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Mediumship & olk Models of Mind and Matter
Jack Hunter 1 day ago 1 Comments
The following is excerpted from Talking with the Spirits: Ethnographies from between the
orlds! edited by Jack Hunter and David Luke, published by Daily Grail ublishing!
!ntroduction
This chapter e"plores the role of e"periences with trance and physical mediumship in the
de#elopment of folk models of mind and matter! at a non$denominational spiritualist
home$circle called the %ristol Spirit &odge' (ediums and sitters often claim that
mediumship has led them to understand the world differently! and to appreciate that the
standard materialistic #iew of science is inade)uate as an all encompassing model of
reality' Certain key themes and concepts ha#e emerged from my informants* e"periences
with mediumship that hint at alternati#e models of understanding the relationship
between mind and matter! including the idea that bodies are permeable! that matter is
essentially non$physical! that consciousness is far more e"pansi#e than our normal
waking state would lead us to belie#e! and that persons are multiple! can sur#i#e death!
and may be influenced by e"ternal spiritual entities'
To begin! we will briefly e"amine the anthropological debate o#er spirit possession!
taking a )uick tour through the #arious theoretical models de#eloped to account for the
e"istence of this human phenomenon' This will be followed by an introduction to the
history of Spiritualism! and in particular to physical mediumship! in order to gi#e an idea
of the kind of spirit mediumship that forms the basis for discussion in this chapter' The
chapter will conclude with an analysis of e"tracts from ethnographic inter#iews with
members of the %ristol Spirit &odge'
"thno#raphic $arallels
Ethnographic parallels of spiritualist mediumship can be found in the many #arieties of
what are loosely labelled +spirit possession* traditions ,Schmidt - Huskinson! ./1/0
1awson! ./112! and what 3'(' &ewis refers to as +ecstatic religions* ,&ewis! 14512! which
occur! in one form or another! in almost all human societies' Spirit possession can be
broadly defined in Janice %oddy*s terms as:
6the hold o#er a human being by e"ternal forces or entities more powerful than she'
These forces may be ancestors or di#inities! ghosts of foreign origin! or entities both
ontologically and ethnically alien6 ,%oddy! 1447! p' 7/52
The term +spirit possession* is used )uite broadly to refer to a set of related! though not
necessarily identical! phenomena ,&ewis! 1488! p' .72! including both the belief that
spirits can in#oluntarily occupy the body of an indi#idual! causing illness! and the
#oluntary incorporation of spirits! ancestors and deities for social and ritual reasons' This
#oluntary incorporation is usually referred to as +mediumship'* The discussions that
follow in this chapter are primarily concerned with the #oluntary incorporation of spirits'
The belief that the body can be temporarily inhabited by non$physical beings is
particularly widespread' Erika %ourguignon ,14592! in a cross$cultural study of 788
widely distributed societies selected from a compendium of +ade)uately described
cultures* ,1459! p' 112! determined that ninety percent of her sample societies utilised
some form of institutionalised altered state of consciousness! and that se#enty percent of
the sampled societies associated such states with the notion of spirit possession
,%ourguignon! 1459! pp' 4$110 .//5! p' 95:2' ;f course! there are important differences
between the world*s #arious spirit possession traditions! which! like all human practices!
differ in their cultural e"pression! but all share the common theme of utilising altered
states of consciousness! of one form or another! as a means to interact with the +spirit
world* and the di#ine ,1awson! ./11! p' 42'
The Euro$<merican Spiritualist mo#ement was! and is! therefore! part of a much wider
human phenomenon! but while anthropology has been predominantly concerned with
in#estigating spirit possession practices in =on$estern societies! there has been a
distinct lack of research into contemporary Euro$<merican spirit mediumship ,see
>ilbert and (eintel in this #olume! =elson! 14?40 Skultans! 1457 and Emmons! .//8 for
notable e"ceptions2! and e#en less on contemporary trance and physical mediumship' The
research presented here! and elsewhere ,Hunter! ./110 ./1.a0 ./1.b0 ./192 is intended to
help fill this gap in the ethnographic record'
%heories of &pirit $ossession
<nthropological in#estigations of spirit possession practices ha#e usually tended towards
the dominant e"planatory frameworks of functionalism! pathology ,psychological and
medical2! performance studies! and! more recently! cogniti#e science and
neurophysiology' ,Stoller! 1447! p' ?950 1awson ./112' e will now briefly e"amine
some of these approaches! before outlining the methodological approach employed in this
chapter'
@unctionalist interpretations generally hold that spirit possession performs an essential
function for the social group within which it is practiced' &ewis ,14512! for e"ample! has
argued that spirit possession rituals often ser#e as +thinly disguised protest mo#ements
directed against the dominant se"* ,or! indeed! any other dominant group2! because during
the period of possession the possessed is +totally blameless* for their actions0
+responsibility lies not with them! but with the spirits* ,1451! pp' 91$9.2! allowing the
socially repressed to #ent their frustrations publicly' @unctionalist analyses of spirit
possession in this #ein ha#e been #ery popular amongst anthropologists and ha#e been
applied to numerous societies worldwide ,>iles! 1485! p' .9:2' These include accounts of
the Aar possession cult of =orthern Sudan ,%oddy! 14882! spirit possession amongst the
1igo in Southern Benya ,>omm! 145:2! amongst %raCilian mediums ,@ry! 148?2! in the
case of spontaneous epidemics of spirit possession in (alaysian factories ,;ng! 14882!
and e#en in a Spiritualist home$circle in 14?/s ales ,Skultans! 14572'
Dsychoanalytic approaches to spirit possession are less widespread! but are perhaps best
represented by >annanath ;beyesekere*s ,14872 seminal study of spirit possession in Sri
&anka' ;beyesekere interpreted possession as a symptom! along with other symbolic
bodily e"pressions ,for e"ample the matted hair of priestesses2! as outward symbols of
repressed negati#e life e"periences' Dsychoanalytic interpretations of spirit possession
emphasiCe +past traumatic and distressful e"periences* in the li#es of the possessed
,%udden! .//9! p' .82! and suggest that the beha#iours and psychological sensations
associated with the possession state are symbolic symptoms of the unconscious
repression of such negati#e life e"periences'
The association of spirit possession with pathology has been a persistent and widespread
theme in anthropological and other social$scientific analyses ,Csordas 14850 Aingrone!
1447! pp' 1/.$1/90 Emmons! .//8! p' 5.2' Specifically! spirit possession has been
associated with epilepsy ,CarraCana et al'! 14440 Jilek$<all! 14442! nutrient deficiency
,Behoe - >iletti! 14810 %ourguignon et al'! 1489! p' 7172! psychosis ,>off et al'! 14412!
and dissociati#e identity disorder ,%raude! 14880 Ta#es! .//?! p' 1.92' @rom this
perspecti#e! then! spirit possession is understood as a symptom of underlying pathology!
indeed spirit possession has e#en been contro#ersially classified as a culture$bound
syndrome in the 1S($3E ,&ewis$@ernandeC! 144.0 Cardena et al' .//42'
Cogniti#e approaches to spirit possession ha#e been gaining increasing traction within
anthropology! primarily following the lead of pioneering work by Stewart >uthrie ,148/0
14492 and Dascal %oyer ,.//12 on cogniti#e approaches to supernatural belief'
Specifically! the work of Emma Cohen ,.//82 has been particularly influential' Cohen
discerns two primary forms of spirit possession: pathogenic possession! in which
possession by spiritual beings is understood to be the underlying cause of illness! and
e"ecuti#e possession! being the deliberate! and desired! incorporation of spirits! often
called spirit mediumship' Cohen suggests that the cogniti#e processes underlying
pathogenic possession are the same as those normally in#ol#ed with the +representation
of contamination!* while the cogniti#e faculties in#ol#ed in e"ecuti#e possession usually
deal with +the world of intentional agents'* @rom this perspecti#e! then! spirit possession
is nothing more than the misinterpretation of otherwise normal cogniti#e schema'
hile it is undoubtedly true that each of the approaches outlined abo#e pro#ides insight
into the sociological functions and psychological underpinnings of spirit possession
e"periences and practices! it is also fair to say that none of them is able to pro#ide a
complete e"planatory model of spirit possession' @unctionalist models fre)uently fail to
take into account the e"periences and understandings of the possessed themsel#es
,%owker! 14590 %oddy! 1488! p' 72! and do not always correspond with the ethnographic
facts ,ilson! 14?50 Fasmussen! 1447! p' 5?2' Similarly! cogniti#e approaches ha#e been
criticised for their reduction of particularly comple" social and e"periential phenomena to
highly specific! not to mention speculati#e! cogniti#e processes ,Halloy! ./1/2'
Dathological interpretations also fall short of the ethnographic reality! with mediums often
displaying fewer signs of mental illness than non$mediums in a #ariety of different
cultural conte"ts ,(oreira$<lmeida et al'! .//8! p' 7./0 Fo"burgh - Foe! ./11! p' .472!
and preliminary neurophysiological research suggests that there are significant
neurophysiological differences between possession states and pathological states! such as
epilepsy ,;ohashi et al'! .//.0 Hageman et al'! ./1/2'
Methodolo#ical 'rientation: (n ")periential (pproach
The approach employed here! then! will not begin from the assumption that spirit
possession is a pathological condition! and nor will it assume that mediumship is a purely
social$functional phenomenon ,though it undoubtedly does perform social functions2'
@urthermore! rather than attempting to reduce the comple"ity of spirit possession to
specific cogniti#e and neurophysiological processes! the research presented here seeks to
take the first$hand e"periences of fieldwork informants seriously! at face$#alue! in order
to e"plore what such e"periences might tell us about their world$#iew! and the
de#elopment of specific folk models of mind and matter' 3 use the term +folk* here to refer
to models of understanding the mind and matter built upon personal e"perience! inference
and intuition! that is how models of mind are formed from personal e"perience ,%erlotti
- (agnani! ./1/! p' .:.2' This emphasis on e"perience falls neatly in line with what
folklorist 1a#id J' Hufford has called the e"perience$centred approach' Hufford argues in
fa#our of the +e"periential source hypothesis* ,ESH2 as a tool for in#estigating
+supernatural* beliefs and e"periences' The ESH breaks away from the more widely
accepted cultural source hypothesis! which holds that paranormal e"periences and beliefs
arise from the diffusion of specific cultural ideas! in fa#our of the notion that supernatural
beliefs might ha#e their origins in real$life e"periences! regardless of whether such
e"periences are genuinely +paranormal* or not' Hufford writes:
The primary theoretical statement of the Ge"perience$centredH approach might be roughly
summed up as follows: some significant portion of traditional supernatural belief is
associated with accurate obser#ations interpreted rationally' This does not suggest that all
such belief has this association' =or is this association taken as proof that the beliefs are
true G'''H ,Hufford! 148.! p' "#iii2
So the idea here! in the conte"t of the %ristol Spirit &odge! is that their +ethno$
metaphysics* ,Hallowell! .//.! p' ./2! comprising their folk$models of consciousness! is
founded upon rational interpretations of e"periences had during sIances and in the
process of mediumship de#elopment' That is not! as Hufford states! to say that such
e"periences are genuinely of a paranormal nature ,though they could be2! but Just to
suggest that their e"periences ha#e #alidity in themsel#es! and that such beliefs are not to
be lightly brushed aside as necessarily irrational or unfounded ,Turner! 1449! p' 110
%owie! ./192! indeed they may be able to tell us something of interest about the nature
and phenomenology of human consciousness! and about the relationship between
consciousness and the physical body ,Deres et al'! ./1.0 Hunter! ./19a2'
( *rief +istory of &piritualist Mediumship
The Spiritualist mo#ement has many historical predecessors in the form of! amongst
other historical seers and prophets! the Eighteenth Century Swedish mystic and scientist
Emmanuel Swedenborg! whose Journey*s through the spirit world while in a trance state
seemed to pre$empt the Spiritualist mo#ement by almost a century ,Ean 1usen! 14472'
The craCe for animal magnetism! also known as mesmerism! in the early =ineteenth
Century also pre$empted! and was e#entually subsumed by! the Spiritualist mo#ement'
Datients undergoing mesmeric treatments often seemed to e"hibit e"trasensory powers
while in the mesmeric trance ,3nglis! 1484! pp' 7?$?/2! and some e#en claimed to be in
contact with spiritual beings'
The Spiritualist mo#ement! as a distinct phenomenon! howe#er! didn*t officially take
shape until (arch 91st 1878 when! in the small town of Hydes#ille in =ew Kork State!
the home of the @o" family became the locus of some unusual psychokinetic acti#ity
,1oyle! .//?0 Dearsall! .//7! pp' .4$990 (elechi! .//8! p' 1?10 %yrne! ./1/! p'182' The
@o"*s were plagued by perple"ing anomalous bangs and knocks on the walls and ceiling
of their modest wooden house' 3n an effort to make sense of what was going on the two
youngest sisters of the family! Bate and (argaret! began to address the knocks as though
they were being produced by an in#isible intelligence' The sisters soon realised that they
could communicate with this apparently in#isible agent through a simple code of knocks!
one for +Kes* and two for +=o!* and in this way disco#ered that the mysterious knocker
was the spirit of a pedlar by the name of Charles Fosma! who had been murdered in the
house some years before the @o" family mo#ed in ,%ednarowski! 148/! p' .190 >auld!
148.! p' 90 Ta#es! 1444! p' 1??0 Dearsall! .//70 Stemman! .//:! p' E0 %lum! .//50
arner! .//8! p' ..10 %yrne! ./1/0 (oreman! ./1/! p' 1?12' This would come to be
known as the +spiritual telegraph'*
=ews of the @o" sisters and their apparent ability to communicate with in#isible spirits
spread rapidly across the Lnited States and Europe lea#ing a trail of indi#iduals
disco#ering their own ability to communicate with the dead ,=elson! 14?4! p' :2' %y
18:9! only fi#e years after the mo#ement*s birth in =ew Kork State! Spiritualism had
become a religion! and spread across the <tlantic to secure a firm foothold in %ritain with
the establishment of the first Spiritualist Church in the small town of Beighley in
Korkshire ,1oyle! .//?! p' 870 =elson! 14?4! p' 412' %efore long the manifestations of
spirit communication began to di#ersify! e#ol#ing from simple )uestion and answer
sessions with knocks! through e"periments with ;uiJa boards and automatic writing to
full trance communications utilising deep altered states of consciousness! and e#entually
to the alleged materialisation of spirits from the mysterious semi$physical substance
known as +ectoplasm* ,(oreman! ./1/! p' 1?12'
The earliest form of Spiritualist mediumship! comprising raps and knocks! e#ol#ed into
what would later be called +physical mediumship!* defined by Jon Blimo as the purported
ability of certain mediums to +channel unknown energies that affect the physical
en#ironment in ways that can be directly e"perienced by persons other than the channel*
,Blimo! 1485! p' .//2' Derhaps the most influential inno#ator in early physical
mediumship was the Scottish$born <merican medium 1aniel 1unglas Home ,1899$
188?2' <fter an early life allegedly filled with spiritual #isions and premonitions! Home
conducted his first sIance at the age of eighteen and swiftly gained a reputation as a
powerful medium' %y 18:? Home was conducting sIances in %ritain' SIances with
Home were said to feature a wide range of ine"plicable phenomena! from
communications with spirits while the medium was in a deep trance state! to the
materialisation of hands and heads! and the le#itation and apportation ,spontaneous
appearance2 of obJects' 3n 18?8 he performed his most famous paranormal feat M the
le#itation of his body horiContally out through a third$story window at <shley House in
&ondon' ,1oyle! .//?! p' 440 &amont! .//?! pp' 18:$1852'
3n 1857 Home*s mediumship recei#ed further support with the publication of a positi#e
report by physicist Sir illiam Crookes' Lsing specially designed laboratory e)uipment
Crookes tested Home*s ability to change the weight of physical obJects and to play tunes
on an accordion suspended out of reach in a cage ,&amont! .//:! pp' ./7$./50 <l#arado!
.//?! p' 17.0 (elechi! .//8! pp' 148$.//2' <rthur Conan 1oyle considered Home to be
something of a #irtuoso in that he was proficient in four different forms of mediumship:
the direct #oice ,whereby spirits communicate #erbally independent of the medium2!
trance mediumship ,whereby spirits communicate #erbally through the body of the
medium2! clair#oyance ,the ability to see #isions of the spirit world! the future and distant
locations2 and physical mediumship ,the ability to psychically manipulate physical
obJects2 ,1oyle! .//?! p' 1/?2' Home*s abilities form the core phenomena of physical
mediumship! e#en today'
;wing to numerous e"posures of fraudulence! especially after the foundation of the
Society for Dsychical Fesearch in 188.! physical mediumship slowly declined in
popularity to be replaced with somewhat more refined forms of clair#oyant and trance
mediumship! which came to be known as +mental mediumship* ,=eher! 144/! p' ./52'
Three of the most influential and rigorously in#estigated mental mediums! &eonora Diper
,18:5M14:/2! >ladys ;sborne &eonard ,188.$14?82 and Eileen J' >arrett ,1849$145/2!
would enter into a deep trance state during which ostensible spirits would communicate
through their inert bodies gi#ing apparently #eridical information under controlled
conditions to sitters and psychical researchers alike' This is referred to as +trance
mediumship'* Today! Euro$<merican society is perhaps most familiar with +platform
mediumship'* This is the kind of mediumship that you will find in the Spiritualist
churches! as well as on tele#ision programmes and theatre stages! and is often referred to
as psychic or clair#oyant ,or clairaudient! clairsentient! etc'2 mediumship' Dlatform
mediums do not usually enter into a trance state ,at least not a particularly deep one2! and
the spirit communications they recei#e are often highly symbolic! re)uiring interpretation
by both the medium and the person to whom the message is directed'
%y the late 14:/s physical mediumship was #irtually e"tinct in the Lnited Bingdom!
though there were se#eral e"ceptions including the physical mediumship of Helen
1uncan ,1845$14:?2 and (innie Harrison ,184:$14:82! amongst a few others' 3t wasn*t
until the 144/s that an interest in physical mediumship returned to the popular
consciousness ,@oy! .//52'
< rein#igorated interest in physical mediumship de#eloped after the publication of
(ontague Been and 1a#id @ontana*s The Scole Feport by the Society for Dsychical
Fesearch in 1444! and the popularised #ersion The Scole E"periment! also published in
the same year' (ontague Been! one of the parapsychologists who in#estigated the group
on behalf of the Society for Dsychical Fesearch! outlines the basic claims made about the
Scole e"periments! he writes:
%ased on two years of regular sIances! the >roup*s chief claims were that they had
established contact with a +team* of spirit communicators G'''H These had been accessed
through G'''H a husband and wife team! both of whom entered swiftly into deep trance!
remaining thus throughout the proceedings! of which they retained no conscious
recollection' The purported discarnate contacts had facilitated the manifestation of spirit
lights! mo#ed furniture! created apports ,obJects appearing from no known source and by
no known means2! displayed shadowy figures described as angelic forms! and produced
films! allegedly employing a no#el form of energy not in#ol#ing the traditional
ectoplasmic e"trusions G'''H ,Been! .//1! pp' 1?5$1?82
Fegardless of whether or not the phenomena witnessed at Scole were genuinely
paranormal! the popularisation of the case led to the emergence of new e"perimental
home$circles de#oted to the de#elopment of physical mediumship! with circles often
employing sIance procedures influenced by the Scole group*s set$up ,Hunter! ./1.2' 3t
was at one of these new pri#ate home$circles that my main fieldwork informant!
Christine! first became ac)uainted with mediumship'
!nto the ield: ,ontemporary %rance & $hysical Mediumship in *ristol
The %ristol Spirit &odge was established in .//: as a centre for the de#elopment of
trance and physical mediumship when Christine! who describes herself as a mother and
housewife in her mid$si"ties! became con#inced of the reality of spirit mediumship
following a physical mediumship sIance at Jenny*s Sanctuary! a well known Spiritualist
circle in %anbury' She had been in#ited to the sIance by a friend and! not knowing what a
physical mediumship sIance was! decided to go along to find out' 1uring the sIance!
conducted in a plain room with about 9/ sitters! Christine saw bright lights floating and
flashing around the sIance room! heard numerous disembodied #oices! whistles and loud
bangs coming from all corners! witnessed a +partly materialised something!* and! to cap it
all off! heard a #oice that she recognised as belonging to her deceased father' 3n a short
self$published autobiography Christine describes the profound effect of this sIance
e"perience on her world#iew:
3 now had no option but to belie#e that something #ery serious was happening' 3 felt sick
with the sudden shock G'''H 3 knew 3 couldn*t ignore reality G'''H There are no boundaries'
e simply cannot see all that e"ists' 3 needed to somehow persuade my mind to accept
this fact completely0 otherwise 3 would close my mind! whilst at the same time knowing
that my pre#ious belief was incorrect' 3 had belie#ed that when we died we were dead' 3
needed to get a grip if 3 was to learn from the e"perience that had been offered to me GinH
the sIance G'''H at %anbury ,1i =ucci! .//4! pp' .9$.:2
Drior to her life$changing sIance e"perience! Christine claims that she was uninterested in
religious and spiritual matters! Jokingly describing herself as a +de#out atheist'* She
claims no psychic abilities and recalls only two possible paranormal e"periences from her
youth' She does recall an in#isible friend she had during a period of family disruption!
but interprets this as nothing more than a +psychological crutch!* seeing no reason to
consider it a hint at her future interest in spirit mediumship' She was! howe#er!
particularly interested in the de#elopments of modern science! ha#ing read Stephen
Hawking*s popular < %rief History of Time ,14882! and Journalist &ynn (cTaggart*s
pop$science ,some might say pseudoscientific2 book on )uantum physics and
consciousness! The @ield ,.//12' Her autobiography describes how she attempted to
interpret the e"periences she had while in the sIance room through the lens of her interest
in science! which she has characterised as a +13K house$wifey awareness of science*
,3nter#iew with Christine! .:N/.N./192' She now has a great enthusiasm for mediumship!
a fact alluded to by the sheer amount of time she spends in her &odge with de#eloping
mediums M by now she has taken part in o#er one thousand sIances'
The &odge itself is a wooden shed in Christine*s back garden' ;riginally! while still based
in %ristol! the &odge was constructed! using O.!/// of her sa#ings! according to simple
rules recommended by Fon! the circle leader at Jenny*s Sanctuary' 3t was important to
Christine that the &odge be built with lo#e! and that it be imbued with positi#e emotions'
To this end all the materials used to construct it were blessed! kissed and treated with
great respect' 3t was important to Christine that the &odge only be associated with
+positi#e energies!* so as to a#oid the risk of attracting negati#e entities during sIances'
The &odge was aligned so that the sIance cabinet! a curtained off corner of the room in
which the medium sits while in trance ,a direct descendant of the spirit cabinets used by
physical mediums in the late =ineteenth and early Twentieth centuries2! was located in
the =orth corner! a position deemed conduci#e to the flow of #ital +energies* necessary
for the successful de#elopment of physical mediumship'
<ll mediums at the &odge are working towards the manifestation of #arious physical
phenomena including le#itation! transfiguration ,the appearance of spirit faces o#er the
face of the entranced medium2! ectoplasmic materialisation! dematerialisation of the body
and psychic surgery! and all of this under the direction of their discarnate spirit teams'
Howe#er! due to the difficulties associated with the production of such seemingly
outlandish phenomena ,which only highly de#eloped mediums are allegedly able to
produce2! the maJority of sIances held in the &odge are trance sessions! during which the
medium enters into a trance state and allows members of their spirit team to communicate
with the sitters ,>auld 148.:.42' Spirit teams at the &odge generally consist of between
si" and si"teen indi#idual spirits with distincti#e and consistent characters! ranging from
children who died in the =ineteenth century! Eictorian undertakers! through =ati#e
<merican chiefs and Chinese philosophers' 3ndi#idual members of each medium*s spirit
team are usually differentiated through the use of distincti#e bodily postures and
e"aggerated #ocalisations that allow them to be recognised as distinct personalities
,Hunter! ./19b2! and each spirit usually works towards the production of a specific
physical phenomenon! depending upon their own interests' This emphasis on trance
mediumship! or channeling ,Blimo! 14850 %rown! 14452! locates the practices of the
%ristol Spirit &odge firmly within the remit of the anthropological debate o#er spirit
possession ,&ewis! 1488! p' .72'
Mediumship and the -e.elopment of olk Models of Mind & Matter
<s we ha#e already seen! the &odge was established specifically so that Christine could
apply her +house$wifey 13K knowledge of science* to understand the e"periences she had
during the sIance in %anbury' (ediumship de#elopment at the &odge can! therefore! be
thought of as an on$going e"periment in which both mediums and sitters construct their
own understandings of the nature of consciousness and reality' The following e"tract
from an inter#iew with Christine demonstrates how belief at the &odge is not a fi"ed
position! but rather represents an ongoing process of learning! interpretation and re$
interpretation' 3ndeed! in a recent inter#iew Christine e"plained how she has a problem
with the word +belief* being applied to her! e"plaining how she thinks she is +generally
mistrusting* and that without e#idence she has +difficulty belie#ing in anything'* Her
conclusions about the nature of mind and matter! therefore! are founded upon her own
e"periences with mediumship' She says:
G(ediumshipH e"pands the thinking' 3t certainly e"pands the possibilities' 3 wasn*t
thinking any of this when 3 started si" years ago' Kou learn all the time! 3 mean 3*m doing
three! four! SIances a week and ha#e o#er a thousand SIances with all different people!
all different mediums and all different situations' 3 am fascinated by it still' 3 am not one
least bit satisfied that 3*#e learned anything' 3 want moreP Keah! 3 want more and more
and more' %ecause it*s Just a bigger subJect than any other 3*#e hit on ,3nter#iew with
Christine 1?N/?N./1.2'
< few of the key ideas that! according to my inter#iew data! ha#e arisen from this
e"perimental process of e"periential learning include the idea that consciousness can
sur#i#e the death of the physical body! that personhood is partible! that the body is
permeable! that reality is non$physical! and that consciousness is a fundamental property
of the uni#erse' e will now e"plore these themes through e"tracts from inter#iews with
members of the %ristol Spirit &odge'
!nter.iew ")tracts and ,ommentary
The following e"tracts are taken from inter#iews with mediums and sitters at the %ristol
Spirit &odge between ./11$./19! and ha#e been transcribed directly from audio
recordings' Through looking at some of the ideas concerning the nature of consciousness
and the body! as well as descriptions of interactions with spiritual beings! it is hoped that
we will begin to see the emergence of key features of the ethno$metaphysical system of
the %ristol Spirit &odge'
12 Sur#i#al of Consciousness after 1eath'
3n this e"tract from Sandy! a nutritional therapist in her late forties and medium at the
&odge! describes how her e"periences de#eloping mediumship o#er the past four years!
ha#e led her to a firmer understanding that personal consciousness sur#i#es the physical
death of the body:
Lm! 3*m much more rela"ed G'''H 3*#e been able to think about what 3 belie#e in' 3t ne#er
occurred to me before! 3 Just didn*t think about it' <nd! uh! it*s changed the pace of my
life' 3t*s changed! um! my knowledge of continuation! after we*#e died! and it*s gi#en me
comfort in that way' The funny thing was before it e#er happened! um! 3 knew my brother
and my grandmother still e"isted! but it ne#er occurred to me that anybody else did either'
%ecause they were the only two people 3 knew who*d died! then 3 knew they were still
about! but that*s as far as 3*d e#er thought it! 3*d ne#er looked into any of it e#er! 3*d Just
ne#er considered any of it e#er ,3nter#iew with Sandy .9N/9N./112'
3t was only after being introduced to mediumship by Christine! and subse)uently
de#eloping trance mediumship herself! that Sandy came to realise that consciousness
sur#i#es after the death of the body' Similarly! in this )uotation from Emily! a 99 year old
mother of two and office worker who has recently begun to de#elop physical
mediumship! e"plains how her e"periences with mediumship ha#e led to a reassurance of
her own belief in sur#i#al:
3 think it has pro#en that there is more to +life* and 3 guess 3*m not worried about death
G'''H 3 also feel like 3 am contributing to getting the message and something e#idential +out
there* to help people belie#e in the reality of continuing life! as 3 belie#e this to be! and
come closer to understanding what e"ists around them' 3 feel that it*s amaCing and it
should be sharedP ,3nter#iew with Emily 1.N/.N./192'
Emily first became seriously interested in mediumship following a health scare that
prompted her to )uestion the possibility of life after death' Her e"periences with
mediumship de#elopment ha#e helped to diminish her concerns about dying'
.2 Spiritual <ugmentation
;ne of the most interesting ideas that has emerged! in my opinion! is that spiritual beings
can be useful! that they can actually help in e#eryday life in a #ariety of ways' 3 refer to
this as an augmentation' 3n her study of <fro$Cuban Spiritism! for e"ample! 1iana
Espirito Santo argues that mediumship is a +type of partnership between a person and a
series of spirits* and that the +person* of the medium is a +meeting$ground for the uni)ue
abilities of each of the spirits belonging to her spiritual cordon* ,Espirito Santo! ./11! p'
1/.2' Spirit mediumship can be thought of! therefore! as a process whereby the medium*s
person is e"panded through the incorporation of other spiritual beings! thus creating what
could be considered a composite! or multiple! personhood' Here Sandy e"plains how the
spirits help her to keep a clear mind! assisting in the recall and implementation of
knowledge and information:
GThe spiritsH help me keep a clearer mind! and therefore 3 am able to make better
decisions' 3 can utilise information that 3*#e got G'''H 3 did a degree in nutritional medicine!
years ago 3 was a nurse and a mid$wife! and there*s a lot of information in my head
somewhere! but 3 can actually tap in on information that 3*#e not used in years and years
and years G'''H the knowledge is mine but it can be used more efficiently ,3nter#iew with
Sandy .9N/9N./112'
Simlarly Christine e"plains how she interacts with her spirit guide @uCCy Critter ,also
known as @C2' @uCCy Critter plays an important role in the organisation of the SIances at
the &odge! and directs Christine on occasion in order to get the +energies right'* She
e"plains:
<s time when on in trusting @uCCy Critter! and these telepathic #oices! 3 did get to a point
where 3 knew it was separate from me G'''H 3t was a separate personality' The words he
uses are better than mine G'''H his language is different to mine G'''H His general way of
working! it*s not me! in fact sometimes 3*ll argue with him G'''H 3 ha#e a sense! he seems
to approach me from this side of my shoulder! this side of my head GleftH' 3! in my own
mind! feel that he*s a bit like a fluffy owl siting on my shoulder G'''H Sometimes it*s
annoying if 3*m doing housework and he wants to communicate with me! and 3 get this
feeling' 3t*s a bit like ha#ing something playing with your hair! or whispering in your ear
when you*re trying to do something ,3nter#iew with Christine 18N11N.//42'
@or Sandy and Christine! then! spiritual beings pro#ide a practical ser#ice through gi#ing
ad#ice and helping to focus lines of thought and inspiration! perhaps echoing the classical
notion of the daemonic muse' Transpersonal psychologist <le" Fachel has e#en gone so
far as to speculate on the possibility that human consciousness has e#ol#ed along side!
and under the symbiotic influence of! non$physical entities ,Fachel! ./192' Christine
recently e"plained the importance and practicality of this symbiotic relationship between
spirits and the li#ing! and how the modern world has forgotten something fundamental:
(ankind GisH missing something that is their natural right G'''H The world is crap and we
are missing a link that we are entitled to G'''H <ncestors can offer their ad#ice! their
support! for real ,3nter#iew with Christine .:N/.N./192'
92 Dorous %odies and @ield$like Sel#es
These kinds of e"perience appear to hint at a model of personhood that is somewhat
different to the usually assumed +estern* model of the person! which Clifford >eertC
defines as:
G'''H a bounded! uni)ue! more or less integrated moti#ational and cogniti#e uni#erse! a
dynamic center of awareness! emotion! Judgment and action organiCed into a distincti#e
whole and set contrasti#ely against other such wholes and against its social and natural
background ,>eertC! 1457! p' 912
E"periences with mediumship would appear! therefore! to lead towards a different
perspecti#e on the nature of the person! one that has classically been labelled a +=on$
estern* model of personhood! which is contrasted with the estern model! as outlined
abo#e! in that the person is concei#ed as porous and susceptible to the influence of
e"ternal agents ,Steffen! ./110 Smith! ./1.! p' :92' This conception of the person as
porous comes across most strongly in &odge members* descriptions of the body' Christine
says:
3 think we Just flow through each other' ;r! we*#e got #ery blurred edges! we appear to
be solid! but only our eyes are seeing this solid! this light reflection which causes us to
appear solid' e*re not' So! our boundaries aren*t where we think they are' e are here to
e"perience whate#er this is! this life$form! this stage of life is' e are here G'''H to
e"perience! or to percei#e things as solid and indi#idual and it*s a #ery little tiny part of a
#ery big life' 3 think' Dossibly ,3nter#iew with Christine 1?N/?N./1.2'
Christine concei#es of the boundaries of the person as e"tending beyond the confines of
the physical body! which itself only appears to be solid' <ccording to this perspecti#e the
+solid* and the +indi#idual* are! to a certain e"tent! illusionary' ith a porous body! then! it
is possible for things to flow in and out of the person' <nthropologist @iona %owie has
characterised this through describing the body! in the conte"t of Spiritualist trance
sIances! as a +shared territory! holding the physical life$force of the medium and the
conscious intelligence of #isiting spirits* ,%owie! 3n Dress! p' 172' 3n further discussions!
Christine has described her model of consciousness as being somewhat +like an onion!*
that is +a whole split into millions and trillions of consciousnesses that can act together*
,3nter#iew with Christine .:N/.N./192' This kind of pluralistic understanding of
consciousness and the person recurs throughout the ethnographic literature ,see! as one
such e"ample! Foseman on the structure of the self among Senoi Temiar! which is
described as consisting of +a number of potentially detachable sel#es* 144/! p' ..52'
Here! as another e"ample of understanding the body as permeable! Emily describes the
sensation of spirit beings mo#ing into her +personal space* as she waits to go out into the
&odge to practice her mediumship:
Then usually around the table while we are waiting for the start 3 will feel a presence
around me kind of like an en#eloping feeling! the first thing 3 feel is as if a friend is
standing unseen nearby' 3 ha#e an awareness of there being someone there! near me! that
is a friend' 3 then feel them come closer into my personal +space* in some )uiet gentle
way ,3nter#iew with Emily 19N/.N./192'
Emily*s description of a sense of presence! unseen but felt! suggests a model of the self as
a non$physical field e"panding outwards! into which other entities can pass' 3n this
e"tract from an inter#iew with another medium! Fachael! who has been attending the
&odge for Just o#er one year! she e"plains how before de#eloping mediumship she would
fre)uently e"perience unusual! and often unpleasant! sensations of spirits mo#ing through
her body' She e"plains:
hen they actually make a personal entrance into your body! that*s pretty biCarre' 3t
would normally happen! um! in the middle of the night 3*d wake up and there was
something! it*s a sort of odd feeling! it*s like! um! if you can imagine taking off a polo
necked Jumper! but from inside yourself' 3t*s like something*s pulling! it*s kind of gone
in! and then it*s kind of pulling out! and it*s! oh! 3 can*t e"plain it! but it*s the weirdest!
weirdest feeling' %ut it*s )uite horrible G'''H 3t happened! um! on about three occasions
through my thirties! and in the end 3 got talking to a medium and she said it sounds like a
spirit entity in you! or something passing through you! and she said to contact the local
Spiritualist church! but! 3 did that! but nobody there seemed to feel the same kind of
thing: with mental mediumship it all seems to be outside of the person coming in through
the mind and talking! it wasn*t! with me it*s a #ery physical thing G'''H ,3nter#iew with
Fachael 1?N/?N./1.2'
@or Fachael the process of de#eloping mediumship allowed her to come to terms with
e"periences that had pre#iously been disturbing' here once the e"perience of spirits
mo#ing through her body had been unpleasant and spontaneous! it is now both
deliberately induced and enJoyable' She e"plains how mediumship de#elopment has
made her +soft and s)uidgy* and +more open to other people* ,3nter#iew with Fachael!
.:N/.N./192'
There is also a belief amongst &odge members that the physical body itself can! on
occasion! dematerialise completely' This e"tract from a report by Jerry ,a regular sitter
and de#eloping medium at the &odge2! on witnessing a physical mediumship
demonstration! describes his difficulty in coming to terms with the apparent
dematerialisation of the medium*s physical body:
3*#e been trying to think of words to ade)uately describe what 3 felt and saw! but it*s
impossible really' 3 was sitting ne"t to the cabinet! so when 3 was asked by Kellow
@eather to mo#e in front of the cabinet 3 was able to do this )uite easily! despite it being
in blackout conditions at the time' hen Kellow @eather asked me to feel the chair! where
Gthe mediumH had been sitting! he wasn*t thereP His chair was emptyP The spirit team had!
they said! dematerialised him' 3 found this hard to belie#e' %ut Gthe mediumH is a big lad
and 3 was sitting right beside the cabinet! and no$one walked past me' So where was heQ
,Jerry! ;ctober ./112
<ll of this seems to suggest that the classical anthropological distinction between estern
and =on$estern personhood conceptions is incorrect! and that there are huge #ariations
in the way that consciousness and the body are understood and e"perienced e#en within a
single +dominant* culture' This is not the same as saying that the members of the %ristol
Spirit &odge necessarily partake of a socio$centric conception of the self! as perhaps
e"emplified by the fre)uently cited e"ample of Japanese notions of an +interdependent*
self +as part of an encompassing social relationship Gin whichH one*s beha#ior is
determined! contingent on! and! to a large e"tent organiCed by what the actor percei#es to
be the thoughts! feelings! and actions of others in the relationship* ,(arkus - Bitayama!
1441! p' ..52' 3t is not this kind of social$self concept that 3 am referring to! because in
most cases the members of the &odge appear to possess what might be considered a
normal +estern* notion of the self in terms of kinship relationships and e#eryday social
interactions' here they differ is in the porosity of the self: the belief that the self can be
influenced by non$physical entities! that the physical body is not permanently bounded
and may be entered by non$physical beings as well as! on occasion! dematerialising
completely! and that the self can lea#e the physical body during altered states of
consciousness' hat we seem to be dealing with! then! is a greater degree of intra$
cultural #ariation in e"periences and concepualisations of self and body than the standard
esternN=on$estern dichotomy seems to allow for ,Spiro 1449! pp' 177$17:2! and this
calls for further in#estigation ,&illard! 14482'
72 Danpsychism
The final aspect of this ethno$metaphysical system that 3 want to touch upon is the notion
of +panpsychism!* broadly defined as the idea that consciousness is inherent in all matter
,Eelmans .//5:.542' Here Christine e"plains her understanding that e#en seemingly inert
tables possess an element of consciousness:
3t*s funny because G'''H 3 think that table has an element of consciousness in it' 3 think it
belongs to something' 3 think it*s part of something' 3 think it*s got #ibrations' 3t*s got a
something' 3 don*t know how aware it is! but people! or certain psychics! can pick up the
memory of that table M the history of that table! the tree it belonged to' Kou know! if you
get sensiti#e enough you can do all that stuff' 3 can*t! but it has a being! a something' That
table doesP 3f that*s got consciousness! that*s it! it*s beyond me! it really is beyond me
where it starts! where does it come fromQ 3 don*t know where it comes from! 3 ha#en*t a
clue! and it gets more and more complicated as you look into it and wonder about it G'''H 3
don*t know what consciousness is and 3*#e got no idea' 3 don*t know where it comes
from' 3 definitely! 3 think it*s e#erywhere! but! e#erything is conscious to different degrees
G'''H maybe it collects together and becomes stronger' 3 don*t know ,3nter#iew with
Christine 1?N/?N./1.2'
Christine*s e"periences assisting the de#elopment of mediums at the %ristol Spirit &odge
ha#e ultimately led her to an understanding of consciousness as a fundamental property
of reality! and as ubi)uitous throughout matter' This understanding has emerged from a
combination of anomalous e"periences in the sIance room! and the metaphysical
teachings of the spirits she con#erses with through entranced mediums' @or Christine!
sIance phenomena are an e"pression of the fact that matter and energy are the same
thing' Consciousness! as an aspect of physical e"istence! therefore! must also be energy!
and so consciousness must be present in e#erything to a greater or lesser e"tent' She
e"plains how mediumship is simply the +energy of people that ha#e died interacting with
the energy of people who are ali#e* ,3nter#iew with Christine .:N/.N./192'
$reliminary ,onclusions
The often cited distinction between so$called +estern* and +=on$estern* models of the
self and person appears to represent a dichotomy that does not fit with the ethnographic
data ,&a @ontaine! 148:0 Spiro! 14492' To assume that there is a neat di#ide between
+bounded* and +porous* models of the person! and to suggest that these represent discrete
+estern* and +=on$estern* categories! is an o#ersimplification of something that is far
more fluid and #aried' E"periences with mediumship de#elopment in sub$urban %ristol!
for e"ample! ha#e led my fieldwork informants to de#elop models of personhood that
would classically ha#e been defined as +=on$estern'* hat we appear to be dealing
with! therefore! is a much greater degree of intra$cultural #ariation in understandings
about the nature of consciousness and its relation to the body than the standard dichotomy
seems to allow for! and this #ariation deri#es! to a large e"tent! from personal e"perience
,&uhrmann! ./1.! ""ii2'
3n the conte"t of the %ristol Spirit &odge! mind and matter are causally interconnected
and fre)uently o#erlapping' 1iscarnate! non$physical! spirits can interact with physical
bodies! and the material world can be influenced by conscious intention! for e"ample in
the practice of psychic surgery' Ectoplasm represents a half$way substance between the
physical and the non$physical: it is belie#ed to be e"truded from the physical body so that
it can be manipulated by non$physical spirits' The human body can! on occasion! e#en be
dematerialised completely under the influence of spiritual entities! and consciousness can
e"ist beyond the confines of the physical brain' <ll of this suggests a hugely different
conception of the nature of the +self* to the often assumed +bounded! uni)ue6distincti#e
whole* ,>eertC! 14572 of the estern notion of the self'
To conclude! it is clearly important to take e"perience seriously in the study of folk$
psychology! ethno$metaphysics and supernatural belief' Through attempting to
understand the e"periential foundations of belief in! for e"ample! sur#i#al of
consciousness after death! the permeability of the body and pluralistic models of the self!
we can mo#e towards a more nuanced understanding of different cultural and sub$cultural
systems' 3deas that might! at first glance! appear outlandish need not necessarily be
classified as irrational or unscientific! but can be understood as logical conclusions drawn
from first$hand personal e"periences interpreted rationally ,Hufford! 148.0 Turner! 14490
%owie! ./192' ;nce we are able to mo#e beyond the hegemonic dismissal of alternati#e
modes of understanding the relationship between the mind and the body! we open
oursel#es up to a much wider range of possibilities regarding the nature of consciousness
,Cohen - Fapport! 144:! p' 190 Samuel - Johnston! ./192'
*i/lio#raphy
<l#arado! C'S' ,.//?2' +Human Fadiations: Concepts of @orce in (esmerism!
Spiritualism and Dsychical Fesearch'* Journal of the Society for Dsychical Fesearch! Eol'
5/! =o' 887! pp' 198$1?.'
%ednarowski! ('@' ,148/2' +;utside the (ainstream: omen*s Feligion and omen
Feligious &eaders in =ineteenth Century <merica'* Journal of the <merican <cademy of
Feligion! Eol' 78! =o' .! pp' ./5$.9.'
%lum! 1' ,.//52' >host Hunters: The Eictorians and the Hunt for Droof of &ife <fter
1eath' &ondon: <rrow %ooks'
%oddy! J' ,14882' +Spirits and Sel#es in =orthern Sudan: The Cultural Therapeutics of
Dossession and Trance'* <merican Ethnologist! Eol'1:! =o' 1! pp' 7$.5'
%ourguignon! E' ,14592' Feligion! <ltered States of Consciousness and Social Change'
Columbus: ;hio State Lni#ersity Dress'
%ourguignon! E' ,14592' +< @ramework for the Comparati#e Study of <ltered States of
Consciousness'* 3n E' %ourguignon ,ed'2 ,14592' Feligion! <ltered States of
Consciousness and Social Change' Columbus: ;hio State Lni#ersity Dress' pp' 9$98'
%ourguignon! E' ,.//52' +Spirit Dossession'* 3n C' Casey - F'%' Edgerton ,eds'2 ,.//52'
< Companion to Dsychological <nthropology' ;"ford: %lackwell Dublishing &td' pp'
957$988'
%ourguignon! E' %ellisari! <' - (cCabe! S' ,14892' +omen! Dossession Trance Cults!
and the E"tended =utrient$1eficiency Hypothesis'* <merican <nthropologist! Eol' 8:!
=o' .! pp' 719$71?'
%owie! @' ,./192' +%uilding %ridges! 1issol#ing %oundaries: Towards a (ethodology for
the Ethnographic Study of the <fterlife! (ediumship and Spiritual %eings'* Journal of the
<merican <cademy of Feligion! Eol' 81! =o' 9! pp' ?48$599'
%owie! @' ,3n Dress2' +(aterial and 3mmaterial %odies: Ethnographic Feflections on a
Trance SIance'*
%owker! J' ,14592' The Sense of >od: Sociological! <nthropological and Dsychological
<pproaches to the ;rigin of the Sense of >od' ;"ford: Clarendon Dress'
%oyer! D' ,.//12' Feligion E"plained: The Human 3nstincts that @ashion >ods! Spirits and
<ncestors' &ondon: illiam Heinnemann'
%raude! S' ,14882' +(ediumship and (ultiple Dersonality 1isorder'* Journal of the
Society for Dsychical Fesearch! Eol' ::! =o' 819! pp' 155$14:'
%rown! ('@' ,14452' The Channeling Aone: <merican Spirituality in an <n"ious <ge'
Har#ard: Har#ard Lni#ersity Dress'
%udden! <' ,.//92' +DathologiCing Dossession: <n Essay on (ind! Self and E"perience in
1issociation'* <nthropology of Consciousness! Eol' 17! =o' .! pp' .5$:4'
%yrne! >' ,./1/2' (odern Spiritualism and the Church of England! 18:/$1494'
oodbridge: The %oydell Dress'
Cardena! E'! Ean 1uiJil! ('! einer! &'<' - Terhune! 1'%' ,.//42' +DossessionNTrance
Dhenomena'* 3n D'@' 1ell - J'<' ;*=eil ,eds2' ,.//42' 1issociation and the 1issociati#e
1isorders: 1S($E and %eyond' =ew Kork: Foutledge' ,pp' 151$1872'
CarraCana! E'! 1eToledo! J'! Tatum! '! Fi#as$Eas)ueC! F'! Fey! >' - heeler! S'
,14442' +Epilepsy and Feligious E"perience: Eoodoo Dossession'* Epilepsia! Eol' 7/! =o'
.! pp' .94$.71'
Cohen! <'D' - Fapport! =' ,144:2' +3ntroduction: Consciousness in <nthropology'* 3n
<'D' Cohen - =' Fapport ,eds'2 ,144:2' Ruestions of Consciousness' &ondon: Foutledge'
,pp' 1$182'
Cohen! E' ,.//82' +hat is Spirit DossessionQ 1efining! Comparing and E"plaining Two
Dossession @orms'* Ethos! Eol' 59! =o' 1! pp' 1/1$1.?'
Csordas! T'J' ,14852' +Health and the Holy in <frican and <fro$<merican Spirit
Dossession'* Social Science and (edicine! Eol' .7! =o' 1! pp' 1$11'
1awson! <' ,./112' Summoning the Spirits: Dossession and 3n#ocation in Contemporary
Feligion' &ondon: 3'%' Tauris'
1i =ucci! C' ,.//42' Spirits in a Teacup: Ruestioning the Feality of &ife <fter 1eath has
led one Housewife <long an <d#enturous Dath Towards 1isco#ery' ,www' lulu'com2'
1oyle! <'C' ,14.? G.//?H2' The History of Spiritualism! Eol' .' @airford: The Echo
&ibrary'
Emmons! C'@' ,.//82' +;n %ecoming a Spirit (edium in a SFationalT Society'*
<nthropology of Consciousness! Eol' 1.! =o' 1! pp' 51$8.'
Espirito Santo! 1' ,./112' +Drocess! Dersonhood and Dossession in Cuban Spiritism'* 3n <'
1awson ,ed'2 ,./112' Summoning the Spirits: Dossession and 3n#ocation in
Contemporary Feligion' &ondon: 3'%' Tauris - Co' &td' pp' 49$1/4'
@oy! F' ,.//52' 3n Dursuit of Dhysical (ediumship' &ondon: Janus Dublishing'
@ry! D' ,148?2' +(ale Homose"uality and Spirit Dossession in %raCil'* Journal of
Homose"uality! Eol' 11! =o' 9$7! pp' 195$1:9'
>auld! <' ,148.2' (ediumship and Sur#i#al: < Century of 3n#estigations' &ondon:
>ranada Dublishing &td'
>eertC! C' ,14572' +@rom the =ati#e*s Doint of Eiew*: ;n the =ature of <nthropological
Lnderstanding'* %ulletin of the <merican <cademy of <rts and Sciences! Eol' .8! =o' 1!
pp' .?$7:'
>iles! &' &' ,14852' +Dossession Cults on the Swahili Coast: < Fe$E"amination of
Theories of (arginality'* <frica: Journal of the 3nternational <frican 3nstitute! Eol' :5!
=o' .! pp' .97$.:8'
>off! <'C'! %rotman! <''! Bindlon! 1'! aites! ('! and <mico! E' ,14412'+The 1elusion
of Dossession in Chronically Dsychotic Datients'* The Journal of =er#ous and (ental
1isease! Eol' 154! =o' 4! pp' :?5$:51'
>omm! F' ,145:2' +%argaining from eakness: Spirit Dossession on the South Benya
Coast'* (an! Eol' 1/! =o' 7! pp' :9/$:79'
>uthrie! S' ,148/2' +< Cogniti#e Theory of Feligion'* Current <nthropology! Eol' .1! =o'
.! pp' 181$./9'
>uthrie! S' ,14492' @aces in the Clouds: < =ew Theory of Feligion' ;"ford: ;"ford
Lni#ersity Dress'
Hageman! J'H'! Deres! J'@D'! (oreira$<lmeida! <'! Cai"eta! &'! ickramasekera 33! 3! -
Brippner! S' ,./1/2' +The =eurobiology of Trance and (ediumship in %raCil'* 3n S'
Brippner - H'&' @riedman ,eds'2 ,./1/2' (ysterious (inds: The =eurobiology of
Dsychics! (ediums and ;ther E"traordinary Deople' ;"ford: Draeger'
Hallowell! <'3' ,.//. G14?/H2 +;Jibwa ;ntology! %eha#iour! and orld Eiew'* 3n >'
Har#ey ,ed'2 ,.//.2' Feadings in 3ndigenous Feligions' &ondon: Continuum'
Halloy! <' ,./1/2' +Comments on SThe (ind Dossessed: The Cognition of Spirit
Dossession in an <fro$%raCilian Feligious TraditionT by Emma Cohen'* Feligion and
Society: <d#ances in Fesearch! Eol' 1! pp' 1?7$15?'
Hawking! S' ,14882' < %rief History of Time: @rom the %ig %ang to %lack Holes'
&ondon: %antam %ooks'
Hufford! 1'J' ,148.2' The Terror That Comes in the =ight: <n E"perience$Centred Study
of Supernatural <ssault Traditions' Dhiladelphia: Lni#ersity of Dennsyl#ania Dress'
Hunter! J' ,./112' +Talking ith Spirits: <nthropology and 3nterpreting Spirit
Communication'* Journal of the Society for Dsychical Fesearch! Eol' 5:'9! =o' 4/7!
pp'1.4$17.'
Hunter! J' ,./1.a2' Talking ith Spirits: Dersonhood! Derformance and <ltered
Consciousness in a Contemporary Spiritualist Home$Circle' Lnpublished ('&itt
1issertation! Lni#ersity of %ristol'
Hunter! J' ,./1.b2' +Contemporary Dhysical (ediumship: 3s 3t Dart of a Continuous
TraditionQ* Daranthropology: Journal of <nthropological <pproaches to the Daranormal!
Eol' 9! =o' 1! pp' 9:$79'
Hunter! J' ,./19a2' +3ntroduction: Taking E"perience Seriously'* Daranthropology: Journal
of <nthropological <pproaches to the Daranormal! Eol' 7! =o' 9! pp' 9$8'
Hunter! J' ,./19b2' +=uminous Con#ersations: Derformance and (anifestation of Spirits
in Spirit Dossession Dractices'* 3n <' Eoss - ' Fowlandson ,eds'2 ,./192' 1aimonic
3magination: Lncanny 3ntelligence' Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Dress'
3nglis! %' ,14842' Trance: < =atural History of <ltered States of (ind' &ondon: >rafton
%ooks'
Been! (' ,.//12' +The Scole 3n#estigation: < Study in Critical <nalysis of Daranormal
Dhysical Dhenomena'* Journal of Scientific E"ploration! Eol' 1:! =o' .! pp' 1?5$18.'
Blimo! J' ,14852' Channeling: 3n#estigations on Fecei#ing 3nformation from Daranormal
Sources' &os <ngeles: Jeremy D' Tarcher'
&a @ontaine! J'S' ,148:2' +Derson and 3ndi#idual: Some <nthropological Feflections'* 3n
(' Carrithers! Collins! S' - &ukes! S'! ,148:2' The Category of the Derson:
<nthropology! Dhilosophy! History' Cambridge: Cambridge Lni#ersity Dress' pp'1.9$17/'
&amont! D' ,.//:2' The @irst Dsychic: The Deculiar (ystery of a =otorious Eictorian
iCard' &ondon: <bacus'
&ewis! 3' (' ,14512' Ecstatic Feligion: <n <nthropological Study of Spirit Dossession
and Shamanism' &ondon: Denguin %ooks &td'
&ewis! 3'(' ,14882' Feligion in Conte"t: Cults and Charisma' Cambridge: Cambridge
Lni#ersity Dress'
&ewis$@ernandeC! F' ,144.2' +The Droposed 1S($3E Trance and Dossession 1isorder
Category: Dotential %enefits and Fisks'* Transcultural Dsychiatry! Eol' .4! pp' 9/1$915'
&illard! <' ,14482' +Ethnopsychologies: Cultural Eariations in Theories of (ind'*
Dsychological %ulletin! Eol' 1.9! =o' 1! pp' 9$9.'
&uhrmann! T'(' ,./1.2' hen >od Talks %ack: Lnderstanding the <merican
E#angelical Felationship with >od' =ew Kork: <lfred <' Bnopf'
(cTaggart! &' ,.//12' The @ield: The Ruest for the Secret @orce of &ife' &ondon: Harper
Collins'
(elechi! <' ,.//82' Ser#ants of the Supernatural: The =ight Side of the Eictorian (ind'
&ondon! illiam Heinemann'
(oreira$<lmeida! <'! =eto! @'&'! - CardeUa! E' ,.//82' +Comparison of %raCilian
Spiritist (ediumship and 1issociati#e 3dentity 1isorder'* Journal of =er#ous and (ental
1isease! Eol' 14?! =o' :! pp' 7./$7.7'
(oreman! C'(' ,./1/2' %eyond the Threshold: <fterlife %eliefs and E"periences in
orld Feligions' &ondon: Fowman - &ittlefield'
=elson! >'B' ,14?42' Spiritualism and Society' &ondon: Foutledge - Began Daul &td'
;beyesekere! >' ,14872' (edusa*s Hair: <n Essay on Dersonal Symbols and Feligious
E"perience' Chicago: Lni#ersity of Chicago Dress'
;ng! <' ,14882' +The Droduction of Dossession: Spirits and the (ultinational Corporation
in (alaysia'* <merican Ethnologist! Eol' 1:! =o' 1! pp' .8$7.'
;ohashi! T'! Bawai! ='! Honda! ('! =akamura! S'! (orimoto! ('! =ishina! E'! (aekawa!
T' ,.//.2' +Electroencephalographic (easurement of Dossession Trance in the @ield'*
Clinical =europhysiology! Eol' 11! =o' 9! pp' 79:$77:'
Dearsall! F' ,.//72' The Table$Fappers: The Eictorians and the ;ccult' Stroud: Sutton
Dublishing'
Deres J'@! (oreira$<lmeida <'! Cai"eta &'! &eao @'! =ewberg <' ,./1.2' +=euroimaging
during Trance State: < Contribution to the Study of 1issociation'* D&oS ;=E! Eol' 5! =o'
11! pp' 1$4'
Fachel! <' ,./192' +1aimonic Ecologies: <n 3n)uiry into the Felationships %etween the
Human and =onphysical Species'* 3n <' Eoss and ' Fowlandson ,eds'2 ,./192'
1aimonic 3magination: Lncanny 3ntelligence' =ewcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars
Dublishing' ,pp' 9.1$9942'
Fasmussen! S'J' ,14472' +The +Head 1ance!* Contested Self! and <rt as %alancing <ct in
Tuareg Spirit Dossession'* <frica: Journal of the 3nternational <frican 3nstitute! Eol' ?7!
=o' 1! pp' 57$48'
Foseman! (' ,144/2' +Head! Heart! ;dor! and Shadow: The Structure of the Self! the
Emotional orld! and Fitual Derformance among Senoi Temiar'* Ethos! Eol' 18! =o' 9!
pp' ..5$.:/'
Fo"burgh! E' - Foe! C' ,./112' +< Sur#ey of 1issociation: %oundary$Thinness! and
Dsychological ellbeing in Spiritualist (ental (ediums'* Journal of Darapsychology!
Eol' 5:! =o' .! pp' .54$9//'
Samuel! >' - Johnston! J' ,eds'2 ,./192' Feligion and the Subtle %ody in <sia and the
est: %etween (ind and %ody' <bingdon: Foutledge'
Schmidt! %' - Huskinson! &' ,eds'2 ,./1/2' Spirit Dossession and Trance: =ew
3nterdisciplinary Derspecti#es' &ondon: Continuum'
Skultans! E' ,14572' 3ntimacy and Fitual: < Study of Spiritualism! (ediums and >roups'
&ondon: Foutledge - Began Daul'
Smith! B' ,./1.2' +@rom 1i#idual and 3ndi#idual Sel#es to Dorous SubJects'* The
<ustralian Journal of <nthropology! =o' .9! pp' :/$?7'
Solomon! > - Solomon! J' ,14442' The Scole E"periment: Scientific E#idence for &ife
<fter 1eath' &ondon: Judy Diatkus'
Spiro! (' ,14492' +3s the estern Conception of the Self +Deculiar* ithin the Conte"t of
the orld CulturesQ* Ethos! Eol' .1! =o' .! pp' 1/5$1:9'
Steffen! E' ,./112' +3ntrusi#e <gents and Dermeable Sel#es: Spirit Consultation in
1enmark'* 3n S' @ainCang - C' Ha"aire ,eds'2 ,./112' ;f %odies and Symptoms:
<nthropological Derspecti#es on Their Social and (edical Treatment' Tarragona:
Dublicacions LFE'
Stemman! F' ,.//:2' Spirit Communication: < Comprehensi#e >uide to the
E"traordinary orld of (ediums! Dsychics and the <fterlife' &ondon: Diatkus'
Ta#es! <' ,14442' @its! Trances and Eisions: E"periencing Feligion and E"plaining
E"perience from esley to James' Drinceton: Drinceton Lni#ersity Dress'
Ta#es! <' ,.//?2' +here ,@ragmented2 Sel#es (eet Cultures: Theorising Spirit
Dossession'* Culture and Feligion! Eol' 5! =o' .! pp' 1.9$198'
Turner! E' ,14492' +The Feality of Spirits: < Tabooed or Dermitted @ield of Study'*
<nthropology of Consciousness! Eol' 7! =o' 1! pp' 4$1.'
Ean 1usen! ' ,14472' The Dresence of ;ther orlds: The DsychologicalNSpiritual
@indings of Emanuel Swedenborg' est Chester: Chrysalis %ooks'
Eelmans! (' ,.//52' +The Co$E#olution of (atter and Consciousness'* Synthesis
Dhilosophica! Eol' ..! =o' 77! pp' .59$.8.'
arner! (' ,.//82' Dhantasmagoria: Spirit Eisions! (etaphors! and (edia into the
Twenty$first Century' ;"ford: ;"ford Lni#ersity Dress'
ilson! D' J' ,14?52' +Status <mbiguity and Spirit Dossession'* (an! Eol' .! =o' 9! pp'
9??$958'
ilson! 1'>'(' ,./192' Fedefining Shamanisms: Spiritualist (ediums and ;ther
Traditional Shamans as <pprenticeship ;utcomes' &ondon: Continuum'
Aingrone! =' ,14472' +3mages of oman as (edium: Dower! Dathology and Dassi#ity in
the ritings of @rederic (ar#in and Cesare &ombrosso'* 3n &' Coly - F'<' hite ,eds'2
,14472' omen and Darapsychology: Droceedings of an 3nternational Conference' =ew
Kork: Darapsychology @oundation' ,pp' 4/$1.92'

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0ack +unter
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VJack$hunter NN acti#e . months! 9 weeks ago
1.
website
<n <ssociate Editor of &imitless (ind on Feality Sandwich! Jack Hunter is a Dh'1
student in Social <nthropology at the Lni#ersity of %ristol' His research takes the form of
an ethnographic study of contemporary trance and physical mediumship in %ristol!
focusing on themes of personhood! performance and altered states of consciousness' 3n
./1/ he established WDaranthropology: Journal of <nthropological <pproaches to the
DaranormalW as a means to promote an interdisciplinary dialogue on issues of the
paranormal' 3n ./1/ he was also awarded the Eileen J' >arrett Scholarship by the
Darapsychology @oundation! and in ./11 he recei#ed the >ertrude Schmeidler <ward
from the Darapsychological <ssociation' He is the author of Why Deople %elie#e in
Spirits! >ods and (agicW ,./1.2! a beginnerWs introduction to the anthropology of the
supernatural! the editor of WDaranthropology: Journal of <nthropological <pproaches to
the DaranormalW ,./1.2! and co$editor with 1r' 1a#id &uke of WTalking ith the Spirits:
Ethnographies from %etween the orldsW ,./172'
1ecent &hares
Kou are what you eat'