11th SAGA Biennial Technical Meeting and Exhibition

Swaziland, 16 - 18 September 2009, pages 319 - 324

2D Seismic Reflection Surveys and Structural Mapping: Faults,
Dips and Domes


Geoff Campbell
1


1. SAGA, SEG, GAP Geophysics and Quik_Log Geophysics, South Africa, gapgeo@icon.co.za



ABSTRACT

In the local mineral exploration environment the high resolution imaging capabilities of 2D seismic reflection
surveys continue to provide rapid, cost-effective mapping solutions over areas of structural mapping concern not
otherwise speedily available from borehole data. This is particularly so where time-lines are short. 2D seismic
sections sourced from the Wits Gold, Karoo coal, Canadian diamond and Bushveld platinum exploration sectors
demonstrate in particular;
technique versatility in mapping orebodies or marker horizons having a tabular sheet geometry, and satisfying
minimum thickness plus physical property requirements
a large spectrum of structural environments ranging from the benign to the complex.
This spectrum ranges from flat dips with minor rolls and grabens through large scale wrench and listric faulting, to
moderate dips with structural terraces or large grabens above Floor doming.


1. INTRODUCTION

2D seismic survey contributions to RSA prospecting
activity over the last decade and a half have been largely
overshadowed by the volume and detail of mapping
results from 3D seismic surveys over the established
mines of the Witwatersrand GoldFields, and established
to newly developing platinum mines of the Bushveld
Complex. Mining loss-of-ground information of
unprecedently high spatial resolution is now routinely
available for mine-planning purposes from such 3D
surveys , whose deployment currently appears ( at least
on paper ) to be de rigeur over all except the least
prospective of prospects. This in part reflects the by-
now highly mature nature of Witwatersrand mines and a
fast-approaching maturity for many Bushveld Mines
within their lease-area life-cycle.

Meanwhile, low levels of 2D seismic survey activity
have been maintained over brownfield sectors, indirect
exploration plays mainly driven by the juniors over
hitherto poorly mapped sectors of the Witwatersrand
and Bushveld Complex. These 2D surveys, while
lacking the fine mine-planning resolution of their 3D
counterparts, are relatively inexpensive and require only
short implementation lead-times while providing early
mapping solutions to litho-structural problems of
immediate concern in ore-body modeling e.g. where to
optimally place boreholes in a deep drilling project. In
short, 2D data, in connecting the dots constituting
boreholes, provides a reliable measure of orebody
continuity and advance mapping of faults with throws in
excess of, say, 30m.

This paper focuses on 2D seismic mapping results
acquired by GAP Geophysics or its predecessor over
RSA prospects which required the early establishment
of major structures through a judicious combination of
seismic and borehole data. The actual litho-seismic
mapping target may be the orebody itself (VCR,
PlatReef, coals) or marker horizons in the hanging or
footwall (most gold reefs, Merensky Reef). Fault
features are generally not directly mapped but inferred
from correlatable reflection event terminations and
vertical displacements.

2. DATA ACQUISITION & PROCESSING

Data was acquired over the period 1983 to 2007 using
either Vibroseis (20Hz to 96Hz) or BOLT Land AirGun
seismic energy sources and a 96 channel seismograph.
Symmetrical, split-spread arrays with geophone station
spacings of 20m or 50m were utilized in conjunction
with similarly spaced shotpoints, to generate 48 fold
data. Data processing was standard, included refraction
and residual statics plus time migration.

3. CASE STUDIES

3.1 Wits Gold: Wrench and Listric Faulting

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2D Seismic Reflection Surveys and Structural Mapping
The N-S striking De Bron Fault is a steeply dipping
wrench fault which throws down to the west by up to
1000m, and constitutes the eastern boundary of the
Central Rand Group sediments of the OFS Goldfields.

Early development of what is now the Joel Gold Mine
in the southern OFS GoldFields was hastened by results
from reconnaissance seismic and gravity surveys, which
uniquely located the De Bron Fault on the J CI Farm
Leeuwfontein, some 2km to the east of its hitherto
assumed position (Figure 1). This significantly
increased combined VS5 Reef orebody tonnages over
this and the adjoining J CI Farm (Leeuwbult). Prominent
reflectors comprise the base-Karoo/top Central Rand
Group at TWT = 300msec (~550m) and the base-
Central Rand Group at TWT = 800msec (~2000m)
which have flat apparent dips. The De Bron Fault in the
east has a westerly downthrow of 700m, with CRG units
being absent over the far eastern horst. This
displacement is not well imaged in the seismic section
(it was after all J CIs first even reflection survey), but
fault location is unambiguously highlighted by the
apparent change in strata dip in the east, and by the
Karoo hanging wall graben immediately to the west of
the fault trace.

Aside from target location, seismic data played a
significant role in Wits exploration with respect to
mapping the large loss-of-ground areas associated
with fault zones, in advance of deep drilling operations.
The example of Figure 2 shows a very large listric
normal fault displacing Central and West Rand
lithologies in the Far West Rand, where the target is the
VCR. The exclusion zone is more than 1.5km at
surface. Along the complete seismic section such faults
define an imbricate stack pattern.

3.2 Karoo Coal: Flat Dips and Rolls

Coal seams, characterized as they are by anomalously
low densities and sonic velocities, constitute excellent
reflectors (reflection coefficient, r >30%) where they
satisfy minimum thickness criteria. Minimum
thicknesses are generally regarded as being at least one
eighth to one twelfth of the dominant wavelength of the
seismic signal (Widness, 1973). The seismic section of
Figure 3 is from the eastern Transvaal CoalFields and
shows a strong reflection event at TWT = 220msec
(~400m depth), mapping out an ~5m thick coal seam.
That this seam appears as the strongest event on the
section is in part due to thickness tuning dependant on
constructive interference of top and bottom seismic
wavelets: the requirement here is that the target
thickness be around one quarter of the seismic
wavelength (Widness, 1973). On this basis significant
seismic energy is present at wavelengths of around 25m
(following a non-linear Vibroseis sweep of up to
200Hz).

Only minor rolls detract from the otherwise flat dip of
the coal seam, and no major faulting (throw >10m) is
present. A truly benign structural environment.

3.3 Kimberlite Dyke (Sill): Ultra-thin
Target and Shallow Dips

The Snap Lake Diamond Mine in Canada exploits a 2m
to 3m thick kimberlite sheet which dips at ~15 to
depths in excess of 2000m. Although tagged as a dyke
it would locally be more appropriately called a sill.
While acoustic impedance contrasts between the
kimberlite and host rocks point to reflection coefficients
in excess of 20%, it would not normally be considered a
suitable seismic target on account of its limited width
(Hammer et al 2004). However, orientation surveys
using dynamite in deep shot-holes and Vibroseis surface
sources generating return frequencies of up to 350Hz
(with a dominant frequency of 100Hz) allowed for
mapping of the dyke (Figure xx). With seismic
wavelengths of no less than 13m, this implies mapping
at the one sixth wavelength interval. On this basis the
dyke is not resolved, but detected: the reflection
package correlating with its locale comprises 3 to 5
cycles (~20msec or ~45m). This may reflect internal
reverberations and/or non-optimal data processing.

The dyke signature is confidently mapped from TWT =
30msec (~60m) to 425msec (1300m), at an average dip
of around 15. No other reflectors are mapped in this
granite environment. Borehole ties are good and
correlate well over sections where dip variations are
apparent.

3.4 Bushveld PlatReef: Moderate to Modest
Dips

The PlatReef horizon of the Northern Limb of the
Bushveld Complex comprises a 100m to 300m thick
predominantly pyroxenitic package overlain by Main
Zone gabbros, which at outcrop dips at ~40 to 45 to
the southwest. It carries PGM mineralization and
disseminated sulphides. Significant acoustic impedance
contrasts at hanging (gabbros) and footwall (granite)
contacts predict average reflection coefficients at these
elevations of +4% and -13% respectively. While such
values may be expected to generate significant
reflection events, gradational changes at the top
PlatReef contact sometimes degrade seismic mapping
capabilities.

Early drilling by Afri-Ore downdip from the Anglo-
Platinum Open Pit indicated an unexpected apparent
shallowing of dip of the PlatReef horizon which, if real
(i.e. not due to faulting), could considerably improve
mining economics. An orientation seismic survey
orthogonal to strike confirmed marked shallowing of
PlatReef dip at depths in excess of 500m (Figure 4).

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Campbell
Top and bottom PlatReef contacts are mapped by red
and yellow reflection events respectively. The
PlatReef is mapped from depths of ~200m in the east to
2500m in the west. In the east, shallow PlatReef dips of
around 40SW begin to flatten markedly below TWT =
100msec (~350m), to generate an ~800m long terrace
characterized by a monotonic dip of ~20SW. Downdip
from BH ZF13, dips steepen but only to ~30SW.

Significant strike faulting is nowhere apparent along the
seismic traverse, and the area of interest appears to
reflect a monoclinal warp. Westerly verging folding has
been suggested as a mechanism for the apparent
structural high.

3.5 Bushveld UG2 Reef: Floor Doming and
More

Doming of Bushveld Floor rocks and attenuation plus
dragging of Bushveld mafic strata are well known
phenomena across the Complex. The outcropping
Phosiri Dome of the Eastern Bushveld is a well known
example. Recent 3D seismic surveys in the Rustenburg
locale of the Western Bushveld have mapped several
deeply buried Floor anticlines (Trickett et al, 2004)
whose presence is believed to be responsible for
structurally disturbed zones in overlying mafic rocks.
Such a feature has recently been mapped by GAP from
several parallel traverses over a Western Bushveld
property distant from Rustenburg (Figure 5).

The shallow green horizon is the UG2 marker horizon
reflection event and the deep magenta horizon is the
Floor contact. On this seismic section a Floor dome (in
fact a basement ridge) is readily apparent on the RHS,
with a crestal relief of some 150msec (~500m) at a
depth of TWTT =450msec (~1500m). Marginal and
some Lower Zone units terminate against this ridge, and
as crestal relief increases up to ~800m to the north this
attenuation extends to strata higher up in the
stratigraphy. The RHS UG2 marker cross-section is
dominated by broad, symmetrical synclinal warping
whose axis spatially correlates with the crestal axis of
the Floor ridge. As ridge relief increases northwards the
syncline transforms to a steep-sided graben structure
bounded by faults with throws in excess of 500m.

Thus, seismic survey data as its main requirement not
only maps UG2 Reef elevations to complement
borehole data, but as a bonus maps sub-Reef features
which in this case allows for a meaningful geological
model to be drawn up for the area. This involves syn-
Bushveld Floor diaparism, diapir cooling and transition
to a brittle ducticle environment leading to the
development of a graben collapse structure over the
zone of greatest diapir development. Bounding fault
throws increase in concert with increased crestal relief
of the Floor ridge.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Properly managed 2D seismic surveys whose
specifications are fine-tunned to search-target
requirements in many cases provide a cost-effective
substitute for more costly boreholes with longer
completion times and limited areal coverage.

REFERENCES

Hammer, C., et al (2004), High-Resolution seismic reflection
imaging of a thin, diamondiferous Kimberlite dyke:
Geophysics Vol. 69, No. 5, 1143-1154

Trickett, J .C., et al (2004), Three dimensional reflection
seismics: worth its weight in platinum: International Platinum
Conference Platinum adding Value, SAIMM, 2004

Widness, M.B., (1973), How thin is a thin bed?: Geophysics
Vol. 38, 1176-1180


































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Figure 1: OFS GoldFields: Joel Mine Gravity Profile And Seismic Section


Figure 2: Far West Rand GoldFields: Large Scale Listric Faulting
Campbell

Figure 3: Karoo CoalFields: Mapping of a Major Coal Seam and Overlying Sills


Figure 4: Northern Bushveld Limb: Mapping of the Terraced PlatReef Unit
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2D Seismic Reflection Surveys and Structural Mapping
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Figure 5: Bushveld Complex: Mapping of UG2 Graben Structure above Floor Dome