Soil Formations and Deposits

The final products due to weathering are soils

What is the main mineral of the sand particles in general?
Quartz
Weathering
Physical processes of weathering
Unloading
e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid pressure.
Thermal expansion and contraction
Alternate wetting and drying
Crystal growth, including frost action
Organic actiity
e.g. the growth of plant roots.
Chemical Process of weathering
!ydrolysis
is the reaction with water
will not continue in the static water.
inoles solu"ility of silica and alumina
Chelation
#noles the complexing and remoal of metal ions .
Cation exchange
is important to the formation of clay minerals
Oxidation and reduction.
Car"onation
is the com"ination of car"onate ions such as the reaction with CO$
Factors affect weathering
%any factors can affect the weathering process such as climate, topography, features of
parent roc&s, "iological reactions, and others.
Climate determines the amount of water and the temperature.
Residual soils- to remain at the original place
The top layer of roc& is decomposed into residual soils due to the warm climate and
a"undant rainfall .
'ngineering properties of residual soils are different with those of transported soils
The &nowledge of (classical( geotechnical engineering is mostly "ased on "ehaior of
transported soils. The understanding of residual soils is insufficient in general.
Transported soils- to be moed and deposited to other places!
The particle sizes of transported soils are selected "y the transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc.
#nterstratification of silts and clays.
The transported soils can "e categorize "ased on the mode of transportation and
deposition )six types*.
Transported Soils
)+* ,lacial soils- formed "y transportation and deposition of glaciers.
)$* Alluial soils- transported "y running water and deposited along streams.
).* /acustrine soils- formed "y deposition in 0uiet la&es )e.g. soils in Taipei "asin*.
)1* %arine soils- formed "y deposition in the seas )!ong 2ong*.
)3* Aeolian soils- transported and deposited "y the wind )e.g. soils in the loess plateau, China*.
)4* Colluial soils- formed "y moement of soil from its original place "y graity, such as during landslide
)Hong Kong*. )from 5as, +667*
Phase Relations
8 - 8olid 8oil particle
9- /i0uid 9ater )electrolytes*
A- Air Air
: Three "olumetric Ratios
)+* ;oid ratio e )gien in decimal, <.43*
)$* =orosity n )gien in percent +<<>, 43>*
).* 5egree of 8aturation 8 )gien in percent +<<>, 43>*
: 'ngineering #mplications )e*
: !ydraulic conductiity
: 9hich pac&ing )8C or CT* has higher hydraulic conductiity?
: The fluid )water* can flow more easily through the soil with higher hydraulic conductiity
: 'ngineering Applications )8*
#ngineering implications$
8lope sta"ility
Underground excaation
7< > of landslides are due to erosion and @loss in suctionA.
The slope sta"ility is significantly affected "y the surface water
: 5ensity and Unit 9eight
: %ass is a measure of a "odyBs inertia, or its (0uantity of matter(. %ass is not changed at different
places.
: 9eight is force, the force of graity acting on a "ody. The alue is different at arious places
)CewtonBs second law D E ma* ),iancoli, +667*
: The unit weight is fre0uently used than the density is )e.g. in calculating the oer"urden pressure*.
Submerged unit weight$
Considers the "uoyant force acting on the soil solids
Archimedes principle$
The "uoyant force on a "ody immersed in a fluid is e0ual to the weight of the fluid displaced "y that o"Fect.
#ngineering %pplications &w'
: Dor fineGgrained soils, water plays a critical role to their engineering properties )discussed in the
next topic*.
: For example,
The 0uic& clay usually has a water content w greater than +<< > and a card house structure. #t will "ehae
li&e a iscous fluid after it is fully distur"ed.
Physical Properties
+. 8oil Texture
$. ,rain 8ize and ,rain 8ize 5istri"ution
.. =article 8hape
1. Atter"erg /imits
3. 8ome Thoughts a"out the 8iee Analysis
4. 8ome Thoughts a"out the !ydrometer Analysis
H. 8uggested !omewor&
Soil Te(ture
The texture of a soil is its appearance or @feelA and it depends on the relatie sizes and shapes of the
particles as well as the range or distri"ution of those sizes.
)rain Si*e Distribution
'ngineering applications
#t will help us @feelA the soil texture )what the soil is* and it will also "e used for the soil
classification )next topic*.
#t can "e used to define the grading specification of a drainage filter )clogging*.
#t can "e a criterion for selecting fill materials of em"an&ments and earth dams, road
su"G"ase materials, and concrete aggregates.
#t can "e used to estimate the results of grouting and chemical inFection, and dynamic
compaction.
'ffectie 8ize, 5+<, can "e correlated with the hydraulic conductiity )descri"ing the
permea"ility of soils*. )!azenIs '0uation*.)Cote- controlled "y small particles*
%tterberg +imits
The presence of water in fineGgrained soils can significantly affect associated engineering "ehaior, so we
need a reference index to clarify the effects
Shrin,age +imit-S+
: @Although the shrin&age limit was a popular classification test during the +6$<s, it is su"Fect to
considera"le uncertainty and thus is no longer commonly conducted.A
: @One of the "iggest pro"lems with the shrin&age limit test is that the amount of shrin&age depends
not only on the grain size "ut also on the initial fa"ric of the soil. The standard procedure is to start
with the water content near the li0uid limit. !oweer, especially with sandy and silty clays, this
often results in a shrin&age limit greater than the plastic limit, which is meaningless. Casagrande
suggests that the initial water content "e slightly greater than the =/, if possi"le, "ut admittedly it
is difficult to aoid entrapping air "u""les.A )from !oltz and 2oacs, +67+*
Plasticity inde( P-
Dor descri"ing the range of water content oer which a soil was plastic
=# E // =/
+i.uidity inde( +-
Dor scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the /imits.
: The %tterberg limits are usually correlated with some engineering properties such as the
permea"ility, compressi"ility, shear strength, and others.
#n general, clays with high plasticity hae lower permea"ility, and they are difficult to "e
compacted.
The alues of 8/ can "e used as a criterion to assess and preent the excessie crac&ing
of clay liners in the reseroir em"an&ment or canal.
Classifying soils into groups with similar "ehaior, in terms of simple indices, can proide geotechnical
engineers a general guidance a"out engineering properties of the soils through the accumulated experience
Two commonly used systems$
: Unified 8oil Classification 8ystem )U8C8*.
: American Association of 8tate !ighway and Transportation Officials )AA8!TO* 8ystem
/nified Soil Classification System&/SCS'
Origin of U8C8-
This system was first deeloped "y =rofessor A. Casagrande )+617* for the purpose of airfield construction
during 9orld 9ar ##. Afterwards, it was modified "y =rofessor Casagrande, the U.8. Jureau of
Keclamation, and the U.8. Army Corps of 'ngineers to ena"le the system to "e applica"le to dams,
foundations, and other construction )!oltz and 2oacs, +67+*.
Four ma0or diisions$
)+* CoarseGgrained
)$* DineGgrained
).* Organic soils
)1* =eat
Soil symbols$
)$ ,rael
8- 8and
%- 8ilt
C- Clay
O- Organic
=t- =eat
'xample- 89, 9ellGgraded sand
8C, Clayey sand
8%, 8ilty sand,
%!, 'lastic silt
+i.uid limit symbols$
!- !igh // )//L3<*
/- /ow // )//M3<*
)radation symbols$
9- 9ellGgraded
=- =oorlyGgraded
Plasticity Chart
: The AGline generally separates the more clayli&e materials from silty materials, and the organics
from the inorganics.
: The UGline indicates the upper "ound for general soils.
Note: #f the measured limits of soils are on the left of UGline, they should "e rechec&ed.
1rganic Soils
: 2ighly organic soils- Peat &)roup symbol PT'
A sample composed primarily of egeta"le tissue in arious stages of decomposition and
has a fi"rous to amorphous texture, a dar&G"rown to "lac& color, and an organic odor
should "e designated as a highly organic soil and shall "e classified as peat, =T.
: 1rganic clay or silt& group symbol 1+ or 12'$
@The soilIs li0uid limit )//* after oen drying is less than H3 > of its li0uid limit "efore
oen drying.A #f the a"oe statement is true, then the first sym"ol is O.
The second sym"ol is o"tained "y locating the alues of =# and // )not oen dried* in
the plasticity chart.
%merican %ssociation of State 2ighway and Transportation 1fficials system &%%S2T1'
7 maFor groups- A+N AH )with seeral su"groups* and organic soils A7
The re0uired tests are siee analysis and Atter"erg limits.
The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further ealuate soils within a group )su"groups*.
The original purpose of this classification system is used for road construction )su"grade rating*.
)roup -nde(
1rigin of Clay 3inerals
@The contact of roc&s and water produces clays, either at or near the surface of the earthA )from ;elde,
+663*.
Koc& O9ater Clay
Dor example,
The CO$ gas can dissole in water and form car"onic acid, which will "ecome hydrogen ions !O and
"icar"onate ions, and ma&e water slightly acidic.
CO$O!$O !$CO. !O O!CO.G
The acidic water will react with the roc& surfaces and tend to dissole the 2 ion and silica from the
feldspar. Dinally, the feldspar is transformed into &aolinite.
Deldspar O hydrogen ionsOwater clay )&aolinite* O cations, dissoled silica
$2Al8i.O7O$!O O!$O Al$8i$O3)O!*1 O $2O O18iO$
: Cote that the hydrogen ion displaces the cations.
: The alternation of feldspar into &aolinite is ery common in the decomposed granite.
: The clay minerals are common in the filling materials of Foints and faults )fault gouge, seam* in
the roc& mass.
Weak plane!
3i(ed +ayer Clays
: 5ifferent types of clay minerals hae similar structures )tetrahedral and octahedral sheets* so that
interstratification of layers of different clay minerals can "e o"sered.
: #n general, the mixed layer clays are composed of interstratification of expanded waterG"earing
layers and nonGwaterG"earing layers. %ontmorilloniteGillite is most common, and chloriteG
ermiculite and chloriteGmontmorillonite are often found.
:
4oncrystalline Clay 3aterials
%llophane
Allophane is PGray amorphous and has no definite composition or shape. #t is composed of hollow,
irregular spherical particles with diameters of ..3 to 3.< nm.
1rigins of Charge Deficiencies
+. #mperfections in the crystal lattice G#somorphous su"stitution.
: The cations in the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet can "e replaced "y different &inds of
cations without change in crystal structure )similar physical size of cations*.
For example,
Al.O in place of 8i1O )Tetrahedral sheet*
%g$O instead of Al.O)Octahedral sheet*
un"alanced charges )charge deficiencies*
: This is the main source of charge deficiencies for montmorillonite.
: Only minor isomorphous su"stitution ta&es place in &aolinite.
#ngineering %pplications
5ispersion agents )drilling mudQ hydrometer analysis*
: 8odium hexaGmetaphosphate )Ca=O.* and sodium silicate )Ca$8iO.* are used as the dispersion
agent in the hydrometer analysis. !ow does this dispersion agent wor&?
: Three hypotheses:
&5' #dge-charge reersal
The anions adsorption onto the edge of the clay particle may neutralize the positie edgeGcharge or
further reerse the edgeGcharge from positie to negatie. The edgeGcharge reersal can form a negatie
dou"le layer on the edge surfaces to "rea& down flocculated structure, and assist in forming a dispersed
structure.
&6' -on e(change
The sodium cations can replace the dialent cations existing in the clay particles such as Ca$O and
%g$O. The decrease of cation alence can increase the thic&ness of the dou"le layer and interparticle
repulsion, which can assist in forming a dispersed structure.
&7' p2
The higher p! may ma&e the edgeGcharge tend to "e negatie, which can "rea& down the
flocculated structure and assist in forming a dispersed structure. The adding of dispersing agent such as
sodium car"onate may slightly increase the p!.
Soil Structure and Fabric
: The structure of a soil is ta&en to mean "oth the geometric arrangement of the particles or mineral
grains as well as the interparticle forces which may act "etween them.
: 8oil fabric refers only to the geometric arrangement of particles )from !oltz and 2oacs, +67+*.
: The interparticle forces )or surface forces* are relatiely important for fineGgrained soils at low
confinement )low state of stress*.
: @Although the "ehaior of a coarseGgrained soil can often "e related to particle size distri"ution,
the "ehaior of a finedGgrained soil usually depends much more on geological history and
structure than on particle sizeA )from /am"e and 9hitman, +6H6*.
3icrofabric Features in 4atural Soils
+. lementary particle arrangements, which consist of single forms of particle interaction at the leel
of indiidual clay, silt, or sand particles or interaction "etween small groups of clay platelets or
clothed silt and sand particles.
$. !article assemblages, which are units of particle organization haing defina"le physical
"oundaries and a specific mechanical function. =article assem"lages consist of one or more forms
of elementary particle arrangements or smaller particle assem"lages.
.. !ore spaces within and "etween elementary particles arrangements and particle assem"lages.
The relatie density 5r is used to characterize the density of natural granular soil.
@The relatie density )or oid ratio* alone is not sufficient to characterize the engineering properties of
granular soilsA )!oltz and 2oacs, +67+*. Two soils with the same relatie density )or oid ratio* may
contain ery different pore sizes. That is, the pore size distri"ution pro"a"ly is a "etter parameter to
correlate with the engineering properties )8antamarina et al., $<<+*.
: /oess is a type of aeolian soils, and the particles are predominantly siltGsize. The soil structure is
mainly sta"ilized "y )+* the capillary force and )$* light cementation arising from the salt and fines
)e.g. clay* precipitation around the contacts )!oltz and 2oacs, +67+Q 8antamarina, $<<+*.
Compaction
Soil -mproement - 3ethods for Soil -mproement
)round Reinforcement
: 8tone Columns
: 8oil Cails
: 5eep 8oil Cailing
: %icropiles )%iniGpiles*
: Ret ,routing
: ,round Anchors
: ,eosynthetics
: Di"er Keinforcement
: /ime Columns
: ;i"roGConcrete Column
: %echanically 8ta"ilized 'arth
: Jiotechnical
)round -mproement
: 5eep 5ynamic Compaction
: 5rainageS8urcharge
: 'lectroGosmosis
: Compaction grouting
: Jlasting
: 8urface Compaction
)round Treatment
: 8oil Cement
: /ime Admixtures
: Dlyash
: 5ewatering
: !eatingSDreezing
: ;itrification
Compaction and 1b0ecties
Compaction
: %any types of earth construction, such as dams, retaining walls, highways, and airport, re0uire
manGplaced soil, or fill. To compact a soil, that is, to place it in a dense state.
: The dense state is achieed through the reduction of the air oids in the soil, with little or no
reduction in the water content. This process must not "e confused with consolidation, in which
water is s0ueezed out under the action of a continuous static load.
1b0ecties$
)+* 5ecrease future settlements
)$* #ncrease shear strength
).* 5ecrease permea"ility
)eneral Compaction 3ethods +aboratory
Coarse-grained soils
: ;i"rating hammer )J8*
Fine-grained soils
: Dalling weight and hammers
: 2neading compactors
: 8tatic loading and press
)eneral Compaction 3ethods Field
Coarse-grained soils
: !andGoperated i"ration plates
: %otorized i"ratory rollers
: Ku""erGtired e0uipment
: DreeGfalling weightQ dynamic compaction )low fre0uency i"ration, 1N+< !z*
Fine-grained soils
: !andGoperated tampers
: 8heepsfoot rollers
: Ku""erGtired rollers
Theory of Compaction &+aboratory Test'
+aboratory Compaction
1rigin
The fundamentals of compaction of fineGgrained soils are relatiely new. K.K. =roctor in the early +6.<Is
was "uilding dams for the old Jureau of 9aterwor&s and 8upply in /os Angeles, and he deeloped the
principles of compaction in a series of articles in 'ngineering CewsGKecord. #n his honor, the standard
la"oratory compaction test which he deeloped is commonly called the proctor test.
Purpose
The purpose of a la"oratory compaction test is to determine the proper amount of mixing water to use when
compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of denseness which can "e expected from
compaction at this optimum water
-mpact compaction
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A hammer is dropped seeral times on a soil sample in a mold.
The mass of the hammer, height of drop, num"er of drops, num"er of layers of soil, and the olume of the
mold are specified.
"arious Types Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test
+$ in height of drop
3.3 l" hammer
$3 "lowsSlayer
. layers
%old size- +S.< ft.
'nergy +$,.H3 ftTl"Sft.
3odified Proctor Test
+7 in height of drop
+< l" hammer
$3 "lowsSlayer
3 layers
%old size- +S.< ft.
'nergy 34,$3< ftTl"Sft.
Higher compacting energy
Comparison-Why?
: #n the early days of compaction, "ecause construction e0uipment was small and gae relatiely
low compaction densities, a la"oratory method that used a small amount of compacting energy
was re0uired. As construction e0uipment and procedures were deeloped which gae higher
densities, it "ecame necessary to increase the amount of compacting energy in the la"oratory test.
: The modified test was deeloped during 9orld 9ar ## "y the U.8. Army Corps of 'ngineering to
"etter represent the compaction re0uired for airfield to support heay aircraft. The point is that
increasing the compactie effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, as expected, "ut also
decrease the optimum water content.
"ariables of Compaction
Proctor established that compaction is a function of four ariables$
)+* 5ry density )d* or dry unit weight d.
)$* 9ater content w
).* Compactie effort )energy '*
)1* 8oil type )gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.*
Procedures and Results
Procedures
)+* 8eeral samples of the same soil, "ut at different water contents, are compacted according to the
compaction test specifications.
)+* The total or wet density and the actual water content of each compacted sample are measured.
)+* =lot the dry densities d ersus water contents w for each compacted sample. The cure is called
as a compaction cur"e.
The pea, point of the compaction cure
The pea& point of the compaction cure is the point with the maximum dry density d max. Corresponding
to the maximum dry density d max is a water content &nown as the optimum water content wopt )also
&nown as the optimum moisture content, O%C*. Cote that the maximum dry density is only a maximum
for a specific compactie effort and method of compaction. This does not necessarily reflect the maximum
dry density that can "e o"tained in the field.
8ero air oids cure
The cure represents the fully saturated condition )8 E +<< >*. )#t cannot be reached by compaction*
+ine of optimums
A line drawn through the pea& points of seeral compaction cures at different compactie efforts for the
same soil will "e almost parallel to a +<< > 8 cure, it is called the line of optimums
9elow wopt &dry side of optimum'$
As the water content increases, the particles deelop larger and larger water films around them, which tend
to @lu"ricateA the particles and ma&e them easier to "e moed a"out and reoriented into a denser
configuration.
%t wopt$
The density is at the maximum, and it does not increase any further.
%boe wopt &wet side of optimum'$
9ater starts to replace soil particles in the mold, and since w MM s the dry density starts to decrease.
Procedures and Results-4otes
: 'ach data point on the cure represents a single compaction test, and usually four or fie
indiidual compaction tests are re0uired to completely determine the compaction cure.
: At least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum, and water contents arying "y
a"out $>.
: Optimum water content is typically slightly less than the plastic limit )A8T% suggestion*.
: Typical alues of maximum dry density are around +.4 to $.< %gSm. with the maximum range
from a"out +.. to $.1 %gSm.. Typical optimum water contents are "etween +<> and $<>, with an
outside maximum range of a"out 3> to 1<>.
Field and +aboratory Compaction
: #t is difficult to choose a la"oratory test that reproduces a gien field compaction procedure.
: The la"oratory cures generally yield a somewhat lower optimum water content than the actual
field optimum.
: The maFority of field compaction is controlled "y the dynamic laboratory tests.
Structure of Compacted Clays
: Dor a gien compactie effort and dry density, the soil tends to "e more flocculated )random* for
compaction on the dry side as compared on the wet side.
: Dor a gien molding water content, increasing the compactie effort tends to disperse )parallel,
oriented* the soil, especially on the dry side.
#ngineering Properties-Permeability
: #ncreasing the water content results in a decrease in permea"ility on the dry side of the optimum
moisture content and a slight increase in permea"ility on the wet side of optimum.
: #ncreasing the compactie effort reduces the permea"ility since it "oth increases the dry density,
there"y reducing the oids aaila"le for flow, and increases the orientation of particles.
#ngineering Properties-Compressibility
At low stresses the sample compacted on the wet side is more compressi"le than the one compacted on the
dry side.
At the high applied stresses the sample compacted on the dry side is more compressi"le than the sample
compacted on the wet side
#ngineering Properties-Swelling
: 8welling of compacted clays is greater for those compacted dry of optimum. They hae a
relatiely greater deficiency of water and therefore hae a greater tendency to adsor" water and
thus swell more.
#ngineering Properties-Strength
8amples )2aolinite* compacted dry of optimum tend to "e more rigid and stronger than samples compacted
wet of optimum
The C9R &California bearing ratio'
CJKE the ratio "etween resistance re0uired to penetrate a .Gin$ piston into the compacted specimen and
resistance re0uired to penetrate the same depth into a standard sample of crushed stone.
A greater compactie effort produces a greater CJK for the dry of optimum. !oweer, the CJK is actually
less for the wet of optimum for the higher compaction energies )oer compaction*.
#ngineering Properties-4otes
: 'ngineers must consider not only the "ehaior of the soil as compacted "ut the "ehaior of the soil
in the completed structure, especially at the time when the sta"ility or deformation of the structure
is most critical.
: Dor example, consider an element of compacted soil in a dam core. As the height of the dam
increases, the total stresses on the soil element increase. 9hen the dam is performing its intended
function of retaining water, the percent saturation of the compacted soil element is increased "y
the permeating water. Thus the engineer designing the earth dam must consider not only the
strength and compressi"ility of the soil element as compacted, "ut also its properties after is has
"een su"Fected to increased total stresses and saturated "y permeating water.
Field Compaction #.uipment and Procedures
Smooth-wheel roller &drum'
: +<<> coerage under the wheel
: Contact pressure up to .7< &=a
: Can "e used on all soil types except for roc&y soils.
: Compactie effort- static weight
: The most common use of large smooth wheel rollers is for proofGrolling su"grades and
compacting asphalt paement.
Pneumatic &or rubber-tired' roller
: 7<> coerage under the wheel
: Contact pressure up to H<< &=a
: Can "e used for "oth granular and fineGgrained soils.
: Compactie effort- static weight and &neading.
: Can "e used for highway fills or earth dam construction.
Sheepsfoot rollers
: !as many round or rectangular shaped protrusions or @feetA attached to a steel drum
: 7> N +$ > coerage
: Contact pressure is from +1<< to H<<< &=a
: #t is "est suited for clayed soils.
: Compactie effort- static weight and &neading.
Tamping foot roller
: A"out 1<> coerage
: Contact pressure is from +1<< to 71<< &=a
: #t is "est for compacting fineGgrained soils )silt and clay*.
: Compactie effort- static weight and &neading.
3esh &or grid pattern' roller
: 3<> coerage
: Contact pressure is from +1<< to 4$<< &=a
: #t is ideally suited for compacting roc&y soils, graels, and sands. 9ith high towing speed, the
material is i"rated, crushed, and impacted.
: Compactie effort- static weight and i"ration.
"ibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller
: ;ertical i"rator attached to smooth wheel rollers.
: The "est explanation of why roller i"ration causes densification of granular soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to cyclic deformation of the soil produced "y the oscillations of the
roller.
: Compactie effort- static weight and i"ration.
: 8uita"le for granular soils
"ariables-"ibratory Compaction
There are many ariables which control the ibratory compaction or densification of soils!
Characteristics of the compactor$
&5* %ass, size
)$* Operating fre0uency and fre0uency range
Characteristics of the soil$
&5' #nitial density
)$* ,rain size and shape
).* 9ater content
Construction procedures$
&5' Cum"er of passes of the roller
)$* /ift thic&ness
).* Dre0uency of operation i"rator
)1* Towing speed
Fre.uency
The fre0uency at which a maximum density is achieed is called the optimum fre0uency.
Roller Trael Speed
Dor a gien num"er of passes, a higher density is o"tained if the i"rator is towed more slowly.
Roller Passes
9hen compacting past fie or so coerages, there is not a great increase in density
Dynamic Compaction
5ynamic compaction was first used in ,ermany in the midG+6.<Is.
The depth of influence 5, in meters, of soil undergoing compaction is conseratiely gien "y
5 U )9h*+S$
9 E mass of falling weight in metric tons.
h E drop height in meters
"ibroflotation
;i"roflotation is a techni0ue for in situ densification of thic& layers of loose granular soil deposits. #t was
deeloped in ,ermany in the +6.<s.
"ibroflotation-Procedures
8tage+- The Fet at the "ottom of the ;i"roflot is turned on and lowered into the ground
8tage$- The water Fet creates a 0uic& condition in the soil. #t allows the i"rating unit to sin& into the
ground
8tage .- ,ranular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the lower Fet is transferred to
he Fet at the top of the i"rating unit. This water carries the granular material down the hole
8tage 1- The i"rating unit is gradually raised in a"out <..Gm lifts and held i"rating for a"out .< seconds
at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.
Field Compaction - Control and Specifications
Control Parameters
: $ry density and water content correlate well with the engineering properties, and thus they are
conenient construction control parameters.
: 8ince the o"Fectie of compaction is to sta"ilize soils and improe their engineering "ehaior, it is
important to &eep in mind the desired engineering properties of the fill, not Fust its dry density and
water content. This point is often lost in the earthwor& construction control.
Design-Construct Procedures
: /a"oratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed "orrow materials to define the
properties re0uired for design.
: After the earth structure is designed, the compaction specifications are written. Dield compaction
control tests are specified, and the results of these "ecome the standard for controlling the proFect.
Specifications
&5' #nd-product specifications
This specification is used for most highways and "uilding foundation, as long as the contractor is a"le to
o"tain the specified relati"e compaction , how he o"tains it doesnIt matter, nor does the e0uipment he uses.
%are the results only !
&6' 3ethod specifications
The type and weight of roller, the num"er of passes of that roller, as well as the lift thic&ness are specified.
A maximum allowa"le size of material may also "e specified.
#t is typically used for large compaction pro&ect
Relatie Compaction &R!C!'
5etermine the Kelatie Compaction in the Dield
9here and 9hen
: Dirst, the test site is selected. #t should "e representatie or typical of the compacted lift and
"orrow material. Typical specifications call for a new field test for eery +<<< to .<<< m$ or so, or
when the "orrow material changes significantly. #t is also adisa"le to ma&e the field test at least
one or may"e two compacted lifts "elow the already compacted ground surface, especially when
sheepsfoot rollers are used or in granular soils.
%ethod
: Dield control tests, measuring the dry density and water content in the field can either "e
destructi"e or nondestructi"e.
Destructie 3ethods
)a* 8and cone
)"* Jalloon
)c* Oil )or water* method
Calculations
: 2now %s and ;t
: ,et d field and w )water content*
: Compare d field with d maxGla" and calculate relatie compaction K.C.
Destructie 3ethods
8ometimes, the la"oratory maximum density may not "e &nown exactly. #t is not uncommon, especially in
highway construction, for a series of la"oratory compaction tests to "e conducted on @representatieA
samples of the "orrow materials for the highway. #f the soils at the site are highly aried, there will "e no
la"oratory results to "e compared with. #t is time consuming and expensie to conduct a new compaction
cure. The alternatie is to implement a field check point, or + point =roctor test.
Chec, Point 3ethod
: + point =roctor test
: 2nown compaction cures A, J, C
: Dield chec& point P
)it should "e on the dry side of optimum*
: The measuring error is mainly from the determination of the olume of the excaated material.
For e(ample:
: Dor the sand cone method, the i"ration from near"y wor&ing e0uipment will increase the density
of the sand in the hole, which will gies a larger hole olume and a lower field density.
: #f the compacted fill is grael or contains large grael particles. Any &ind of uneenness in the
walls of the hole causes a significant error in the "alloon method.
: #f the soil is coarse sand or grael, none of the li0uid methods wor&s well, unless the hole is ery
large and a polyethylene sheet is used to contain the water or oil.
4ondestructie 3ethods
Cuclear density meter
)a* 5irect transmission
)"* Jac&scatter
)c* Air gap
=rinciples
Density
The ,amma radiation is scattered "y the soil particles and the amount of scatter is proportional to the total
density of the material. The ,amma radiation is typically proided "y the radium or a radioactie isotope of
cesium.
Water content
The water content can "e determined "ased on the neutron scatter "y hydrogen atoms. Typical neutron
sources are americiumG"eryllium isotopes.
Calibration
Cali"ration against compacted materials of &nown density is necessary, and for instruments operating on
the surface the presence of an uncontrolled air gap can significantly affect the measurements.