A-12 I E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

To compensate for voltage drop, either

(1)
Reduce the length of the line by relocating control centers, or
(2)
Increase conductor size, or
(3)
Recircuit for less wattage and current per circuit or feeder.
Power Factor
Power in a resistance circuit (no inductance or capacitance) is always equal to
volts x amperes. In this type of circuit, the alternating current is in phase or in
step with the voltage and the power factor is unity or 100 per cent.
Where both resistance and inductance are found in an a-c circuit, the current lags
behind the voltage, causing the apparent power (volts x amperes) to be greater than
the true power (volts x amperes x power factor). The ratio of true power to ap-
parent power in an a-c circuit is expressed by the power factor. When the current
lags it is described as a lagging power factor and, conversely, if the current leads,
as in a capacitive circuit, it is described as a leading power factor.
_,
True power Watts
Power factor = =
Apparent power Volt-amperes
Watts =
Volt-amperes
X
power factor
The greater the amount of inductance in a circuit, the lower the power factor.
In commercial and industrical installations the power factor usually is lagging.
If is remains under 85 per cent it is considered low and invariably a customer is
charged more by the central station for this condition. Improvement of power factor
is made to reduce useless reactive power on circuits, to improve voltage regulation,
and to reduce energy and demand charges.
Systems
There are a number of systems that may be used as a means in distributing elec-
trical energy, namely:
1. Direct current two- or three-wire
2. Single phase (ac) two- or three-wire
3. Two phase (ac) three-, four-, or five-wire
4. Three phase (ac) three- or four-wire
Direct current and single-phase alternating current. The direct current and single-
phase alternating current (two- or three-wire) systems, rated 115/230 and 120/240
volts, commonly are used for lighting and miscellaneous purposes. Motor loads in
excess of 5 horsepower generally are not connected to these systems. The neutral
wire is grounded and should, therefore, be "solid" (not capable of being disconnected)
throughout the system. Branch circuits may be two-wire, 115- or 230-volt, or three-
wire, 115- or 230-volt. Feeders are chiefly three-wire, except where motor loads
only (230-volt) are served, in which case two-wire feeders are used.
Two-phase alternating current. Two-phase systems may employ three, four, or
five wires. The two-phase, four-wire system is essentially two single-phase, two-wire
systems. The two-phase, five-wire system is essentially two single-phase, three-wire
systems with a common neutral. The lighting load is connected to each phase as
though it were single-phase, either two- or three-wire, care being exercised to be sure
that both phases are balanced as well as possible. Motors are connected to all four
phase wires.
In the case of a two-phase, three-wire system, a common wire takes the place of
two of the four wires of the four-wire, two-phase system. The common wire usually
is grounded solidly. The voltage between the two-phase wires is 1.41 times greater
than between the common wire and one of the phase wires; in other words, if the volt-
age between the common wire and one of the phase wires is 120 volts, then the voltage
between the two-phase wires is 170 volts. Lighting is connected between the common