PowerPoint

Lecture Slides
prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College
C H A P T E R
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
Cells: The
Living Units:
Part C
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cytoplasm
Located between plasma membrane and nucleus
Cytosol
Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.)
Cytoplasmic organelles
Metabolic machinery of cell
Inclusions
Granules of glycogen or pigments, lipid droplets,
vacuoles, and crystals
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Membranous
Mitochondria
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Nonmembranous
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Ribosomes

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mitochondria
Double-membrane structure with shelflike
cristae
Provide most of cells ATP via aerobic cellular
respiration
Contain their own DNA and RNA
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.17
Enzymes
Matrix
Cristae
Mitochondrial
DNA
Ribosome
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
(b)
(a)
(c)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ribosomes
Granules containing protein and rRNA
Site of protein synthesis
Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins
Membrane-bound ribosomes (on rough ER)
synthesize proteins to be incorporated into
membranes or exported from the cell
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes
enclosing cisternae
Continuous with nuclear membrane
Two varieties:
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18a
Nuclear
envelope
Ribosomes
Rough ER
Smooth ER
(a) Diagrammatic view of smooth and rough ER
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Rough ER
External surface studded with ribosomes
Manufactures all secreted proteins
Synthesizes membrane integral proteins and
phospholipids
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Smooth ER
Tubules arranged in a looping network
Enzyme (integral protein) functions:
In the liverlipid and cholesterol metabolism,
breakdown of glycogen, and, along with kidneys,
detoxification of drugs, pesticides, and carcinogens
Synthesis of steroid-based hormones
In intestinal cellsabsorption, synthesis, and transport
of fats
In skeletal and cardiac musclestorage and release
of calcium
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Golgi Apparatus
Stacked and flattened membranous sacs
Modifies, concentrates, and packages
proteins and lipids
Transport vessels from ER fuse with convex
cis face of Golgi apparatus
Proteins then pass through Golgi apparatus to
trans face
Secretory vesicles leave trans face of Golgi
stack and move to designated parts of cell
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.20
Protein-
containing
vesicles pinch
off rough ER
and migrate to
fuse with
membranes of
Golgi
apparatus.
Proteins are
modified within
the Golgi
compartments.
Proteins are
then packaged
within different
vesicle types,
depending on
their ultimate
destination.
Plasma
mem-
brane
Secretion by
exocytosis
Vesicle becomes
lysosome
Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER
ER
membrane
Phagosome
Proteins in
cisterna
Pathway B:
Vesicle membrane
to be incorporated
into plasma
membrane
Pathway A:
Vesicle contents
destined for exocytosis
Extracellular fluid
Secretory
vesicle
Pathway C:
Lysosome containing
acid hydrolase
enzymes
1
3
2
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lysosomes
Spherical membranous bags containing
digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Degrade nonfunctional organelles
Break down and release glycogen
Break down bone to release Ca2
+

Destroy cells in injured or nonuseful tissue
(autolysis)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endomembrane System
Overall function
Produce, store, and export biological
molecules
Degrade potentially harmful substances
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.22
Golgi
apparatus
Transport
vesicle
Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Nuclear envelope
Lysosome
Nucleus
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endomembrane System
PLAY Animation: Endomembrane System
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Peroxisomes
Membranous sacs containing powerful
oxidases and catalases
Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)
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Cytoskeleton
Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
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Microfilaments
Dynamic actin strands attached to
cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane
Involved in cell motility, change in shape,
endocytosis and exocytosis
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.23a
Strands made of spherical
protein subunits called actins
(a) Microfilaments
Actin subunit
7 nm
Microfilaments form the blue network
surrounding the pink nucleus in this
photo.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intermediate Filaments
Tough, insoluble ropelike protein fibers
Resist pulling forces on the cell and attach to
desmosomes
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.23b
(b) Intermediate filaments
Tough, insoluble protein fibers
constructed like woven ropes
10 nm
Fibrous subunits
Intermediate filaments form the purple
batlike network in this photo.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Microtubules
Dynamic hollow tubes
Most radiate from centrosome
Determine overall shape of cell and
distribution of organelles
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.23c
(c) Microtubules
Hollow tubes of spherical protein
subunits called tubulins
25 nm
Tubulin subunits
Microtubules appear as gold networks
surrounding the cells pink nuclei in
this photo.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Motor Molecules
Protein complexes that function in motility
(e.g., movement of organelles and
contraction)
Powered by ATP
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.24
Cytoskeletal elements
(microtubules or microfilaments)
Motor molecule (ATP powered)
ATP
(b) In some types of cell motility, motor molecules attached to one
element of the cytoskeleton can cause it to slide over another
element, as in muscle contraction and cilia movement.
ATP
Vesicle
(a) Motor molecules can attach to receptors on
vesicles or organelles, and walk the organelles
along the microtubules of the cytoskeleton.
Motor molecule (ATP powered)
Microtubule of cytoskeleton
Receptor for motor molecule
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nucleus
Genetic library with blueprints for nearly all
cellular proteins
Responds to signals and dictates kinds and
amounts of proteins to be synthesized
Most cells are uninucleate
Red blood cells are anucleate
Skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells,
and some liver cells are multinucleate
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.29a
Chromatin (condensed)
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus
Nuclear pores
Nucleolus
Cisternae of rough ER
(a)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nuclear Envelope
Double-membrane barrier containing pores
Outer layer is continuous with rough ER and
bears ribosomes
Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape
of nucleus
Pore complex regulates transport of large
molecules into and out of nucleus
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nucleoli
Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus
Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome
subunit assembly
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chromatin
Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone
proteins (60%), and RNA (10%)
Arranged in fundamental units called
nucleosomes
Condense into barlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell starts to divide
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.30
Metaphase
chromosome
(at midpoint
of cell division)
Nucleosome (10-nm diameter; eight
histone proteins wrapped by two
winds of the DNA double helix)
Linker DNA
Histones
(a)
(b)
1
DNA double
helix (2-nm diameter)
2
Chromatin
(beads on a
string) structure
with nucleosomes
3
Tight helical fiber
(30-nm diameter)
5
Chromatid
(700-nm diameter)
4
Looped domain
structure (300-nm
diameter)
PowerPoint

Lecture Slides
prepared by Vince Austin,
Bluegrass Technical
and Community College
C H A P T E R
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
Cells: The
Living Units:
Part D

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cell Cycle
Defines changes from formation of the cell
until it reproduces
Includes:
Interphase
Cell division (mitotic phase)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interphase
Period from cell formation to cell division
Nuclear material called chromatin
Four subphases:
G
1
(gap 1)vigorous growth and metabolism
G
0
gap phase in cells that permanently
cease dividing
S (synthetic)DNA replication
G
2
(gap 2)preparation for division
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.31
G
1
Growth
S
Growth and DNA
synthesis G
2

Growth and final
preparations for
division
M
G
2
checkpoint
G
1
checkpoint
(restriction point)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
DNA Replication
DNA helices begin unwinding from the
nucleosomes
Helicase untwists the double helix and
exposes complementary chains
The Y-shaped site of replication is the
replication fork
Each nucleotide strand serves as a template
for building a new complementary strand
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
DNA Replication
DNA polymerase only works in one direction
Continuous leading strand is synthesized
Discontinuous lagging strand is synthesized in
segments
DNA ligase splices together short segments of
discontinuous strand
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
DNA Replication
End result: two DNA molecules formed from
the original
This process is called semiconservative
replication
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.32
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
Old (template) strand
Two new strands (leading and lagging)
synthesized in opposite directions
DNA polymerase
DNA polymerase
Lagging
strand
Leading strand
Free nucleotides
Old strand acts as a
template for synthesis
of new strand
Chromosome
Helicase unwinds
the double helix and
exposes the bases
Old DNA
Replication
fork
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cell Division
Mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle
Essential for body growth and tissue repair
Does not occur in most mature cells of
nervous tissue, skeletal muscle, and cardiac
muscle
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cell Division
Includes two distinct events:
1. Mitosisfour stages of nuclear division:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
2. Cytokinesisdivision of cytoplasm by
cleavage furrow
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.31
G
1
Growth
S
Growth and DNA
synthesis G
2

Growth and final
preparations for
division
M
G
2
checkpoint
G
1
checkpoint
(restriction point)
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Prophase
Chromosomes become visible, each with two
chromatids joined at a centromere
Centrosomes separate and migrate toward
opposite poles
Mitotic spindles and asters form
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Prophase
Nuclear envelope fragments
Kinetochore microtubules attach to
kinetochore of centromeres and draw them
toward the equator of the cell
Polar microtubules assist in forcing the poles
apart
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Metaphase
Centromeres of chromosomes are aligned at
the equator
This plane midway between the poles is
called the metaphase plate
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anaphase
Shortest phase
Centromeres of chromosomes split
simultaneouslyeach chromatid now
becomes a chromosome
Chromosomes (V shaped) are pulled toward
poles by motor proteins of kinetochores
Polar microtubules continue forcing the poles
apart
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Telophase
Begins when chromosome movement stops
The two sets of chromosomes uncoil to form
chromatin
New nuclear membrane forms around each
chromatin mass
Nucleoli reappear
Spindle disappears
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cytokinesis
Begins during late anaphase
Ring of actin microfilaments contracts to form
a cleavage furrow
Two daughter cells are pinched apart, each
containing a nucleus identical to the original
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protein Synthesis
DNA is the master blueprint for protein
synthesis
Gene: Segment of DNA with blueprint for one
polypeptide
Triplets of nucleotide bases form genetic
library
Each triplet specifies coding for an amino acid
PLAY Animation: DNA and RNA
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.34
Nuclear
pores
mRNA
Pre-mRNA
RNA Processing
Transcription
Translation
DNA
Nuclear
envelope
Ribosome
Polypeptide
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Roles of the Three Main Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries instructions for building a polypeptide,
from gene in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Roles of the Three Main Types of RNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
A structural component of ribosomes that,
along with tRNA, helps translate message
from mRNA
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Roles of the Three Main Types of RNA
Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)
Bind to amino acids and pair with bases of
codons of mRNA at ribosome to begin process
of protein synthesis
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transcription
Transfers DNA gene base sequence to a
complementary base sequence of an mRNA
Transcription factor
Loosens histones from DNA in area to be
transcribed
Binds to promoter, a DNA sequence specifying
start site of gene to be transcribed
Mediates the binding of RNA polymerase to
promoter
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transcription
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that oversees synthesis of mRNA
Unwinds DNA template
Adds complementary RNA nucleotides on
DNA template and joins them together
Stops when it reaches termination signal
mRNA pulls off the DNA template, is further
processed by enzymes, and enters cytosol
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase
RNA
polymerase
DNA
Coding strand
Template strand Promoter
region
Termination
signal
mRNA
mRNA
Template strand
mRNA transcript
Completed mRNA transcript
Rewinding
of DNA
Coding strand of DNA
DNA-RNA hybrid region
The DNA-RNA hybrid: At any given moment, 1618 base pairs of
DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still bound to
DNA. This small region is called the DNA-RNA hybrid.
Template
strand
Unwinding
of DNA
RNA nucleotides
Direction of
transcription
Initiation: With the help of transcription factors, RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands,
and initiates mRNA synthesis at the start point on the template strand.
Termination: mRNA synthesis ends when the termination signal
is reached. RNA polymerase and the completed mRNA transcript are
released.
Elongation: As the RNA polymerase moves along the template
strand, elongating the mRNA transcript one base at a time, it unwinds
the DNA double helix before it and rewinds the double helix behind it.
1
2
3
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35 step 1
RNA polymerase
DNA
Coding strand
Template strand Promoter
region
Termination
signal
Initiation: With the help of transcription factors, RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands,
and initiates mRNA synthesis at the start point on the template strand.
1
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35 step 2
mRNA
Template strand
mRNA transcript
Elongation: As the RNA polymerase moves along the template
strand, elongating the mRNA transcript one base at a time, it unwinds
the DNA double helix before it and rewinds the double helix behind it.
2
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35 step 3
RNA
polymerase
Completed mRNA transcript
Termination: mRNA synthesis ends when the termination signal
is reached. RNA polymerase and the completed mRNA transcript are
released.
3
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35 step 4
RNA
polymerase
mRNA
Rewinding
of DNA
Coding strand of DNA
DNA-RNA hybrid region
The DNA-RNA hybrid: At any given moment, 1618 base pairs
of DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still
bound to DNA. This small region is called the DNA-RNA hybrid.
Template
strand
Unwinding
of DNA
RNA nucleotides
Direction of
transcription
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.35
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase
RNA
polymerase
DNA
Coding strand
Template strand Promoter
region
Termination
signal
mRNA
mRNA
Template strand
mRNA transcript
Completed mRNA transcript
Rewinding
of DNA
Coding strand of DNA
DNA-RNA hybrid region
The DNA-RNA hybrid: At any given moment, 1618 base pairs of
DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still bound to
DNA. This small region is called the DNA-RNA hybrid.
Template
strand
Unwinding
of DNA
RNA nucleotides
Direction of
transcription
Initiation: With the help of transcription factors, RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands,
and initiates mRNA synthesis at the start point on the template strand.
Termination: mRNA synthesis ends when the termination signal
is reached. RNA polymerase and the completed mRNA transcript are
released.
Elongation: As the RNA polymerase moves along the template
strand, elongating the mRNA transcript one base at a time, it unwinds
the DNA double helix before it and rewinds the double helix behind it.
1
2
3
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Translation
Converts base sequence of nucleic acids into
the amino acid sequence of proteins
Involves mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Genetic Code
Each three-base sequence on DNA is
represented by a codon
Codoncomplementary three-base sequence
on mRNA
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.36
SECOND BASE
UUG
UUA
UUC
UUU
Phe
Leu
CUG
CUA
CUC
CUU
Leu
AUA
AUC
AUU
Ile
GUG
GUA
GUC
GUU
Val
UCG
UCA
UCC
UCU
Ser
CCG
CCA
CCC
CCU
Pro
ACG
ACA
ACC
ACU
Thr
GCG
GCA
GCC
GCU
Ala
UAC
UAU
Tyr
CAG
CAA
CAC
CAU
His
Gln
AAG
AAA
AAC
AAU
Asn
Lys
GAG
GAA
GAC
GAU
Asp
Glu
UGC
UGU
Cys
Trp
CGG
CGA
CGC
CGU
Arg
AGG
AGA
AGC
AGU
Ser
Arg
GGG
GGA
GGC
GGU
Gly
UAA Stop UGA Stop
AUG
Met or
Start
UAG Stop UGG
U C A G
G
A
C
U
G
A
C
U
G
A
C
U
G
A
C
U
U
C
A
G
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Translation
mRNA attaches to a small ribosomal subunit that
moves along the mRNA to the start codon
Large ribosomal unit attaches, forming a functional
ribosome
Anticodon of a tRNA binds to its complementary
codon and adds its amino acid to the forming protein
chain
New amino acids are added by other tRNAs as
ribosome moves along rRNA, until stop codon is
reached
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37
1
2
3
4
Leu
Leu
Energized by ATP, the correct amino
acid is attached to each species of
tRNA by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
enzyme.
Amino acid
tRNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
G A
A
tRNA head
bearing
anticodon
P
site A
site
E
site

Ile
Pro
A
A U U
U
C C C
C G G
G
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Small
ribosomal
subunit
Direction of
ribosome advance Portion of mRNA
already translated
Codon
15
Codon
16
Codon
17
Nucleus
mRNA
Released mRNA
Nuclear
membrane
Nuclear pore
RNA polymerase
Template
strand of
DNA
After mRNA synthesis in the
nucleus, mRNA leaves the nucleus
and attaches to a ribosome.
Translation begins as incoming
aminoacyl-tRNA recognizes the
complementary codon calling for
it at the A site on the ribosome. It
hydrogen-bonds to the codon via
its anticodon.
As the ribosome moves along
the mRNA, and each codon is
read in sequence, a new amino
acid is added to the growing
protein chain and the tRNA in
the A site is translocated to the
P site.
Once its amino acid is released
from the P site, tRNA is ratcheted
to the E site and then released to
reenter the cytoplasmic pool,
ready to be recharged with a new
amino acid. The polypeptide is
released when the stop codon is
read.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37 step 1
1
Leu
Energized by ATP, the correct
amino acid is attached to each
species of tRNA by aminoacyl-
tRNA synthetase enzyme.
Amino acid
tRNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
G
A
A
Nucleus
mRNA
Released mRNA
Nuclear
membrane
Nuclear pore
RNA polymerase
Template
strand of
DNA
After mRNA synthesis in
the nucleus, mRNA leaves the
nucleus and attaches to a
ribosome.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37 step 2
2
Leu
tRNA head
bearing
anticodon
P
site A
site
E
site
Ile
Pro
A
A U U
U
C C C
C G G
G
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Small
ribosomal
subunit
Direction of
ribosome advance
Portion of
mRNA already
translated
Codon
15
Codon
16
Codon
17
Translation begins as
incoming aminoacyl-tRNA
recognizes the
complementary codon
calling for it at the A site
on the ribosome. It
hydrogen-bonds to the
codon via its anticodon.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37 step 3
2
3
Leu
tRNA head
bearing
anticodon
P
site A
site
E
site
Ile
Pro
A
A U U
U
C C C
C G G
G
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Small
ribosomal
subunit
Direction of
ribosome advance
Portion of
mRNA already
translated
Codon
15
Codon
16
Codon
17
Translation begins as
incoming aminoacyl-tRNA
recognizes the
complementary codon
calling for it at the A site
on the ribosome. It
hydrogen-bonds to the
codon via its anticodon.
As the ribosome moves
along the mRNA, and each
codon is read in sequence, a
new amino acid is added to
the growing protein chain and
the tRNA in the A site is
translocated to the P site.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37 step 4
2
3
4
Leu
tRNA head
bearing
anticodon
P
site A
site
E
site
Ile
Pro
A
A U U
U
C C C
C G G
G
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Small
ribosomal
subunit
Direction of
ribosome advance
Portion of
mRNA already
translated
Codon
15
Codon
16
Codon
17
Translation begins as
incoming aminoacyl-tRNA
recognizes the
complementary codon
calling for it at the A site
on the ribosome. It
hydrogen-bonds to the
codon via its anticodon.
As the ribosome moves
along the mRNA, and each
codon is read in sequence, a
new amino acid is added to
the growing protein chain and
the tRNA in the A site is
translocated to the P site.
Once its amino acid is
released from the P site, tRNA
is ratcheted to the E site and
then released to reenter the
cytoplasmic pool, ready to be
recharged with a new amino
acid. The polypeptide is
released when the stop
codon is read.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.37
1
2
3
4
Leu
Leu
Energized by ATP, the correct amino
acid is attached to each species of
tRNA by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
enzyme.
Amino acid
tRNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
G A
A
tRNA head
bearing
anticodon
P
site A
site
E
site

Ile
Pro
A
A U U
U
C C C
C G G
G
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Small
ribosomal
subunit
Direction of
ribosome advance Portion of mRNA
already translated
Codon
15
Codon
16
Codon
17
Nucleus
mRNA
Released mRNA
Nuclear
membrane
Nuclear pore
RNA polymerase
Template
strand of
DNA
After mRNA synthesis in the
nucleus, mRNA leaves the nucleus
and attaches to a ribosome.
Translation begins as incoming
aminoacyl-tRNA recognizes the
complementary codon calling for
it at the A site on the ribosome. It
hydrogen-bonds to the codon via
its anticodon.
As the ribosome moves along
the mRNA, and each codon is
read in sequence, a new amino
acid is added to the growing
protein chain and the tRNA in
the A site is translocated to the
P site.
Once its amino acid is released
from the P site, tRNA is ratcheted
to the E site and then released to
reenter the cytoplasmic pool,
ready to be recharged with a new
amino acid. The polypeptide is
released when the stop codon is
read.