l e ' I u I r q 5 n e l
p , r e
; p r r r c , l p a
s c r r \
. u J o q
s E . . ! \ o q , , , t ' a : r e ; , T
' r r o R n l o ^ o J
l t t l o l ] p J r l p o P u B I E J I t I T o d l t l l o l
E r o , ] p e l l E r r l J r l l l
. u o r . I e r n p s
o t s e t l c e o . r d d e , r e u 8 u r p u u p L r E r e q l e 8 o t l E s l o o r l r s S u r q s r
- 1 o q u , t q , ( 1 u o l l e r c o s J e t t e q t s 3 t B o J 3 L { 8 3 a u o ' i l a l J o s
p e l d r u l o c a I E I I s , o o t l J s e s n c J a q
r e r l ] p e u l e l u l e r u ( y 1 6 1 ) q o q 1 1 ' , Q a z : 0 5
S t q o o q t s a q s i q q ' ( 1 6 6 I - I 7 . 6 D s l a r C o i 1 1 3 d
P L I R
( Z O O Z - S 1 O ) t l r I T I l u E - 1 ' I e r u s l s l u o l l J n r l s u o r e l
1 r : r c o s
i - r e - r o c l u l e l u o l s l o r u o ' \ L
. p l r o . , ! \
e l q e r r n b a e r o u r p u u
I e a p t
L I E
P a u o I S I ^ u e P U E
l l a l J o s - ] o u o l l o r u r o 1 s u t r l e q l
P o : l B r
- o ^ p p s l t r n p r t r p u r a s r l l l
l o
L I J R : I
' L l r l o j a r
I e u o l l E r n l ) a
r o h l u t ] n o q e S u u q o r p a l c i u r a l
- l B
, i r n l u e J
q r g z a q t
J o
t J e d i 1 - r e e a q t u r ' o r 1 , l t s l s i u o l l J t l r l s L r o ) . r
l t l J o s
U B J I J a T L I Y
e q t
J o
u . { \ o u { } s e q e L i } s d e q . r e d e . i e . n ( 9 9 6 1 - 9 9 3 1 ) . 3 3 n 1 1
P l o r E H P U B
! ( 1 8 6 I - f 0 6 I )
p l e r u e r g e r o p o o q l ' ( t Z , O t - O g g t ) s l u n o J ' s e 3 ; o e 1 ; ' g r e t d r q o L r I
P a s s n r s l P
s Y
s l u a u , o d o - t d S t n P o a T
b Z
u o r t ) n p f p u t l q d o s o ; r q ;
J a r l J e e t S u r P r L 1 . 1 - -
o l
P U B
s u l l e l
l r r
- e i u o l l E n l P , \ 3
u .
r o r u e P n l s
3 q l
f '
s I u o l l l s u r J o j u T -
' ! l u a p n l s p u t l I L I :
' u o D e n l e , r a
a r t l i
I E T J O S
R u I s J a l l :
u o r l s a n b p L I l t i
' s d n o . r 8
, U t u n r u
l s l u o l l J r u l s u o l :
- t " , , t " t \ a a r a , , '
e s u
l o o l l l s
. t i l ,
- P e u E
r y
' l !
l ' .
P U E l E r n l l n r
r .
{ u n { t
o } E u r l p t
- l . r o ] t u o s
e q
' , u
t s n u r , b q l
' 1 o ,
a q ] a P l s l n o e l "
, t e q l q o t q , t t - l - -
e n b r u J J o l ; - u 1
- o . r d p u t
l e u o s :
] s r u o I l J n - I l s u o a
'
a 8 u e q o , , p u t
. .
u r s e J u a J a l . + I f )
- e p l s e c l
r { r . I E r :
' ' i e l e e o l a q r r .
- u t s u r u o s l s l l l { i
O u I t U B x e
P U r r
(
'
u r i i r r n b u r
- 1 o
:
- u e 1 d u r r t r l r t l r
e q l u I s a J n l t i - -
- u E d e q l
' s u ( '
30 Chapter I
Critical theorists
raise questions
about the unequal distribution
of
power in societY.
They claim that objective
obsen'ation
is not possible
O::X^:lt
obsen'er atl-ects
u,h:rt is obser-v-ed.
p,.,r,,-"oat"i*
'ogg"t'tl"t
il''t \Yav \ve arrive at knorvledge
is not
by science alone but bi: t"';;;"g
"ifrt. human past ai'c1
Present
to see hou- clai'rs of
duth have originated,
ir."r-, .o,r.,i.,ctec1
ancl
"*p.".r",1,
,r-rd ha'e had social, political,
rnde,lucatio',rl.t',,r.q'"nct'"(Gtrtek'20{)+'p'l}01'Thevquertiorrthctlotltinance
oiobjectirin.,,nir..,.l'lrfl.,',.ri,.,nr.
rr,'th..,,i
rationrlin
(Kincheloe et al'.20001'
In
their place thev substitute
critical inquin. ancl
politicrl ...-.,.n.,,
(Ijlenderson, 2001);
diversiri,,
inclusion,.,lJ-*t't'iptigiq'(Mcla11r"&
To"tt' 1q98); and the limitations
of
ir"grr"g:" or the ueaning
of l'ords
(Biest:r' 2001)'
r@,
fot Your ReJlettion
and Anallsis
l;'
Giue extmples of other "m1ths" that are
perpetuate(J by the schools nnd lty other
institutions.
Purpose of Schooling
Pristmodernists
believe the purpose of schooiing
i, in p..p..e students to become vigilant and
,*,.."'otit-t"
varietv of rnvths that are presented
i,
-iio.,rhr."
Examples
t-,f such n-rvths include
;;.q.,rl
eclucetional
tpportuniQ',"
"apolitical
cur-
ricil,.rm,"
"fair houiing," "level plaving fieid"'
ancl "oplen enrollment'"
S u r o S u o r I r I l o s
s r e g 3 r q l
' s s e ' r S o ' r d ; r a q r e l ' 1 u o r q )
o ] s a l l l e r l e u
l e u o s ' r a d
a l u ' n
p u e s l e u r n o f
d a e l o l p , 8 , , . . o , , ,
a J E S } u a P n ] S
. s } u e u I S S e S S E . J I e S
J e g J B a l
P u E .
] u a P n ] S
S u r p n l c u r t e q r B o l r " t " ' p o * " o d e q r d q p " t t " ' s a n b t u q c e ] l u e u l s s e s s e J o r \ 1 ' l l J t l $
l U a l u s s a s s v
' e e r 5 e s r p
P u E
a n s s l e > l t l o l s l B n P I ^ l P q
1 e 3 o
s r q 8 r ' r a q l S u r l c a d s a '
t " ^ ] : - t t i Y l . : L :
- q , o i l ; ; ; i
, o
' t " i " " I l e
r r '
' ( a q r
l a q l ' q ' *
a u t t u r a l o P
o l S u i l r c r t r n u r l u o r
e r ,
' \ a L I l
, n o o q
r r a q l
d p u e l s u o c
i J l i ' ; t 1 " ' o t t s s i o ' r d r y
& t u m u t u o c ' r e ' r e i
a q ] p u r ' s l u e ' r e c l ' s ' r e e d
r r e q l ' u u e p n l s
J l a q l J a , t o e A E r {
' t a q r
o r u e n g u l
P u E
; e ' l t o d a q l e z t u S o c a ;
i a q l ' a r u E
a u t s
a q r r y
' s u r z l l ' u e
P u E ' s ; ' ; b t i ' " ' h u ' u u ' ' t i ' n t
l e P o u
p u e e ; r t r e r d . s r c t i r B a l
a s a L l J
" ' u o
- e q r
I e r r r r r J ; o
8 u r o p , , o q l
l e P o . u
p "
" " r ' " l d
o l s I o l o r q r e q r e o l ] s l u l a P o r u l s o d
e q a
, q n a a a q l t o a l a A
, , ' p 1 e g
3 u r , 4 t 1 d
1 a
- J n J
i l B I I o d B , .
. . ' '
e P n l J u I
s q l , l t u
L I '
p a l u a s a . r d
e J B l e l l
p u e l u e l t 8 u
a r u o
S u r l o o q c s l o
a s o r i
d n o r a p n u e u a d x a ' a r n e r o q e l l o r P " ' s " r ] - ' . ' - - Y : l : : j l i T l : - ' " ' i " i : : T : l ' . ' # ; : T j : T ;
g i l J : , : ; i f f i
: f f i x ; ' J T : } : 1 , q , f i i l i l r " : , r : * : : t ^ " : : , ? : : . H 1 " " 9 f i
f f i f f i
' ; l t
: H f f i I t # # 1 J ; ; & ; ; i l ; r ; r : : , 3 : : : . * , : , : i l , : " 1 , f f i
i : , ' t r # , : l ;
; f , # # * i l 1 : " " " , ; , * " ; ; 1
' , , , . , ; 1 , " . ' ; : 1 T f - ' " ' : : : : : : : : , ' " : ' : i : " f . : ' X H , : " , , 1 1 , " #
: l j : : ? : t ; ? # # ; i l + ; ; ; ; , d ' , p " " ' 1 . ' : l . q : : f
: l : i : . 1 ' : : ; : I 3 . * i l j 1 f i " # i
; : ' " o , ' . r " T [ " - : 1 # , ] : i ; H : , ; ; ; J ;
; , - r , , * . , o i , o . . , a
u r o o r s s e r r
u ; e p o u ' s . d
e q a
. . ^ , , - 4 t r h n r c c m ' ' l
. S E D I A I ] J E
l U
A r u u o . a ? a u g
M O o r s s E )
j o s u o l l l l l u l l
a q r
: ( t O O Z ' u o s r e P u l
q ' ( 0 0 0 2 ' l ' l E r a
l
s r u B u l r u o P
e q l u
' l e o i t r l o d ' 1 e n o s
I
] o
S U I I B I J
, , \ \ o q a ' :
] o u
s t a 8 P a l ' u o i t :
S l 3 o l - + E
J e r L I e s Q U
, o
u o l l n q l - l l s l P
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34 Chapter I
feedback from students. They invite students to evaluate their teaching effectiveness
and interactions with others.
Lead.ing Proponents
Some of the major proponents of postrnodern constructivism are Michael W. Apple
(2004), Stanley Aronowitz (2003), Henry A. Girorx (2003),
Joe
L. Kincheloe (2004),
Colin Lankshear (2003), and M. Knobel and Peter L. Mclaren (2003). Their major
contribution has been to demonstrate how history's claim to universal truth has legit-
imized and empowered elites at the expense of marginal groups in our society.
Table 1.2 presents a summary of the educational implications of the philoso-
phies ofeducation discussed in this chapter.
Conclusion
A review of the major philosophical approaches as well as tlre contexts within which
each emerged suggests an interdependent relationship between the two. Each philo-
sophical oiientation was influenced by the changes, challenges, and concerns con-
fronting society at that particular time in history. The contribution of each
philosophical orientation, therefore, cannot be fully appreciated,without careful con-
iideratiln of the social, political, and economic forces that may have necessitated the
need to examine critical assumptions such as who should be educated and by whom,
what they should learn, and the purpose of education. As the philosophies introduced
in this .irrpt.. are revisited in the chapters that follow, their relationship to these
forces will b..ome more evident. In a similar veil, as we look toward the future, we
can assume that the rapid demographic and social changes in American society, cou-
pled with political and historical events in the United States and abroad, will result in
another paradigm shift in the philosophy of education.
and
1. Prepare a reflection paper entided "My Philosophy of Life." In your paper re-
rpotrd to the following questions: (a) Are human beings basically good or evil?
_(b)
How is knowledge determined? (c) Are there certain moral or ethical values that
are universal?
2. Whatcritical thinking skills are most important in your discipline or subject area?
Which teaching methods would you use to help your students develop those criti-
cal thinking skills?
3. As a socialreconstructionist, list five major changes that you would propose for
education and schooling in the 21st century.
Philosophical analysis is a technique used to eliminate ambiguities and clarifir lan-
guage. Select five terms relevant in your subject area and discuss some of the be-
liefs, arguments, and assumptions underlying those terms.
Prepare a reflection paper entided, "My Philosophy of Education." In your paper
answer the following questions: (a) Are there certain universal truths that should
+.
5.
i*.f
W Pri
The All
Plato
Socrates]
-;rc
ht,i'.
-iEhrec-
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-'rrrod.
i:
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f,iar1-.
tumin:
lhent :
i\l een :
raise.l ri
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,io
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$ $ e l e n u 1 $ t -
, t , . , ' . : , 1 . , , & r y t i . 3 u ; l
! l F t u r o . j ; l ' ' $ 9 ' . ! , 1 { , r . ' . . , . . , ,
' . n i . 1 p . q i @ o J j o a , s u a i l e q r q o d s , n q . = ! ; ' b !
1 1 , . , , . .
1 o
. u o u a q , t r , { r u t 3 o 1 a r n s a q l o u l a q t p l n o ' t r
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;
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e , \ n q s l u o P l u s l - L o ' ( l c L [ ] - \ \ o r q
n o . (
1 p , , u
. r o g ( e ) l 8 u r u r t e l
o l e ' \ I s n P u o l l s o u l
s I ] u o u [ u o l l ^ l l e
S u r u : u e 1
1 o
e c l h
] B t 1 , ! i ( 1 ,
1 e Q
] l p 1 - I o n l r q , r
, ( 8 a l e r ] s
I e u o l l l n l l s n l
r o p o q l e l u e u o e s o o t l J o l e ' I o l \
, l o i 1 1
1 , , 1 ; , , , , i - t 1 r - , r , . r r , ' , , I E o P I
c q l s I l u r l \ \ ( q )
' s q l n ' r r e s o q r i l l r r u e p r ' s a ' ( - 1 1
i r q 8 n n
e q
S
u o r l e ) n P f
P u e
L q d o s o l t q 6
16:'.,...ChAp,tet1:i:I, .i:1,;
::,, ;,
: 1
.. .r, l5oiratgsl.%,
thern;'ll.'said;,the,tnith.ivould'
he:lit-
r,, rr,::eiAll1inothingbut:therthad,Olvs,.of e images,
[Glaucon]
That is certain.
,.' lSqciatesJ
:
d naw
look,again;',and,see
*htt will'
.,,1',i .,,,,
rrir*irilly,1UnO*'rt,iths,tpfiiaacis.
Are.,f eleaied
:r,," ,i
andrdii;lidsed'bf
rthiilerrorirAt
first when any
,
:r
:
, '66i1t**;r lifuslalsd and'cornpelled Suddenly to
"'
,, ''
,''r
up andltura,,hisneck round ad,u'alk and
,,,,,,,,1ookl'towards,, the:,:{ig1nt he
l:will
suffer
]'sharp
,."1,.,,.,,parnSf
th.e. glaredl:diitres$'him, .and:he $ri1l'lie
.'
r,'r.l',.,,,,,
iinalila,',to,igA,
,i;ttiries,,,ot,
which'. in,his
for-
',."'.1':.1rf1,,.
.
na, had.s'een' the'', sh;dorlsji' ant{' then'
:lr'r,:1,,;.'.,,.c;naeiti',;o*i0",*+..*"9.'f
a.ry&atwhat'he,
,,:'.:',,,,,1'.ri , b,afuri:*ii.::rn
illusion, but that noW:
,.::'.',,.r,n
*:cp$iA;c,mgieriff,io
b-eilg,and,'hiq-eye,
. rr'::;',r1.:':,1l,"rr;;A'ia*afdi: re*al. ixiste:ree;;he,ha5
a''
::,tr,:',
'':,.,l,,tiaaier,visioa;:*hat
will be his replyl d
1tou.
rl.':,.r,t.r-,mril
I fur&ei'.i*ji ,:.1fus1,.,
his:r,rinstfrrctor
is
..i.ii'i.':'p.ointing..s@'ob,i'@rasr
th.ey'pass''rtnd,'., quii,.-1
',...r'.l''l
@.hirnr'*oildama.,$e:niyil{
Ihe,.not be', per:',,
,'r,,,.',1'[*a6!..}$!@no.r:faney'
.'&rr,,the,:shadows
,,,,..t,,..:,,,,*t
ilU. liet m*a ..i*,2;e.
er-, an.. the,:ob. r'
.rr'r.jeiis,*hi&tf *,shO*a't6:hir-'nrlr:,,,,,:
1..,'{56ciitnd' dif . -is1c,o.mp.e,!!{ rer1o ok stiaigh,t .
,'t.',..';,.,. , &Iight
*it16@ ni:eupain' in' fi s, ye s:,
lr.",.rr.
r*.6i&,,iii11.r*ka.,hu",@,''.
ti,'to, iake,.and,
1,..','.,',.
.raiie"in
rab
aets,to{,viii rwhi&'he'r:eaii:sei:
..,,':'.,,,'.,rr;;{'.''i
.dr.
, fi
'Co.nieirc..iObC'in.lrea@
1r:,,.,r,.,,;,,,CIsrrei:'ifhtai',: .t .ingi:t*ni+,aie
.' li', bein-g.,
.
shown to him?
[Glaucon]
True.
,.rr'.,,'t[Soerite.s], *sup-pbie.,onee rn:oiei &ei'he, is re'
.r' :,,,,
tt::',',18.i1andy'.ldiaggaAt'6,;a,,, ept,,and. rugged :"aS:'
,.,,,,.,:,,' .,,:,, ient;,..ar.*d-held t, tii, ha.,s. f,o.i.iid'into
.the
,,.,',,.., ; .6fue'1
i[|;
:hinrse:1{,:is,,he,not.lik1v to'
,.,,',,.r.-,,,,,,:,6erpeinid
iir.itltedi.,I{hEn'-he.approae.hgj
,,,,',,,,.,r.' ti$hitfi$':
.'wi1! dazzled; anrl he will
:.:;"::'::;,
,t.':,,,::,:,,r\.d,t,6b.eblam,,see'.aar-d1hg
atrell:roiwtt-at, are
r:,,.r,r:.,nrr..
r:r'. rn66:ealled:iealities..r::.i1ii'..::. ,
tr:1i;".1:,;.
;, ,:",;,;'1
,i,r.i{Git
io.r1]]ryi1,L, .n
oment,,he,said.
:i:.. l.',l ;
ISoct*lpl-tf
i :,wi1l,rreq"lie,,:,to
:gf-o1y',,,aecustomed
,.{'
,,.,io,'
ihili$i
$i.'n$pir., worldrr,,
:4
,,:,{irst,.he
,..1.,l
it,l.l
.*,i1! ..tJre
;a**!..besi;rnext,i&e,iefleetions
:6g
111sn,,1 aad t: Other, :obiects in' ithg:,, wateri,l,a.nd,,:,
I
,then the obiects*emseksi
then he,will ga.z
1.
,,i upon the lighio{'the rnoon and'rther:starg'and'ii:
,
the, spangled heavuq and,he wili
'see''.th,e,,s
',.r,
rr
and dre.Stars by,nfght better than;fig 5u6.:61]1,,:
,, ,the1ight,ofdre,,sun'biyday?
:,'',
, ,,'i,,'
,,,,
fGlaucon]
eertailbr,
[Socf;rtes]
,Last\',h. will be,rable'to ie'*t' s
-
'l rnd not tnerer reflections of, him'in, the'water; ,,
,
trut, he will see-him, ini his., o*n-,.'propei,,plac$t:1
'
l',,.and
not in,: another; andr he,ivill';eO-AtenipUte,.l
him as he is.
[Glaucon]
CertainJy'
.,.{iOcratesJ,He-,
.will
tt ea. proeeed,'
.4rye,r'lhat"'
',
t,
:
is,riir h4 r6e
:
gives, the, season and,the.year-sf ,,'
',
.,iod'.is..
;iai# ;.r,ail tn*i,iB, in,fu.$isibl E :
;
r'
rnaiid.,,irand.'iii; a-rcertain way the cause of ,all ,r
i'r,
"Si;hiih
he, ,his
felld*s.havC,lbeQn,:ae.,,:
i . i..iustofned to,behOld?
r
:'. ri
:.l
r:
ri
::r, ,: : :-r::ir,
t,::i,,:
.rclaueo-nl.el@;h.e-said;.he'wquldfust'ieie'the'.'
. ,'' ,.',91111
1ff,r'thea reasoa ,aboui.him,,.:.,'
::.,::, ::
'r,r':,'.' ,,
:,{soetaied,rAad,*|en
he
:ri.eme{r1be1
d':his''ald''
.,
:,
i,htbidtion;,]ana.,t ,,.$risdom,:o{,r
the,:'eave.:ia ,
..
,. r-::
f #-p:rl&ners,, do you ao.t:2p-poic-'thet''
"''
..ie . would.,.felicittie', hirnsel{'on
:the,'
Chan$e;.',
r',,
:ri,'atd
plty
rtliem?::r rr,,:
,r,[GlaucOn] Ceitiidy, he,would',rr ,,'ri
,':':''i '::, ir'i
','
fsoerates],iAnd ,if.
&et were,in e,h#ii
con-
.,,'.rr:fg.irgr,:tru'aOrir'.amoff
& .thCrns
e$.1r@ ob:e"
,'r,r..
;6;r.!;1*. 16etiii,ra.,
alsarvn,@.,. ss!ng.
,,'
'
.,,
lshadOws,and
.to.,rermark,whic1i,.o1,,r&eril,,r$,erltl'
,,,,': befoiq: and.'+hiqh,'fol1@ed.:a{te.r;r,and
r;'*hieh.
*e'r'to*ethei;.,and'.*ho'w,,'there1'tife'bCii.'
' ',rg1E,16:-{r*rn,
ioncluSi6;s asl'to,,e-e.fufe;,11ti:
"'-iod
thiqk.tliat:,he, woa1A' cate : fu-i,sue&
.,honors,,
'
'i .6,
461ies;l
orrenw,the,,poiSessoli:,,hf r&ern?i
I i'1,;tr61ld.fug
rrot
$4i'with,Ilomel,:.,,,,,,1,:r,,,1
,,::.
g
r,71e;',, 1a:,, b 6" th i' p
:
sira aat, if
,
a,,,i
|,:ry!li,*
: a*d..:' ra..
:' ''
; ,t1;6s, a anyihiryl*th9r'tban:tb:in&'arth*:,, ,"and',
':
{Glanionl'.
Yes;' he .said'' I
i
ttinkr*raq hetroild:
':,r.,,,iathir,,.su&i.
.aa},dll,qg,.,than','enteitain,'
drese
',:,r'
-r, :,,f;1o jliiti_bns,and,liv6.in
this nr.iieiali.le:l:e.ann*n,
.Socrates]
In-ra:
couring
suiltl'
in l-ris o1d sir'
have his er,-e'
fGlaucon]
To ir
fsocrates]
,Lnii
to colnpete
L
prisoners
nh'
u,hile his sis
eYes had be'
rvould be ne
sight mieht
l
be ridiculou'
rvent and di:
tfrat it u-'.rs L"
anc{ if at-rr-
t-'
him uP to *
f-ender, ar-rd
:
[Glaucon]
\o
[Socrates]
Tf
no$'appenr
,i_
[fulTlentl
L1li
the light ot
rnisaPPreh'
uPu-ards
tc
intellecr'-ral
lvhich,
at r-'
rightlY
or
true or fals
knor&'1edee
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38 ChaPter]
'': '
, .
'As:unassailable
as such.an idea 4ppearsi
lrho
amoflg us can',tell 'whatithe
fumrer*i11look
likel
Proiections about lifesqyles.:
locial arrangements,
and protrlems that will' be eneountered are. notori-
ouqli: difBcult. \44ro
could have predicte{ 2 0 years
,go ih* challenges drat adults address today?
Tn-
d!ed, some of the most'sigqificant weak{resses
of
education
p"iicf stem from the beliefrth4t
the
aims arr^d .ottterrt of education ian tie
justified' on
the'basis of preparation, 'lSome da11 youwill'need
:1[is:r
iu u 6r*1iar reftain.heard:both
in sshoolsiand"
arouad the
:kitchen'
table. Nas,' such'arr
:exhorta-
'
tion does litde,to stimulate or motivate students'
rr
. ' ff an unknorn'alile future ii not,a sound basis .
on which.,tg ,p1an
curriculum ahd rinsruclion,
drenr*hat isl'From rny perspective, we can hest
prepaie strdents for the'future by enabling:them
io' deal effectively'with,
the present,
.
Schoo-l cur-
I
riculums based,on-,the
preparatory concepdon
of
education are aften intellectuallyirreleYarit
u..r be- l
corne liide moie than,hsops th-rough which stu'
dents, learn,,to
jgurp, in' order to' rnwe, ahe1d, T'rro'
muchr of *hei *e, du, no*' in 'schools
is, of the
hoop-jumplngvarietY.
i'
lffiit' f deiire is an,
.
education,piocesl
that'
:
is, genuinely,mearinglrt'to,studentgr
challenging
thJm with problemq:aad,ideas drat,.they:find,
hoth
i6elesting:and
'
intelleenrally
,demanding',
I: want
r
tolassess that,pfo.cess by'the depth of its engage-
mentinsnrdents',1ives..,'',',,':'
:', :
.
'Of
"oorser,rigardJesa
of their view of f&e fti'
turi;r people
ihane'
different'biliefi,
about' what is
importa-
tni
{or.I51udints to,leaiu-.., ia the,here'and
I
now: For
I
examn:le,' m'.aoy,
;,
edrtcators:-lvaluet
l the
'
d.relopm"ot, ofl,ciitieal',rnindedneqsir
:bu-t' some
'prr*nts
mry, "eitthis,,$o*l
beinus,e critical rninrl'
;4n!rs
:can'
!1;;ffige.',,
ryahes,:
:promulgalBd
' at'
,
home. The, point is that tven ,if we' agiee' that ed'
,.
ucation ,ihould, addiess the presnt, wfrat consti
.t"tes,app.ropiiate pription for thC present is
Itseif a ionteste d:jssue' Thaf in a democracy, is as
, iri should, be,'llhe, lasi, thing we need.
!s
a one-size-
:{its.'all curiiiulum with one sin$le set of goals for
., everyone.' Diversity, yieids iichness, and dirrerlity
, ia schoolingr:is:'n'3qu1ge
of richness fur our:rcu1-
I
ture. Having said that; let,me comment'on':::a
aumber og,21n5, that I, embrace' as being,appropri-
ate for oui
:schoo1s,,,:
:
Whatrshould,SchoolsJlaqh
''
- ::;
fudgment
The best way to prep*re,itudenis fur'fie futiire
is
tor filcus on lhe piesent in a w4y
tha,i:'en,blei
'stun'.i,
dents, to' deal'*idrl
Broljlems,
thrt,ha+ermor.than"
one iorrect,answei.'i
The, ,probler'nsr.thatr
Inatte-rr:'rl
mostcannotbe'resolvedby
nur{arrafgori lor'''
"rulq'.
They reqqire, thel exe,rc;se, of
'
thaf
'ms5t
.sl'':r:::
,:quisite
hum*n, .apuc$, that, wi,
@,
judpent','.,
judgme"c. is not mere prefere:lce,, but rather"&e'':
,niflty t" gtuq ons for the ctroiceq that.,rlre
"
make. Good
judgmeillrcquirei go'od rtasons. The"'
dispositions .and
'critical,
r"o*"; ',
thatrmakel'go.'od'
,:
,iudE4ent
posiibh are'am,on$,,thegst
r
-irnpqrtaat'r'r
*tiliti"sthrtscfiools'caniultivate,in.sfu..deots,'..
'
:
fi, .iuldvate,
, this . qBal1ty,.
,the,:, cll icdnrn
.
aeids to,consist of:pioblems that perrnit,judguent l:,
Such pioblems reqiiii,e:de.libe*tion.
and
1neld'rnu1"''
i
tiple possitile',iesohAoAE; Nrlte,,'th*t]I'
s ay,; yex llttion s
riA.r thn r, solutions,,,'Pfoblems,.rd.la'su:listantial''
magaitud e'usuallf neAd to tiir coasiderqdl ft orr!
vafrr'
ioul ansles.and can' only,,l!.e' Gmporarilv:iesolved'
:'
,Thema-lorityopinions.,of .theU'Sr.Suir.em-e-ouit
iuStifu
the C rt's
findings;,but' accegtable"find'"
*gt in on" perigd ;in,the,,:natiodsrhistoly,;,may:'no,
loiser,belrpprap4aie:at,,an9,6ir,time',s&.-"shd&
,,
ls2Ch,l.gflrdents,&tq.,rhe-,
praltiee$,:,qdde1iberltio:r
" and
jud grnent,go hand,irt" harrd;',:''
; :' ; ; ; ;,., ;:',t
. : :,,1,' ;' ;,"'
'Critiial
Thiw'king
l
A'iecond,'abilitrr,,that'
s.choo1s.,need" to, develop
in
students is'th*,'uliilit;r' to.,, critigue' ideas:
r,ad'' io.
,
lenjo.y
e4ptori4g what,one ian do,v'ith &em' To
I
divelop,this: ;bititv,, snidents
'must
be :prsented
wjth, ideas
ithst,,:
are, rvcirth'.exploring.r,Senqial'
decadps:', ago,,,,Jeiome'. Brun,eir,;i.d.epti{ied
.' ft iu*
,
queitlonsl to guid", ihe',{ev.elopmCnt'
of
.}-iiL"reur:
riculu'm: ndac.=-A,"' eoutte,,,,St*$y:fffu1is:rhuman
atroutlman?,,H,
fid,he''gai that:.way?.,-Sli+l:een
, ,:imake hinr more: so? ,Eaih,of.these'
three',idets:ilari-
lleaningftrl
-r lhird aim
:,,rms of liter
:
-
as the abi
:,,,mputationi
.,rincept. I nl(
'-,rrl
er-er. Lit
-,:
decode m,
:sed in the c
::rte in on<
reaninq lro
:om dance.
Our ii'
lure u.ide r".l
ELect some
iarantee
tl-t
Cents-srudt
people's plea
u'ell respont
anticipate th
classical and
ordinarilv h
The abilin
tully require
ButIi
defining lite
ri'hich somt
grams that
use of langu
limit studer
rience from
a r p ,
, ; , p u u .
q r a 1 d : a 1 e r
. o r l s e p p . 1 r c r ,
q ; n s r q ;
' & 1 u n r
' : , i o d d a i s d l q g
r , 3 p r ^ o r d , p f . r o q e , s g o o q r t , d r e . r t o r u a p
C , , ' , u l , , . i 5 D e l u
: l e u r
: s 1 ! r r s , r r f
e l r o s s d o l a a o p , p u s : s e a p r
, r a a u ; , . , o i ' p r ; q , . s a ' . 4 l 3 : u o r , f g r O q r l l o e
S o
s s e l o . r d . , o q a
; , s i c a { o . r i l '
p , g 8 r i l u e a t u u o F t a - t 1 l o , q t p l
4 r o a t
r o 1 . . t r o r l
u : r e " 1 , . O u a p n t s , d 1 q q r o s p r p l n o q s a I o o q J S , l n g
' l i : l i t
: l , r i
r r t r r :
: : : : : s s r I q , r 1 i q 1 , " , u O 1 1 o ; o ] I I I e q l r o j , e l q { s s o d 1 l
e x e t u
p U u , , s r f i 8 l I a n s i , t g l P * 1 P u 1 i r a q r
- $ l r u o p r
s l u e P
s ' d ; t ; u ' , , o f , ' , i q 5 n o l . , s l o o q a s
1 a a ; 5 e p a r u c s o ] l s e a l
i e , , , p r y t . f a p 4 1 1 i o : d ,
p u e :
f s a p n r p d a
l u u e p r e l r ] 3 u l l
l ; i 1 p . * r l u , e p n l S , , q r C a '
j o , u O , 1 r s ? I " e r a q t a r o u r o r d o r
r q S n o s l o o q J s
' t u a p n t s t l J u e t n o q e r n e . r l u { s o r p t
X 1 ! ; " p o ; * ' i u a , . ' f r * o " U * 5 d , s 1 a e q , t S t t t n p c o l
r q 8 n o s l o o q o s l e t l t u e e t u
1
' u o u e n p l , t l p u r
l g
' u o t t e ; 8 a l u r
p u E u o t t e
: l . I o l 4 l P " 1 . + 0 q , . s ]
u o f e o l p a , q 8 n o : p
l e e s
o r r q 5 o o
1 , 1 t . ' I L
] : ' : l s e 4 o s r u l i 1 p , , , r u o l 3 ,
f u e 1 q l 1 p
d 1 1 e r n r p r
1 A 1 l ' : : : 6 , , s l , u a p i l i s , 1 f p 1 x , , , i { 1 t e 1 n i 1 U e d
t s . l a r $ o
p 1 , n
t 1 e m t r o Q e i 1 o r , . 1 r i i , r a , . u i e i t , s l u e s F u y d l a q
s e
, ! i o o { a $ . . 1 1 . r
e , 4 9 1 1 p , , b 1 p a a d
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count. Such an
lapprp.*ch1
will,:iequire a:rAdienJf
diffeient viq#,of,.*here we,1ook.,to, d'.,out,,horr
well srudents are learning. After all, the major
lessons of schooling. manilest lhemselves ousid.
the context of schools. The primary aim of edu-
cation, isr,not to,enable srudenls to do well.,,:]n
school, but to help them do well in the lives they
rlead ,outside
,.of, school; trVe: :oug-ht,i tri,,focus on
what srudents do when they can ihoor. their own
actlvt ll es-
'i
iI.i i
'tr{l'
al$o,heed torlgr-ise out,:schqol,pf,ogqams
so that drey,addreqs, the important,issues,,outlin-ed
here. So much oF what we do in our schools is
simplyl
:a
relleetiiirl of,'trditionall.,i*tegoflCSi,:&At
basieallv servei as selectionr,meChenisms,, IA&,'need
to quesl-ion these tra_ditionS.:,Flow, dor wei:.juSti&
what we require srudents to pay attenrion to? Do
moSi. srudenis'
',
naed
'
,a',
' ao*rss
i,
fni ,, aeku l
I
How
aliout,one,,,in eh iitr. i/l',Doi
rwe,,
tielieve,
:thai
the
subjects we teach develop the srudents' minds? Do
r,re think that these subjects are relevant to rasks
beyond schooling? Do we teach these courses be-
cause they are sources of satislaction to students?
Wel, need , .to, iAise
rr r
sua-h,.'qiieqtions,,' and,, d.lrr1*
thoughrful responses. When our answers to these
questions are found wanting, revision is in order.
, Finallii,we need rto effiiaeq a,limader:,,r,rew
of mind; b1i
;which.,1
lnean,, a,bioade'r,.ttiew
1of,!he
ways in which thinking occurs. By no means is
thinking limited to what words alone can carry.
The limits of our cognition are not defined by
th.e.
;,limits
of
,our.
I;nguage'.,, &,. Miilaell }olanyl
eomraented,
llA&,,know
rnole,, an,,,we..,Can, tgll.",
The acknowledgement that thinking occurs in
any of the iensory
r
rn6{4fi ties,, that,
thuurx6s
pos-
sess-sight, sound, rouch, taste, smell-opens up
the,idoor for
.thel,
development of programs tha,t
can do
iustice
to the ways in which liumans do
thinh and harre thought, throaghour,fieir,,hiitory
on this planet. We may not want to address every
aspect
.
of mind, &at taar,,p,oSsibly,r]be,r
ieniai+tted;l
but we shorytd.pay,aaention to our optio:rq..andr
make selections on the basis oI grounds that we
can
Jusnry.
Preparatjon for tomorrou is best served by
meaninglirl education today. The developmenr of
-iL-
ti:l 1
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l , . l . l , t t , , . , , . ' , ' ' * p * a , I ? , . i { o ' l i : u o d d a s , r a a e r 6 e
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