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C)
Gas composition
(%)
Heating
value
(MJ/Nm
3
)
Yield
(Nm
3
/kg)
Power
(kW)
Cold
efciency
(%)
Ref
Reactor Throat CO H
2
CH
4
Wood chips 1000 500 2.5 1.66
c
n.a 26.5 7.0 2.0 5.06
b
1.44 448.04 48.77
h
[2]
22.1 13.4 2.9 5.59
b,d
1.86 765.15 69.42
h
Rice husk 152 n.a 0.40 n.a n.a n.a n.a 3.91
f
2.13
g
8.20 58.11 [3]
203 n.a 0.39 n.a n.a n.a n.a 4.02
f
2.10
g
14.83 58.78
244 n.a 0.40 n.a n.a n.a n.a 4.00
f
2.17
g
21.40 60.44
343 n.a 0.41 n.a n.a n.a n.a 3.98
f
2.22
g
43.89 61.49
Wood chips 600 200 2.5 0.287 1000 n.a n.a n.a 5.19
a
n.a 44.93 76.68 [4]
Hazelnut shells 450 135 0.81 1.51
e
1025 16.8 14.12 1.70 4.55
a
1.97 9.17 51.53 [5]
Rubber wood 920 100 1.15 1.9
c
1000 20.2 18.3 1.1 n.a n.a n.a n.a [6]
Sawdust 270 1.1 0.26 900 19.48 18.89 3.96 6.32
a
1.99
h
n.a 62.5
h
[7]
Pine wood blocks 350 n.a 1.3 0.28 1108 25.53 28.93 6.82 4.76 n.a n.a n.a [8]
Wood chips 440 350 2 1.3
c
1460 9.4 14.8 1.2 3.8
b
n.a n.a n.a [10]
Rice husk 30 n.a 1.5
c
1000 n.a n.a n.a 4.2
a
n.a n.a 60 [11]
Wood chips 250 70 1.05 0.32 900 19.48 18.89 3.96 6.32
a
n.a n.a 62.5 [12]
Wood waste 310 150 1.1 0.205 1050 22 14 0.1 6.34
a
1.62 7.38 55 [13]
n.a: not available.
a
Higher heating value.
b
Lower heating value.
c
Air/Fuel ratio in Nm
3
/kg.
d
Dry, inert free.
e
Air/Fuel ratio (Nm
3
/kg), fuel is dry, ash free.
f
Lower heating value at 25
C.
g
At 25
C.
h
Dry basis.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 4
reactors design. The gasication efciency, usually determined on
the lower heating value basis, can be calculated in two different
ways and is dened as the hot or cold efciency. The hot efciency
is calculated as the ratio of the total energy in the producer gas
(sensible and chemical) and the chemical energy in the feedstock
(the heating value). The cold efciency calculations account only for
the heating value of the producer gas and neglect the value of the
sensible heat. In order to compare the gasication efciencies, the
majority of authors consider the cold efciency value in order to
avoid the uncertainty related to the calculations of the sensible heat
of producer gas discharged from the reactor since the high
temperature of this gas is very often not the objective in the gasi-
cation process. Typical values of the cold efciency for biomass
gasication in a downdraft reactor are between 50 and 80%, see
Table 1.
Overall, the performance parameters of the biomass gasication
in a downdraft reactor, namely the producer gas composition, its
caloric value, the yield and the efciency of the conversion
process, depend on such physicalechemical properties of the
feedstock as the moisture content and the particle size [19,21]. Also
there is the inuence of process parameters such as the equivalence
ratio which determines the temperature levels. Finally, the
performance is affected by a number of design features of the
reactor, such as the locations of the air inlets, the volume of the
gasication zone [19] and the grates design [18]. Table 1 presents
main design dimensions and test results of biomass gasication in
downdraft reactors both with and without throat, as reported by
a number of authors. As it can be seen in Table 1, the low heating
value and the process cold efciency for this type of reactor is
around 4e6 MJ/Nm
3
and 50e70%, respectively. The typical average
temperature in the combustion zone is around 1000
C. The
equivalence ratio varies between 0.2 and 0.4. In gas engine appli-
cations a typical safe turndown ratio of a downdraft gasier, which
is ratio of the maximum and minimum ow of producer gas, is 3.
Any further increase of the turndown ratio compromises the
quality of syngas in terms of the tar content and negatively affects
the durability of the engine.
5. Reciprocating internal combustion engines fuelled with
producer gas
RICEs are traditionally used with downdraft gasiers and
signicant research has beenperformed on studying and improving
the operation of RICEs fuelled by producer gas. The quality of
producer gas as a fuel is considerably poorer compared to gasoline
and natural gas. Hence engines require certain design modications
to be carried out in order to be able to run on producer gas. Spark
ignition and diesel engines fuelled with articial gas with a quality
similar tothat of producer gas were studied by Muoz et al. [37]. The
operation of engines was also investigated using real producer gas
obtained in biomass gasiers and the results were described by
Wang et al. [24], Sridhar et al. [38], Shashikantha et al. [39], Ram-
achandra [40], Bhattacharya et al. [31], Uma et al. [41], Henriksen
et al. [34], Ramadhas et al. [42], Ramadhas et al. [43] and Bana-
purmath and Tewari [44]. The above publications present data
obtained in experimental investigations on the engines brake
power, torque, efciency, power de-rating, emissions, exhaust
temperature and knock tendency, taking into account the inuence
of the air/fuel equivalence and the compression ratios.
Alongside the experimental research, extensive theoretical
investigations have also been performed using various modelling
tools on the operation of RICEs fuelled by producer gas. Thus
Lapuerta et al. [45] employed a chemical equilibrium model which
took into consideration 28 species to calculate the producer gas
composition as a function of the biomass-to-air ratio and its
thermo-chemical parameters, such as the adiabatic ame temper-
ature, the heat release and the auto-ignition period. A quasi-
dimensional two zone combustion model was employed to
describe the working process of a spark ignition engine taking into
account the inuence of the important combustion parameters. In
conclusion the authors in [45] proposed recommendations on
engine design modications, including an increase in the
compression ratio. Rakopoulos et al. [46] used a zero-dimensional,
multi-zone thermodynamic combustion model for the analysis of
the effect of the spark ignition timing on the engines performance.
The model was calibrated using experimental data and applied for
calculations of a multi-cylinder, four-stroke natural gas engine
running on synthetic gas fuel. The above engine was equipped with
a turbocharger with an after-cooling system. Tinaut et al. [16] used
a two zone combustion model for the description of the working
process of an engine and concluded that the main parameter
dening the performance of the engine is the caloric value (per
unit volume) of the stoichiometric air/producer gas mixture. The
above model determines the fraction of the mass burnt, the vari-
ation of the pressure and temperature over the cycle and values of
the engines efciency and of its indicated mean pressure. Using
a parameter named as the Engine Fuel Quality (EFQ) the authors
estimated the magnitude of the power de-rating in the engine
fuelled by the producer gas.
To use the producer gas obtained in the process of biomass
gasication for the electricity generation in both diesel and spark
ignition engines it is necessary to ensure that the quality of gas is
sufciently high in terms of tar and particulates content to maintain
the reliable engines operation and to provide an adequate dura-
bility of major engine components, such as the valves, the
combustion chamber, the piston, etc. Table 2 presents the main
substances contained in producer gas that limit its application in
RICEs. Hasler and Nussbaumer [47] indicate that the allowed
particle and tar concentration in producer gas for satisfactorily
operation of the internal combustion engine must be less than 50
mg/Nm
3
and 100 mg/Nm
3
, respectively. The gas quality require-
ments described in the literature should be interpreted with
caution since the type of the engine used in tests and its design
features play an important role [47]. In some cases a satisfactorily
engine operation was observed at higher tar concentration levels
than those indicated above. It was reported in [38] that producer
gas was used in standard diesel engines in the dual-fuel mode
operation and that diesel fuel savings up to 85% had been obtained.
However, in the case described above, the power produced by the
engine cannot be considered as achieved entirely by the utilization
of only a renewable energy source. The specic design feature of
that engine was its capability to operate on diesel oil in the case
when biomass was not available or when a malfunction occurred in
the operation of the gasier. Diesel engines have certain advantages
such as their higher efciency due to a greater compression ratio
which usually varies between 12 and 24 [48], their better durability
and, in some cases, the lower maintenance compared to
spark-ignition engines. Generally, design modications required in
diesel engines in order to make these machines run on 100%
producer gas include the installation of additional equipment
incorporating spark ignition and air-gas mixing systems. In spark
ignition and diesel engines producer gas and air are usually mixed
in an intake collector and then the air-fuel mixture now ready for
combustion enters the cylinders of the engine.
Test results obtainedusingdiesel engines runningonlowcaloric
gas producedinabiomass gasier arepresentedbySridhar et al. [38],
Shashikantha et al. [39] and Ramachandra [40]. The possibility of
runningRICEs inthedual-fuel modeof operationwithaconsiderable
reduction in the consumption of diesel oil was demonstrated in
a number of publications, such as by Wang et al. [24], Ramachandra
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 5
[40], Bhattacharya et al. [31], Uma et al. [41], Ramadhas et al. [42],
Ramadhas et al. [43] and by Banapurmath and Tewari [44]. It was
reportedin[44] that thepower de-ratingof engines observedinsuch
an operational mode was between 20 and 30%.
A case of fuelling modern spark ignition engines with producer
gas was described by Muoz et al. [37]. Due to the relatively low
compression ratio of this type of engine, namely between 8 and 12
[48], the power de-rating observed was considerably greater than
that in diesel engines. According to Sridhar et al. [38], the reduction
in power in an engine run on producer gas is mainly attributed to
the lower net caloric value of the air/fuel mixture. Lapuerta et al.
[45] suggested that the engines power was limited by the volume
of the gas/air mixture which enters the engine cylinders. The
amount of the combustible mixture supplied to a cylinder is
determined by the cylinders displaced volume, pressure and
temperature conditions inside the cylinder and by the pressure and
temperature of the gas/air mixture. The stoichiometric mass ratio in
the air/producer gas mixture is between 1.0 and 1.2, compared to 17
for methane and thus an adequate mixing and dosage device is
necessary for an engine to operate with high performance. The
conventional carburetors are suitable for high caloric gaseous
fuels, such as natural gas, and form a mixture with a high stoi-
chiometric ratio. Low caloric gases require modied carburetors
and Sridhar et al. [49] described such a gas carburetor for low
energy density fuels. This device with its improved control and
minimal pressure losses very accurately maintained the required
air/fuel ratio over a wide load range and provided the smooth
running of the engine at a comparatively high efciency.
6. Parameters affecting the performance of RICEs fuelled
with producer gas
The parameters which mainly affect the performance of RICEs
are the energy density or the heating value of the producer gas/air
mixture, the displaced volume of the engine, the methane or octane
number of the fuel, the ame speed of the fuel/air mixture, the
auto-ignition delay period, the compression ratio of the engine
(which is related to the knock tendency) and the spark timing.
Some results reported in the open literature on RICEs fuelled with
producer gas are systematised in Table 3.
6.1. Energy density
The energy density of any fuel/air stoichiometric mixture (HV
m
)
canbe determinedinterms of thevolumetric heating value (kJ/Nm
3
).
The energy density of the producer gas/air mixture mainly depends
on the concentration of the combustible components in producer
gas. The low heating value of the producer gas obtained from
biomass gasication in a downdraft reactor using air as an oxidizing
agent is around5000kJ/Nm
3
withthefollowingaverage composition
of the combustible components: H
2
- 20%, CO - 20% and CH
4
- 1%.
With such concentrations of combustible substances the energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture is about 2400 kJ/Nm
3
. This
value is lower than the energy density of a natural gas/air mixture
which is 3400 kJ/Nm
3
(natural gas is assumed to be 100% CH
4
). The
theoretical value of the power de-rating when a natural gas engine is
switched to operate on producer gas is about 30%. This value is
consistent withthe estimationmade byTinaut et al. [16]. Inthis study
the authors usedtheEFQparameter toanalyzethe performanceof an
engine operating on a particular fuel. They predicted that the power
of the engine fuelled with producer gas in the full load regime of
operation will be approximately two-thirds of the maximum power
obtained with conventional liquid fuel [16]. However, a thermody-
namic analysis demonstratedthat a lesser valueof power de-ratingat
the level of 15e20% could be achieved if the producer gas is used in
engines with a higher compression ratio [49].
The current engine technology intensively exploits advantages
of lean combustion operation. For producer gas/air mixtures the
lean combustion condition is achieved when the actual air/fuel
ratio is greater than 2 and in such conditions the relative energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture may be higher than some
fossil fuels, such as gasoline [45]. This results in the power de-
rating being lower when the producer gas/air mixture is used.
Producer gas is adequate for a lean burn and combustion of
a corresponding fuel/air mixture results in low NOx emissions due
to the lower combustion temperature and in the low specic fuel
consumption.
6.2. Cylinder volume
The amount of a combustible mixture which can be delivered to
a combustion chamber in a cylinder is determined by the engines
displaced volume and by the fuels initial pressure and tempera-
ture. Thus, to maintain the power level in a conventional natural
gas engine switched to operate on low heating value fuel, such as
producer gas, the fuel amount should be increased signicantly
which would exceed the engines capacity. This can be achieved
using a turbocharger for increasing the pressure of the air-fuel
mixture in the beginning of the compression process in a cylinder.
6.3. Flame speed and spark timing
The speed of the ame depends on the chemical composition of
fuel, the amount of air used in the combustion process, which is
characterized by the parameter ER, and the pressure and tempera-
ture of the fuel/air mixture. Additionally, the speed of the ame
Table 2
Presence of pollutants in producer gas and used controlling mechanisms.
Pollutant Source Possible problems Control mechanism and/or
mitigation
Particulates Ash, bed material Erosion, agglomeration and fouling.
Environmental pollution
Filtration, gas cleaning
(scrubber)
Alkali metals (sodium,
potassium in the ash).
Ash Corrosion Cooling, condensation, ltration,
adsorption.
Nitrogen compounds
(NOx, NH
3
, HCN)
Reaction of nitrogen contained i
n air and feedstock
Corrosion, environmental pollution Treatment with substances of basic
character, use of pure oxygen
in the process
Sulfur and chlorine
compounds (HCl, H
2
S)
Reaction of sulfur and chlorine
contained in the feedstock
Cleaning, capture with CaCO
3
, MgCO
3
Tar (complex
hydrocarbon mixtures).
Low temperatures in the process,
considerable amount of volatile
in the feedstock
Corrosion, agglomerations and fouling.
Health hazard
Removal, cracking
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 6
depends onthe turbulence intensity, whichinits turn, is pre-dened
by the engine speed [48]. Rich mixtures ignite more readily and are
characterised with a higher ame speed and therefore provide
a more reliable start of the overall combustion process [48]. The
ame speed in its turn has a signicant effect on the performance of
the engine and on the level of pollutant emissions [50].
Kanitkar et al. [51] reported experimental results on the
combustion of the producer gas/air mixture at ambient conditions
(0.95 atm and 300 K). The ame temperature was 1546 25 K with
the ame speed of 0.5 0.05 m/s and the limits of the ame
propagation varied fromthe mixture being lean (26% of fuel with an
ER value of 0.47) to rich (56% of fuel with an ER value of 1.65). The
peak ame speed was registered to be 0.55 0.05 m/s in an air/fuel
ratio varied between 1.2 and 1.4 and this value is greater than that
for methane and carbon monoxide, but much less compared to that
for hydrogen [51]. In a more recent study Hernndez et al. [50]
reported that an experimental value of the laminar ame velocity
was 0.5 m/s at 300K and 1 bar conditions in the burning process of
the stoichiometric air/producer gas mixture in a combustion bomb.
The authors also used a software tool, namely CHEMKIN, together
with GRI-Mech for computing the laminar ame velocity for
different producer gas compositions at various pressure and
temperature conditions for a range of the producer gas/air equiv-
alence ratios. For the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio at 300 K and 1 bar
conditions the laminar ame velocity of the producer gas was
found to be 0.42 m/s. At typical engine operating conditions, which
are characterized by high pressures and temperatures, the
producer gas laminar ame velocity values were calculated to be
lower than that of isooctane but higher than that of methane.
6.4. Spark timing
According to Sridhar [49] the considerable hydrogen concen-
tration in producer gas makes it necessary to use the smaller spark
advancement (retarding) in the spark timing to achieve a better
engine performance. In this case the spark is red at the instance of
the cycle when the piston is very close to its top dead center (TDC).
This is because of the high hydrogen concentration (around 20%) in
producer gas. Hydrogen has a higher ame speed which is about
2.7 m/s at ambient conditions [51]. However, it is necessary to take
into account that the spark timing also depends on other variables,
such as the level of load and the engines speed. Theoretically the
ideal instance of time for the spark to be red is when the piston is
at the permissible high position in the cylinder and when the fuel/
air mixture is fully compressed so the pistons power stroke occurs
with the extraction of the maximum power. Setting the correct
spark timing results in a high torque exerted at the xed speed
which corresponds to a higher power output from the engine and
to a lower specic fuel consumption. This point is usually known as
a maximum brake torque (MBT) point and can be observed in the
pressure vs. crank angle (p-q) curve as a peak in the instance in the
cycle corresponding to 16-17 degrees of crank angle after the
pistons TDC [48]. Experiments in a single cylinder, four stroke,
water cooled diesel engine with a compression ratio of 17 which
was adapted to run as a spark ignition engine were carried out by
Ramachandra [40] and it was observed that a spark timing set to
10
C)
Engines
thermal
efciency
(%)
Combustion
equivalence
ratio
Overall
Efciency
b
(%)
Ref
Simulated
gas
Spark
ignition
2500 8.2:1 100 None 2.3
c
n.a n.a 634
@ 2000 rpm
n.a n.a n.a [15]
Wood Diesel 1500 11.5:1 100 Ignition
system
d
12e16
e
35 n.a 360- 430
C 28e32 n.a 21e24
f
[16]
Wood Diesel 1500 17:1 100 Ignition
system
g
2.3
c
10 20
h
310 e 370
C 19.05
i
n.a n.a [17]
Wood chips Diesel n.a n.a 100 Ignition
system
15e20
e
n.a 20 n.a 28
i
n.a 25
f
[20]
Coconut shell Diesel 1500 18.5:1 81 None 11.44
c
n.a 21 488.2 14.7
j
n.a 11.69
f
[18]
13.22
e
Wood Diesel 1500 50 17:1 100 Ignition
system
17.5
e
6 (MBT) 16.7
k
n.a n.a 1.05
l
16.6
m
[14]
Wood Diesel 1500 17.5:1 65% None 4
c
27 20 410 22
i
n.a n.a [23]
60% Ignition
system
450 24
i
n.a n.a
a
Calculated as a fraction of a nominal engine power.
b
Gasication and engine system.
c
Brake power.
d
Combustion chamber was re-designed for the combustion with the turbulent ame propagation, CR was changed from 17 to 11.5.
e
Electric power.
f
From biomass to net electricity.
g
The engine can operate in diesel and dual fuel mode.
h
Assuming the alternator and transmission efciency of 80% and 95% respectively.
i
On the shaft.
j
Engineegenerator system.
k
In brake power.
l
Fuel/air equivalence ratio.
m
From biomass input to shaft output.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 7
6.5. Knock tendency
For gaseous fuels, the methane number is used to compare
knock properties and this is analogous to the octane number used
to quantify knock properties of liquid gasoline fuels. Engines with
a high compression ratio require fuels with the high octane/
methane number in order to avoid an uncontrolled self-ignition of
the fuel and the formation of sharp pressure peaks in the engines
cylinder after the start of such a combustion process. Malenshek
[52] developed a model and an experimental apparatus which was
used to blend simulated alternative gaseous fuels and measure
their methane number. Numerous engines were run on natural gas
and the methane number was varied between 75 and 95. Producer
gas has a higher methane number than natural gas and therefore it
is not prone to detonation during the compression stroke.
The knock is caused by a combination of factors, such as the
combustion chamber design, the equivalence ratio, the intake air
temperature and the pressure, the spark timing and fuel properties.
The experiments conducted by Sridhar et al. [38] demonstrated
a smooth engine operation at the compression ratio of 17 without
any traces of knocking when the engine was fuelled with producer
gas with the following composition: 19 1% of H
2
; 19 1% of CO;
2% of CH
4
; 12 1% of CO
2
; 2 0:5% of H
2
O with the remaining
made up of N
2
. Also in [38] the tendency of producer gas to
uncontrolled self-ignition in high compression ratio RICEs due to
the high concentration of the hydrogen in the gas was addressed by
the authors. The high concentration of inert gases in producer gas,
such as CO
2
and N
2,
namely 12e15% and 48e50%, respectively, acts
as a knock suppressor and explains the high methane number
compared to that of natural gas. Shrestha and Rodrigues [53]
demonstrated the increased knock resistance within the extended
engines operational range due to the presence of carbon dioxide
and nitrogen in gaseous fuels. The carbon dioxides presence in the
fuel is an efcient knock suppressor, providing the controlled
combustion of the fuel composition with the lowmethane number,
which otherwise would be prone to a high intensity knock.
Nitrogen also demonstrates a similar knock suppressing quality,
but not to the such extent as the carbon dioxide does [53]. Addi-
tionally, the maximumame temperature attainable with producer
gas is lower compared to conventional fuel such as methane and
therefore a better knock resistivity could be expected when an
engine runs on producer gas [49]. All the above results substantiate
the possibility of running RICEs on producer gas with a higher
compression ratio.
Gaseous fuels with high hydrogen concentrations usually are
less resistant to detonation. However, the high ame speed of the
corresponding fuel/air mixture reduces the probability of knocking.
According to [48], the greater the ame speed in an air/fuel mixture
the higher is the octane number of the fuel. With a high ame
speed, the portion of the air/fuel mixture that is heated above the
self-ignition temperature will be burnt off during the ignition delay
period and therefore the occurrence of knocking will be avoided.
6.6. Auto-ignition period
The auto-ignition delay period of a fuel/air mixture is an
important parameter in the RICEs operation and also can be used to
characterise the knock tendency. This parameter is dened as the
time required for the mixture to spontaneously ignite at certain
temperature and pressure conditions. The length of the ignition
delay depends on the producer gas composition and on the
producer gas/air ratio in the engine [54]. The auto-ignition delay
time of a fuel/air mixture was theoretically determined by Lapuerta
et al. [45] using CHEMKIN III software. The results obtained
demonstrated that at a constant cylinder pressure of 20 bar the
auto-ignition delay period for producer gas is much longer than
that for gasoline in the low temperature range, namely below
950 K. However, the ignition delay period signicantly shortens at
the high temperature range. With the pressure increased to the
50 bar the auto-ignition delay period for producer gas remains just
slightly shorter than that for gasoline in the high temperature range
[45] and therefore the producer gas/air mixture has a low knock
tendency. According to the authors in [45] the expected lower
combustion temperatures, together with the longer auto-ignition
delay period, for the producer gas/air mixture would make it
possible to increase the compression ratio of the engine without
increasing the knock tendency.
Another problem associated with using producer gas in RICEs is
the possibility of backring which is ignition of the gas/air mixture
in the intake manifold and its burning in an explosive manner
causing the engine to stop. This is attributed to the relatively weak
ionization of the hydrogen/oxygen ame. An electric potential
present in the ignition cables could cause abnormal ignitions in the
RICEs. The authors recommended shielding the ignition cables to
avoid these kinds of difculties.
7. Conclusions
The main parameters governing the gasication process of
biomass in downdraft reactors using air as an oxidizing agent were
discussed. The effects of the equivalence ratio (whichshould be kept
between 0.2 and 0.4), the biomass particle size (which usually
should be less than 5 cm), the moisture content (which should be
less than 25%) and the inuence of gasier design features were
analyzed. The literature review carried out in this subject area
indicates that the low heating value and the process cold efciency
for a downdraft type reactor are around 4e6 MJ/Nm
3
and 50e70%,
respectively. The average temperature in the combustion zone is
about 1000
C. The specics of the use of producer gas in RICEs
(diesel and spark ignition ones) were discussed. The low energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture and the engines volumetric
efciency are the main factors causing the power de-rating of
engines. Due to the relatively high ame speed of the producer gas/
air mixture caused by the presence of hydrogen in the mixture it is
necessary to retard the spark ignition time in order to achieve
a greater efciency in the operation of the engine. Also the possi-
bility of using engines with a higher compression ratio when fuelled
with producer gas without any increase in the knock tendency is
highlighted. The rise of the engines compression ratio results in the
reductionof the power de-rating. The use of air as anoxidizing agent
in the biomass gasication process leads to high concentrations of
nitrogen (between 40 and 50%) in the fuel/air mixture and the
nitrogenacts as a knocksuppressor whichis benecial incases when
engines with the high compression ratio are employed.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Companhia
Paulista de Fora e Luz (CPFL) for the nancial support received
through project PD153.
Also we would like to thank the Committee on Coordination of
Improvements in Higher Education (CAPES) for the allocation of
a scholarship and the National Research Council of Brazil (CNPq) for
their nancial support.
Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge the Foundation of
Science support from the Minas Gerais State (FAPEMIG).
Finally, we would like to thank the Royal Society (UK) for the
nancial support to perform this collaborative research between
teams at Northumbria University (UK) and the Federal University of
Itajuba (Brazil).
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 8
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