Lecture notes for CE 248 Behavior of plastic design of steel structures

Topic: Loading
Prepared by: T.Y. Yang
Date: August 31st 2006

Text: ASCE 7 – 02 (or 05): Minimum Design Loads for Building and Other Structures.

Scope:
“This standard provides minimum load requirements for the design of buildings
and other structures that are subject to building code requirements. Loads and appropriate
load combinations, which have been developed to be used together, are set forth for
strength design and allowable stress design. For design strengths and allowable stress
limits, design specifications for conventional structural materials used in buildings and
modifications contained in this standard shall be followed.”

• Provide the minimum load requirements.

• Used for LRFD or ASD.

(Courtesy of Prof. Moehle)

Allowable Stress Design (ASD):
• Used by engineers for more than 150
years.
• Best estimate of the load are applied to
a linearly equivalent model.
• Stress of the model is calculated and
checked against “Allowable” stress
(usually portion of the yield stress).
• For example:
o Allowable tensile stress for gross steel cross section = 0.6 Fy. This is
equivalent of providing a safety factor of 1.67 (Fy/0.6Fy = 1.67).
o Different material (steel, concrete) and action (tension, shear, bending,
torsion) will have different safety factor.
(Courtesy of Prof. Moehle)

Load and Resistant Factor Design (LRFD):

• Routinely used by engineers in the
design office.
• Loads are factored to calculate the
ultimate load, where the load factors are
based on statistical interpolation of
measured condition.
o For example the load factor for
the dead load is greater than the
live load.
• The applied load is then applied to a linearly elastic model.
 • The component capacities are calculated assuming some inelastic behavior of the
cross section.
• Different strength reduction factor φ are assigned for different failure mode. For
example: φ = 0.9 (for bending), φ = 0.85 (for shear). This is because we want to
be more conservative in shear failure than flexure failure.
• Simultaneously consider the uncertainties in both the Load and Resisting
Strength. => ∑ λi Qi ≤ φ Rn .

“Basic” requirements:
1. Strength:
a. ASD => stress check.
b. LRFD => check the force between demand and capacity.

2. Service ability:
a. Drift, vertical deflection, vibration,…, ect.
b. Typical deflection limits: LL=> L/360, DL+LL=> L/240 ~ L/180
c. Figure 5.7 for vibration as source of discomfort and damage.

3. Self-strained force:
a. Creep. dt, …, ect.

4. Counter acting structural action:

a. Overturning, sliding, up lifting, …, ect.
b. For example, design of isolators. Need to consider the friction force
needed to prevent sliding.

System integrity:
• Ductility, energy dissipation, progressive collapse.
• Redundancy, Redundancy, Redundancy!!!

Classification of Buildings and other structures:

• Category I, II, III, IV. (Higher the number the higher importance).
• Selected base on:
o Number of occupancy and Hazardous content in the building.
• Minor storage facility => Category I.
• Typical residential single unit house => Category II.
• Schools, Offices with more people involved => Category III.
• Hospitals, Federal facilities => Category IV.
• Your own house => Category V. (Just kidding, there is no such category).
• Check ASCE 7-02 Table 1-1 (pg 4) for more detail information.
Load combination factors (LRFD):
1. 1.4(D + F)
2. 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
* Note there are some exceptions to watch. Please refer to ASCE 7-02 Section 2.3.2.

Load combination factors (ASD):

1. D + F
2. D + H + F + L + T
3. D + H + F + (Lr or S or R)
4. D + H + F + 0.75(L + T ) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D + H + F + (W or 0.7E)
6. D + H + F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L
7. 0.75(Lr or S or R)
8. 0.6D + W + H
9. 0.6D + 0.7E + H
* Please refer to ASCE 7-02 Section 2.4.2 for more details.

Notations:
D = dead load
Di = weight of ice
E = earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
Fa = flood load
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, ground water pressure or pressure of bulk materials
L = live load
Lr = roof live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
T = self-straining force
W = wind load
Wi = wind-on-ice determined in accordance with Chapter 10
Sometimes the maximum loading for the member is not to assign live loads.
For example:

Maximum negative moment at support B. Maximum reaction at support B.

Live loads

Dead loads

A B C D
Maximum positive moment at span AB and CD.

Live loads Live loads

Dead loads

A B C D
Dead loads:
• 3.1 Definition. Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of construction
incorporated into the building including, but not limited to, walls, floors, roofs,
ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly
incorporated architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment
including the weight of cranes.
• Check ASCE 7-02 Table C3-1 (pg 246) for minimum design dead loads.
• Check ASCE 7-02 Table C3-2 (pg 252) for material weight.

Live loads:
• 4.1 Definition. A load produced by the use and occupancy of the building or other
structure that does not include construction or environmental loads, such as wind
load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or dead load.
• L0 , ASCE 7-02 Table 4-1 (pg 12) - minimum uniformly distributed and
concentrated live loads.
• Live load reduction: ASCE 7-02 Section 4.8 (pg 10)
o Since the probability for elements with large influence area to have all its
live load acting on the element at the same time is small, most building
code allows live load reduction.
⎛ 15 ⎞
o L = L0 ⎜ 0.25 + ⎟ ASCE 7-02 Equation 4-1 (pg 10)
⎜ K A ⎟
⎝ LL T ⎠

ƒ AT = tributary area [ ft 2 ].
ƒ K LL = live load element factor. ASCE 7-02 Table 4-2 (pg 15)
ƒ Note: K LL AT = AI = Area influence. Explain: how to calculate K LL
using ASCE 7-02 Figure C4 (pg 258)
ƒ For element carrying live load for more than one story, add AI for
all the stories together.
ƒ L ≥ 0.5L0 for member supporting one story. L ≥ 0.4 L0 for member
supporting more than one story.
o Exceptions:
1. Heavy live loads (> 100 psf): => no reduction. Except member
support more than one story, L = 0.8L0
2. Car garage: => no reduction. Except member support more than
one story, L = 0.8L0
3. Public assembly occupancy (< 100 psf): => no reduction.
4. One-way slab. AT ≤ 1.5Lb 2 , where Lb = span length.
Roof live loads:
• 4.1 Definition. A load on a roof produced (1) during maintenance by workers,
R1 = 1 equipment, and materials and (2) during the life of the structure by movable
objects, such as planters or other similar small decorative appurtenances that are
not occupancy related.
• Minimum roof live loads: ASCE 7-02 Section 4.9 (pg 11)
o Lr = 20 R1 R2 where 12 ≤ Lr ≤ 20 [psf].
1 for At ≤ 200 ft 2
o R1 = 1.2 − 0.001 At for 200 ft 2 < At < 600 ft 2
0.6 for At ≥ 600 ft 2
where At = tributary area for any one member.

1 for F ≤ 4
o R2 = 1.2 − 0.05 F for 4 < F < 12
0.6 for F ≥ 12
where F = number of inches of rises per ft. For arch or domes, F = rise to
span ratio x 32.

• Direction of applying roof live load:

o Apply the roof live load at horizontal projection of the roof
Lr Lr

roof roof
,
(yes) (no)

Crane loads:
• See ASCE 7-02 Section 4.10 (pg 11)

Soil and hydrostatic pressure and floor loads:

• See ASCE 7-02 Section 5 (pg 17 ~ pg 22)
Snow loads:
• ASCE 7-02 Section 7 (pg 77).
• Ground snow loads, pg
o Read from ASCE 7-02 Figure 7-1 (pg 82 ~ pg 83).
ƒ The unit is psf. The number in parentheses represents the upper
elevation limit in ft.
ƒ In CS area use local map to determine the ground snow load.
ƒ In Alaska area obtain the value from ASCE 7-02 Table 7-1 (pg
90)
• Flat roof snow loads (slope < 5 degrees), p f
o p f = 0.7 Ce Ct I pg [psf]
o Exposure factor, Ce
ƒ ASCE 7-02 Table 7-2 (pg 90)
o Thermal factor, Ct
ƒ ASCE 7-02 Table 7-3 (pg 91)
o Importance factor, I
ƒ ASCE 7-02 Table 7-4 (pg 91)

• Low slope roof snow loads (slope < 15 degrees and curved roof with vertical
angles from eaves to crown < 10 degrees), p f
o pg ≤ 20 psf ⇒ p f = max(0.7 Ce Ct I pg , pg I )
o pg > 20 psf ⇒ p f = max(0.7 Ce Ct I pg , pg )

crown

eave < 10 degrees

• Sloped roof snow loads (slope ≥ 15 degrees and curved roof with vertical angles
from eaves to crown ≥ 10 degrees), ps
o ps = Cs p f [psf]
o Roof slope factor (a reduction factor), Cs
ƒ ASCE 7-02 Figure 7-2 (pg 84)

• Portion of the roof with slope > 70 degrees => no snow load.

no snow loads

> 70 degrees
• For folded plate, saw tooth and barrel vault roofs, Cs = 1 (no reduction). This
roof collect snows in the valley.

• Unbalanced snow loads

o When 15 degrees ≤ roof slope ≤ 70 degrees, snow from the windward
side might be blow to the leeward side of the rood by wind, hence it is
important to consider the unbalanced snow load. Balance and unbalanced
snow loads should be considered separately.
o Unbalanced snow load = 1.5 ps / Ce .

Balanced snow loads Unbalanced snow loads

roof roof
,

o For curved roof and multiple fold plate, saw tooth and barrel vault roof see
ASCE 7-02 Section 7.6.2 and Section 7.6.3 (pg 79)
o Remember to consider the worst combination for the member loading!