GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION METHODS

A Field Guide for Geotechnical Engineers

Roy E. Hunt, P.E., P.G.

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The material was previously published in Geotechnical Engineering Investigations Handbook, Second Edition CRC Press
LLC 2005.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 334872742
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acidfree paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number10: 1420042742 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number13: 9781420042740 (Hardcover)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted
with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa
tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
9787508400. CCC is a notforprofit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For orga
nizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
Hunt, Roy E.
Geotechnical investigation methods : a field guide for geotechnical engineers / by Roy E. Hunt.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1420042742 (alk. paper)
1. Engineering geologyHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Earthwork. I. Title.
TA705.H865 2006
624.151dc22
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2006048956

CRC_42742_FM.qxd

9/19/2006

9:27 AM

Page v

Contents

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1. Exploration..............................................................................................................3
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................3
1.1.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................3
1.1.2 Methodology..............................................................................................................3
1.1.3 Scope ..........................................................................................................................3
1.2 Surface Mapping....................................................................................................................5
1.2.1 General........................................................................................................................5
1.2.2 Research Data ............................................................................................................5
1.2.3 Remotely Sensed Imagery ......................................................................................9
1.2.4 Terrain Analysis ......................................................................................................16
1.2.5 Site Reconnaissance ................................................................................................29
1.2.6 Preparation of Subsurface Exploration Program ..............................................31
1.3 Subsurface Exploration ......................................................................................................31
1.3.1 General......................................................................................................................31
1.3.2 Geophysical methods ............................................................................................32
1.3.3 Reconnaissance Methods ......................................................................................54
1.3.4 Continuous CPT(ASTM D5778)............................................................................54
1.3.5 Test and Core Borings ............................................................................................62
1.3.6 Borehole Remote-Sensing and Logging ..............................................................81
1.3.7 Groundwater and Seepage Detection ..................................................................84
1.4 Recovery of Samples and Cores ........................................................................................87
1.4.1 General......................................................................................................................87
1.4.2 Test Boring Soil Sampling......................................................................................89
1.4.3 Miscellaneous Soil-Sampling Methods................................................................97
1.4.4 Subaqueous Sampling ............................................................................................99
1.4.5 Rock Coring ..........................................................................................................102
1.4.6 Sample and Core Treatment ................................................................................114
1.4.7 Data Presentation ..................................................................................................119
References ....................................................................................................................................123
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................125
Chapter 2.
Measurement of Properties ............................................................................127
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................127
2.1.1 Objectives ..............................................................................................................127
2.1.2 Geotechnical Properties ......................................................................................127
2.1.3 Testing Methods Summarized ............................................................................128
2.2 Basic and Index Properties ..............................................................................................135
2.2.1 Intact Rock ............................................................................................................135
2.2.2 Rock Masses ..........................................................................................................138
2.2.3 Soils ........................................................................................................................139

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC_42742_FM.qxd

9/19/2006

9:27 AM

Page vi

2.3

Hydraulic Properties (Permeability) ..............................................................................151

2.3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................151
2.3.2 Estimating the Permeability Coefficient k ........................................................152
2.3.3 Laboratory Tests ....................................................................................................154
2.3.4 In Situ Testing ........................................................................................................158
2.4 Rupture Strength................................................................................................................162
2.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................162
2.4.2 Shear Strength Relationships ..............................................................................167
2.4.3 Rock Strength Measurements ............................................................................179
2.4.4 Soil Strength Measurements................................................................................187
2.4.5 Soil Penetration Tests............................................................................................199
2.5 Deformation without Rupture ........................................................................................206
2.5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................206
2.5.2 Deformation Relationships ..................................................................................211
2.5.3 Rock Deformation Measurements......................................................................215
2.5.4 Soil Deformation Measurements (Static) ..........................................................223
2.5.5 Dynamic Deformation Moduli (Soils) ..............................................................239
2.6 Typical Values of Basic, Index, and Engineering Properties ......................................242
2.6.1 Rock Masses ..........................................................................................................242
2.6.2 Weathered Rock and Residual Soil ....................................................................243
2.6.3 Cohesionless Soils ................................................................................................243
2.6.4 Clay Soils................................................................................................................243
2.6.5 Compacted Materials ..........................................................................................251
References ....................................................................................................................................251
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................257
Chapter 3.
Field Instrumentation ......................................................................................259
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................259
3.1.1 Methods and Instruments Summarized............................................................259
3.1.2 Objectives ..............................................................................................................259
3.1.3 Applications ..........................................................................................................259
3.1.4 Program Elements ................................................................................................263
3.1.5 Transducers ............................................................................................................265
3.2 Surface Movements ..........................................................................................................267
3.2.1 Forms and Significance ........................................................................................267
3.2.2 Surveying ..............................................................................................................269
3.2.3 Tiltmeters................................................................................................................273
3.2.4 Extensometers........................................................................................................275
3.2.5 Vibration Monitoring............................................................................................278
3.3 Subsurface Deformations ................................................................................................279
3.3.1 Forms and Significance ........................................................................................279
3.3.2 Vertical Displacement ..........................................................................................280
3.3.3 Lateral Displacement............................................................................................285
3.3.4 Linear Strain Gradients ........................................................................................290
3.3.5 Acoustical Emissions ............................................................................................292
3.4 In Situ Pressures and Stresses ..........................................................................................296
3.4.1 General....................................................................................................................296
3.4.2 Pore-Water Pressures............................................................................................297
3.4.3 Loads and Stresses ................................................................................................302
3.4.4 Residual Rock Stresses ........................................................................................305

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC_42742_FM.qxd

9/19/2006

9:27 AM

Page vii

3.5

Instrumentation Arrays for Typical Problems ..............................................................308

3.5.1 Importance ............................................................................................................308
3.5.2 Settlement of Structures ......................................................................................308
3.5.3 Excavation Retention ............................................................................................311
3.5.4 Earth Dams ............................................................................................................312
3.5.5 Tunnels, Caverns, and Mines ..............................................................................314
3.5.6 Natural and Cut Slopes........................................................................................317
3.5.7 Fault Movements ..................................................................................................320
References ....................................................................................................................................320
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................322
Catalogs ........................................................................................................................................322
Appendix A.
The Earth and Geologic History ................................................................323
A.1 Significance to the Engineer ............................................................................................323
A.2 The Earth ............................................................................................................................323
A.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................323
A.2.2 Cross Section ........................................................................................................323
A.3 Global Tectonics ................................................................................................................324
A.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................324
A.3.2 The Hypotheses ....................................................................................................324
A.4 Geologic History ..............................................................................................................325
A.4.1 North America: Provides a General Illustration ............................................325
A.4.2 Radiometric Dating ............................................................................................328
References ....................................................................................................................................329
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................329

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC_42742_Intro.qxd

9/21/2006

5:28 PM

Page 1

Introduction
Purpose and Scope
This book describes and provides the basis for the selection of the numerous methods and
procedures for:
1. Exploring the geologic environment and mapping surficial conditions, including
rock, soil, water, and geologic hazards; preparing subsurface sections; and
obtaining samples of the materials for identification, classification, and laboratory testing.
2. Measurement of material properties (basic, index, hydraulic, and mechanical) in
the field and laboratory.
3. Field instrumentation to measure and monitor movements, deformations, and
stresses occurring naturally or as a consequence of construction.
Although, in practice, analytical procedures and design criteria are often presented as part
of an investigation, they are not included within the scope of this book.

Significance
The investigation phase of any geotechnical study undertaken for development, construction, or any other engineering works is by far the most important phase. Not only must
conditions at the project site be thoroughly identified, but for many projects, the regional
geologic characteristics must also be determined. For all phases of investigation, there are
a large number of methods and devices to choose from, ranging from simple to complex,
and usually several are applicable for a given subject of study.
Geotechnical engineering analyses and evaluations are valid only when based on
properties truly representing all of the natural materials that may influence the works.
Properties of some materials are best measured in the laboratory, while others must be
field tested. In some cases, properties cannot be adequately defined by direct testing
and the result will be designs that are conservative and too costly, unconservative and
risky, or unconservative but based on contingency plans. To monitor ground conditions

1
2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC_42742_Intro.qxd

9/21/2006

5:28 PM

Page 2

Geotechnical Investigation Methods

during construction, field instrumentation is an important element of many studies,

where subsurface conditions cannot be adequately defined by exploration and testing.
Instrumentation is used also to obtain design data and to monitor changing natural
conditions such as slope failures and fault movements.

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC