Learning is the proess that allo!s us to adapt to the hanging onditions o" the !orld around us# We an alter our ations until !e $nd the %eha&ior that leads us to sur&i&al and re!ards' and !e an eli(inate ations that ha&e %een unsuess"ul in the past# Learning ) any relatively permanent change in behavior %rought a%out %y experience or practice# Relati&ely per(anent * !hen people learn anything' so(e part o" their %rain is physially hanged to reord !hat they+&e learned ,(e(ory- * .i/erent "ro( maturation hanges ontrolled %y a geneti %lue print ,due to %iology- e0# Change in height' hange in %rain si1e CLA22ICAL C3N.ITI3NING ,I4AN PA4L34- Re5e0 ) unlearned' in&oluntary response that is not under personal ontrol or hoie 2ti(ulus ) any o%6et' e&ent' or e0periene that auses a response' the reation o" an organis( Classial Conditioning ) learning to (a7e an in&oluntary ,re5e0- response to a sti(ulus other than the original' natural sti(ulus that nor(ally produes the re5e0 Ele(ents o" Classial Conditioning: 8nonditioned 2ti(ulus ,8C2- ) a naturally ourring sti(ulus that leads to an in&oluntary ,re5e0- response 8nonditioned Response ,8CR- ) in&oluntary ,re5e0- response to a naturally ourring or unonditioned sti(ulus Conditioned 2ti(ulus ,C2- ) sti(ulus that %eo(es a%le to produe a learned re5e0 response %y %eing paired !ith the original 8C2 Neutral 2ti(ulus ,N2- ) sti(ulus that has no e/et on the desired response Conditioned Response ,CR- ) learned re5e0 response to a C2 A9uisition ) repeated pairing o" the N2 and 8C2 :asi Priniples o" Classial Conditioning: ;# The C2 (ust o(e %e"ore the 8C2# <# The C2 and 8C2 (ust o(e &ery lose together in ti(e# =# The N2 (ust %e paired !ith the 8C2 se&eral ti(es %e"ore onditioning an ta7e plae# ># The C2 is usually so(e sti(ulus that is distinti&e or stands out "ro( other o(peting sti(uli# Before Conditioning ?etrono(e ,N2- No 2ali&ation
During Conditioning ?etrono(e ,N2- @ood ,8C2- 2ali&ation ,8CR- After Conditioning ?etrono(e ,C2- 2ali&ation ,CR- Stimulus Generalization * Tendeny to respond to a sti(ulus that is only si(ilar to the original onditioned sti(ulus !ith the onditioned response Stimulus Discrimination * Tendeny to stop (a7ing a generali1ed response to a sti(ulus that is si(ilar to the original onditioned sti(ulus %eause the si(ilar sti(ulus is ne&er paired !ith the unonditioned sti(ulus Extinction * The disappearane or !ea7ening o" a learned response "ollo!ing the re(o&al or a%sene o" the unonditioned sti(ulus Spontaneous Recovery * The reappearane o" a learned response a"ter e0tintion has ourred * Response is usually !ee7 and short li&ed Aohn Watson and Little Al%ert ) his study !as a de(onstration o" the lassial onditioning o" a pho%ia ) an irrational "ear response Conditioned Emotional Response * E(otional response that has %eo(e lassially onditioned to our to learned sti(uli Vicarious Conditioning * Classial onditioning o" a re5e0 response or e(otion %y !athing the reation o" another person Conditioned Taste version * .e&elop(ent o" nausea or a&ersi&e response to a partiular taste %eause that taste !as "ollo!ed %y a nausea reation' ourring a"ter only one assoiation :iologial preparedness ) it is a sur&i&al (ehanis(' re"erring to the tendeny o" ani(als to learn ertain assoiations' suh as taste and nausea' !ith only one or "e! pairings due to the sur&i&al &alue o" learning Why does lassial onditioning !or7? 2ti(ulus su%stitution ) original theory in !hih Pa&lo& stated that lassial onditioning ourred %eause the onditioned sti(ulus %ea(e a su%stitute "or the unonditioned sti(ulus %y %eing paired losely together Cogniti&e perspeti&e ) (odern theory in !hih lassial onditioning is seen to our %eause the onditioned sti(ulus pro&ides in"or(ation or an e0petany a%out the o(ing o" the unonditioned sti(ulus 3PERANT C3N.ITI3NING the 7ind o" learning that applies to &oluntary %eha&ior Ed!ard L# Thorndi7e ) plaed a hungry at inside a Bpu11le %o0C "ro( !hih the only esape !as to press a le&er loated on the 5oor o" the %o0# He plaed "ood outside the %o0 so the at is highly (oti&ated to go out# 2ti(ulus ) le&er Response ) pushing o" the le&er Conse9uene ) esape and "ood !a" o# E$ect la! stating that i" an ation is "ollo!ed %y a pleasura%le onse9uene' it !ill tend to %e repeated' and i" "ollo!ed %y an unpleasant onse9uene' it !ill tend not to %e repeated :#@# 27inner ) ga&e the ter( operant conditioning operant any %eha&ior that is &oluntary The heart o" operant onditioning is the e/et o" onse9uenes on %eha&ior D I" I do this' !hatEs in it "or (e? Classial onditioning ) learning a re5e0 depends on !hat o(es %e"ore the response ,anteedent sti(uli- 3perant onditioning ) learning depends on !hat happens a"ter the response ,onse9uene- Rein#orcement Bto strengthenC any e&ent or sti(ulus' that !hen "ollo!ing a response' inreases the pro%a%ility that the response !ill our again Rein#orcers any e&ents or o%6ets that' !hen "ollo!ing a response' inrease the li7elihood o" that response ourring again %rimary rein#orcer any rein"orer that is naturally rein"oring %y (eeting a %asi %iologial need' suh as hunger' thirst' or touh Secondary rein#orcer any rein"orer that %eo(es rein"oring a"ter %eing paired !ith a pri(ary rein"orer' suh as praise' to7ens' or gold stars %ositive rein#orcement the rein"ore(ent o" a response %y the addition or e0periening o" a pleasura%le sti(ulus &egative rein#orcement the rein"ore(ent o" a response %y the re(o&al' esape "ro(' or a&oidane o" an unpleasant sti(ulus Classial &s 3perant Conditioning 3PERANT C3N.ITI3NING CLA22ICAL C3N.ITI3NING End result is an inrease in the rate o" an already ourring response End result is the reation o" a ne! response to a sti(ulus that did not nor(ally produe that response Responses are &oluntary' e(itted %y the organis( Responses are in&oluntary' eliited %y a sti(ulus Conse9uenes are i(portant in "or(ing an assoiation Anteedent sti(uli are i(portant in "or(ing an assoiation Rein"ore(ent should %e i((ediate C2 (ust our i((ediately %e"ore the 8C2 An e0petany de&elops "or rein"ore(ent to An e0petany de&elops "or 8C2 to "ollo! C2 "ollo! a orret response SC'ED(!ES )* RE+&*)RCE,E&T %artial Rein#orcement E$ect * the tendeny "or a response that is rein"ored a"ter so(e' %ut not all' orret responses to %e &ery resistant to e0tintion Continuous rein#orcement ) the rein"ore(ent o" eah and e&ery orret response Interval schedule !hen ti(ing o" response is (ore i(portant Ratio schedule !hen nu(%er o" responses is (ore i(portant *ixed interval schedule o# rein#orcement ) shedule o" rein"ore(ent in !hih the inter&al o" ti(e that (ust pass %e"ore rein"ore(ent %eo(es possi%le is al!ays the sa(e does not produe a "ast rate o" responding salloping e/et ,"atory !or7ers speed up prodution 6ust %e"ore payday and slo! do!n 6ust a"ter payday- Variable interval schedule o# rein#orcement shedule o" rein"ore(ent in !hih the inter&al o" ti(e that (ust pass %e"ore rein"ore(ent %eo(es possi%le is di/erent "or eah trial or e&ent e0a(ple: pop 9ui11es' you study a little e&ery nightF $shing' dialing a %usy nu(%er *ixed Ratio Schedule o# Rein#orcement ) shedule o" rein"ore(ent in !hih the nu(%er o" responses re9uired "or rein"ore(ent is al!ays the sa(e Variable ratio schedule o# rein#orcement shedule o" rein"ore(ent in !hih the nu(%er o" responses re9uired "or rein"ore(ent is di/erent "or eah trial or e&ent < additional "ators that ontri%ute to (a7ing rein"ore(ent as e/eti&e as possi%le: ;# Timing in general' a rein"orer should %e gi&en as i((ediately as possi%le a"ter the desired %eha&ior' delaying tends to not !or7 !ell espeially !ith ani(als and hildren 2. Reinforce only the desired behavior P8NI2H?ENT an e&ent or o%6et that' !hen "ollo!ing a response' (a7es that response less li7ely to happen again !ea7ens responses TW3 GIN.2 3@ P8NI2H?ENT: Punish(ent %y appliation ) the punish(ent o" a response %y the addition or e0periening o" an unpleasant sti(ulus !ample" span#ing$ scolding Punish(ent %y re(o&al ) the punish(ent o" a response %y the re(o&al o" a pleasura%le sti(ulus !ample" grounding$ %ning someone for disobeying la& @our Ways to ?odi"y :eha&ior REIN@3RCE?ENT P8NI2H?ENT Positi&e ,Adding- 2o(ething &alued or desira%le 2o(ething unpleasant 'ositive Reinforcement E0a(ple: getting a gold star "or good %eha&ior 'unishment by Application E0a(ple: getting a span7ing "or diso%eying Negati&e ,Re(o&in gH A&oiding- 2o(ething unpleasant 2o(ething &alued or desira%le (egative Reinforcement E0a(ple: a&oiding a ti7et %y stopping at red light 'unishment by Removal E0a(ple: losing a pri&ilege suh as going out !ith "riends NEGATI4E REIN@3RCE?ENT 42 P8NI2H?ENT :I RE?34AL NEGATI4E REIN@3RCE?ENT P8NI2H?ENT :I RE?34AL 2topping at a red light to a&oid getting in an aident Losing the pri&ilege o" dri&ing %eause you got into too (any aidents ?ailing an ino(e ta0 return %y April to a&oid paying a penalty Ha&ing to lose (oney to pay the penalty "or late ta0 $ling 3%eying a parent %e"ore the parent :eing BgroundedC %eause o" reahes the ount o" BthreeC to a&oid getting a solding diso%ediene &egative rein#orcement occurs "hen a response is #ollo"ed by the RE,)V! o# an (&%!ES&T stimulus- +# the response increases. the conse/uence has to be a 0ind o# rein#orcement- %unishment by removal is "hen a %!ES&T thing is removed- This "ea0ens a response- The di$erence lies in "hat is ta0en a"ay- &egative rein#orcement1 unpleasant thing %unishment by removal1 pleasant thing Pro%le(s !ith punish(ent: getting rid o" a response that is already !ell esta%lished is not that easy so(eti(es it only ser&es to te(porarily suppress or inhi%it a %eha&ior until enough ti(e has passed (ay not stop the %eha&ior per(anently se&ere punish(ent (ay lead to a%use (ay ause hild to a&oid punisher instead o" ation %eing punished (ay enourage lying to a&oid punish(ent reates "ear and an0iety hitting pro&ides a suess"ul (odel "r aggression punish(ent %y re(o&al teahes the hild not !hat to do %ut not !hat the hild should do H3W T3 ?AGE P8NI2H?ENT ?3RE E@@ECTI4E Punish(ent should i((ediately "ollo! the %eha&ior it is (eant to punish Punish(ent should %e onsistent Punish(ent o" the !rong %eha&ior should %e paired' !hene&er possi%le' !ith rein"ore(ent o" the right %eha&ior .isri(inati&e sti(ulus ) any sti(ulus that pro&ides an organis( !ith a ue "or (a7ing a ertain response in order to o%tain rein"ore(ent *** spei$ ues !ould lead to spei$ responses' and disri(inating %et!een the ues leads to suess 3THER C3NCEPT2 IN 3PERANT C3N.ITI3NING Extinction re(o&al o" the rein"ore(ent Generalization operantly onditioned responses an %e generali1ed to sti(uli that are only si(ilar to the original sti(ulus ,e0a(ple: %a%y alling e&eryone B.adaC- Spontaneous recovery Ti(e out ) a "or( o" (ild punish(ent %y re(o&al in !hih a (is%eha&ing ani(al' hild' or adult is plaed in a speial area a!ay "ro( the attention o" others C3GNITI4E LEARNING THE3RI *I(portane o" cognition * !hat+s going on inside a person+s head during learning Ed!ard Tol(an: Latent Learning * learning that re(ains hidden until its appliation %eo(es use"ul * hu(ans and ani(als so(eti(es do not de(onstrate this learning %eause they see no reason to do so ?artin 2elig(an: Learned Helplessness * the tendeny to "ail to at to esape "ro( a situation %eause o" a history o" repeated "ailures in the past Depression ) sense o" po!erlessness and hopelessness' sense that they do not ha&e ontrol o&er !hat happens to the( Wol"gang Gohler ,Gestalt-: Insight Learning * no trial and error * the idea 6ust o(es e&en %e"ore trying > Charateristis o" Insight Learning ;# 2uddenness <# 2olution preedes %eha&ior =# 2(oothness ># No&el 3:2ER4ATI3NAL LEARNING Al%ert :andura :o%o doll * people an learn a ne! %eha&ior %y !athing a (odel per"or( that %eha&ior * learning an ta7e plae !ithout the atual per"or(ane o" the %eha&ior > Ele(ents o" 3%ser&ational Learning Attention ?e(ory I(itation ?oti&ation
Katja Kruckeberg, Wolfgang Amann, Mike Green-Leadership and Personal Development - A Toolbox For The 21st Century Professional-Information Age Publishing (2011)