HANDBOOK OF METAL FORMIN

HANDBOOK OF METAL FORMING

EDITOR
KURT LANGE
Professor Ementus, Unwersity of Stuttgart
COEDITORS
KLAUS P~HLANDT
RAGU S. RAGHUPATHI
JOHN D. SANITER
WOLFGANG J. SAUER
JOHN A. SCHEY
KLAUS J. WEINMANN
G.E.O. WIDERA
Society of Manufacturing Engineers
One SME Drive, PO. Box 930
Dearborn, Michigan 481 21, USA.
<hpyrightY 1985 by Kurt Lange
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced
in any form wi t ho~~t permission of the ccipyright owner.
First Edition
9876.5432
Published by Society of Manufactllring Engineers. The publisher does
not, by publication of data in this hook, ensure anyone using such data
against liability of any kind, including infringement of any patent.
Publication of any data in this book does not constitute a recornmenda-
tion of any product. The Sociev of Manl~facturing Engineers, as well as
all contributors of information in this book, disclaim any and all respon-
sibility fbr use of the information contained herein by readers and users
of this book.
English language edition first published by McGraw-Hill, lnc., 1985
Oriprally p u b ~ h d in Geman under the title Lehrbl~ch dpr C'v$umctechnik,
Bd. 1 , 2, and 3. Copyrighto 1972 and 1975 b! Springer-Verlag, Berlin/
Heidelberg. All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 833-19897
International Standard Book Number: 0-87263-457-4
Additional copies may be obtdinrd by contacting:
Society of Manufacturing Engineers
One SME Drive, P.O. Box 9.30
Dearborn, Michigan 48121
313-271-1500,500-733-4763
Cover photo courtesy of Matra Data~ision. New-generation simulation
software pedicts forming results prior to tool design. A thickness distri-
bution performed on a car floor following a forming simulation indicates
in violet where areas are too thin.
Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS
How This ~ o o k U'as Prepared uii
About the Original Book ix
Preface xi
PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
General Terms and Symbols
Metal-Forming Processes as a System
Fundamentals of Metallurgy
Flow Curves
Fundamentals of Technical Plasticity Theory
Tribology
Measurement of Process Parameters
Machine Tools for Metal Forming
Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Quality
PARTTWO BULK-METAL FORMING
Chapter 10 Upsetting
Chapter 11 Forging
Chapter 12 Rolling
Chapter 13 Fundamentals of Extrusion and Drawing
Chapter 14 Drawing and Ironing
VI CONTENTS
Chapter 15
(:old and Warrn Extrusion
Chapter I6 Hot Extrusion
(:hapter 17 Indentation Processes
PART THREE SHEET-METAL FORMING
Chapter 18 Sheet-hlrtal Properties and Testing Methods
Chapter 19 Bending
Chapter 20 Deep Drawing
C:haptc,r 21 Metal Spinning
Chapter 22 Collar Drawing
<;hapter 23
Stretch Forming, Expanding, and Other Tensile Forming
Processes
PART FOUR BLANKING, PIERCING, SLUG PRODUCTION
Chapter 23 Blanking and Piercing
Chapter 25 Slug Production
Chapter 2h
Heat and Surface Treatment
PART FIVE METAL FORMING UNDER SPECIAL CONDITIONS
Chapter 27 High-Energy-Rate Forming
Chapter 28
Forming under Hydrostatic Pressure
Chapter 29
Forming with Superimposed Vibrations
Chapter 30
Forrning h) Exploiting Special htaterial Properties
PART SIX
TOOLS FOR METAL FORMING
Chapter 31
Dies for Metal Forming, Separating, and Joining Processes
C:hapter 32 Die Manufacture
Chapter 33
Process Combinations for Die Manufacture and Die-
hlanufactwing Costs
APPENDIXES
Appendix ii Comparative Designations for Steels
Appendix B
(hmparat i ve Designations for Nonferrous hletals
Appendix C
Chemical Composition of Steels
Appendix D Chemical (;omposition of Nonferrous Metals
Appcdi x E General References
iippendix F
Abbreviations llsed in This Rook
HOW THIS BOOK WAS PREPARED
Name
Dr.-Ing. Dr.h.c. Kurt Lange, Professor Emeritus, Institut fur Umformtechnik
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Dr.-lng. habil. Klaus Pohlandt, Apl. Professor, Institut fiir Umformtechnik,
University of Stuttgart. Stuttgart, Germany
Dr.-Ing. Ragu S. Raghupathi, Manager, Rohert Bosch Corporatiou,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, U.S.A.
John D. Saniter, BSc., C.Eng., Innovation Consultant, Ingenieurbiiro
Saniter, Bopfingen, Germany
Dr. Wolfgang J. Sauer, Associate Professor, University of Southern Colorado,
Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A.
Dr. John A. Schey, Distinguished Professor Emeritus. University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Dr. Klaus J. Weinmann, Professor, Michigan Technological University,
Houghton, Michigan, USA.
Dr. G.E.O. Widera, Professor and Chairman of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering, Marquette Universiw Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A.
The contents of this handbook are based mainly on the German I~hrbtrch der C'irlfonntechnik.
edited by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Kurt Lange and published by Springer-Verlag, Berlin/HeidelberdNew
York, in three volumes from 1972 to 1975. Great effort was expended by the editor and the coedi-
tors to update and extend the information contained in the original version. This includes the
introduction of recent developments in processes, ~naterials. tools, and equipment, as well as the
adaptation to U.S. terminology, standards, and nuits. The handbook represents a joint effort by
eight editor-writer-translators, who contributed as indicated below:
Chapter
1, 27, 28, 29
ABOUT THE ORIGINAL BOOK
The Lehrbuch der Umformtechntk, 3 vols, Springer-Verlag. Berl~n/He~delberg/New York,
1972-1975, was prepared In German by the following authors
Dalheimer, Rolf, Prof. Dr.-Ing., President, Fachhochschr~le Hamburg, Germany
Dannenmann, Eckart, Dip].-lng., Institut fur Umformtechnik, Universitat Stuttgart, Germany
Di e t d r , Klaus, Dr.-Ing., BASF AG, Ludwigshafen, Germany
Geiger, Manfred, Prof. Dr.-Ing., Clniversitat Erlangen-Niirnberg, Ellungen, Germany
Geiger, Rolf, Dr.-Ing., PRESTA Press- & Stanzwerk AG, Eschen, 1,iechtenstein
Gieselbrrg, Klaus, Dr -Ing., BASF AG, Ltrdwigshafen, Germany
Honel3. Hartrnut, Dr.-Ing.; Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Gen., Mainz, Germany
Kaiser, Hartrnut, Dr.-lrrg., Dornier System GmbH, Friedrichshafen. Germany
Kast, Dieter, Dr.-lng., DEGUSSA AG, Hanau-Wolfgang, Germany
Kilp, Karl-Heinz, DipLIng., Bundesministerium fur Forschung und Technologie, Bonn,
Germany
Kriimer, Wilfried, Dr.-lng., Richard Nerrmayer, Gesellschaft fur Umformtechnik mbH, Harr-
sach, G~rnl any
Lange, Kurt, Prof. Dr.-Ing., Institut fur Umformtechnik, Clniversitat Stuttgart, Germany
Miiller, Herbert, Dr.-Ing., Danfoss-Flensburg GmbH, Flensburg, Germany
Noack. Peter, Dr.-Ing., Flohr-Otis, Stadthagen, Germany
Pohl, Walther, Dr.-lng., Mathematischer Beratungs- und Programmierungsdienst GmbH, Fild-
erstadt, Germany
Schachrr, Hans-Dieter. Dr.-Ing., Daimler-Benz AC, Stuttgart, German!,
X ABOlll THE ORIGINAL BOOK
Schelosky. Hans U., DI-. -l r~g. . Mannl z~i n~er Versorgungs- und Verket~rsgesell.~chafraft mbH,
Mannheitrr. Genruny
Scl~losser, Dieter S., Dr.-lng., Joscf Viigdc AG, hlnnnheim, Germany
Sclrmidt. Volker, Dr.-Ing., Ii~stitrrtfur Iinlfonrrtechnik, llniaemitat Stuttgnrt, Genony
Sclrmitt. Gerhnrd, Dr.-lng., Marketing Con.vrltirrg Dr: G. Schinitt, Ludwig~hurg, Cernlany
Schrcider, Giinthrr, Dr.-lng., Brown, Bovenj hr (:i c... Bah-Il at t wi l , Switzerland
Steck, Elmar. Prof. Dr.-Ing.. I,cl~rsttrhl B fiir Mechanik. Tcdrrrizche Unitxr~itijt Brairn~chweig,
Gunruzny
Warlirnclnt. I lans. Prof. Dr. rer. mt . , V a r u u t r ~ d l GrrhH, f{onuu, Grnrlatry
Wilh~lni, I lans, Dr.-lng., Motorm rrnd 'Eri-binrnonion Ctnbll. Miinchm, Gc.rirlany
Zeller, Rolf, Dr.-Ing.. Robert Bosclr Grrthl!. St~rttgarf, Cenruzny
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Kwt Lmge is Professor Emeritus < ~ t the Llniversity of St11ttg;irt. He was Professor for Metal
Forming Techniqur and Director of the Iirsearch Institute l'rorrr 1963 to 1988. A professional in
the metal forming field since 1949, he has hdd responsi1)le positions at the Die-forging Research
Inst i t ut e, Technical University o f l l a n n u ~ e r , and with Llairnler-Benx At;. St ut t gart -
Untertiirkheim. He is also an internationally successful consr~ltant, anti was a mem1)er of the edi-
torial conrmittees of various scientific-teclnlical journals. Hc published an extended version oft he
Handbook of Metal Forming as a four \.olume edition in German, entitlcd Mrtnl Foi-ir~ing
Exhniquc - Hanclhookfor Scimce and Irldrrstiy from 1983 to 1993 In 1986 he recrivrd thc SME
Cold Medal: in 1987 he was appointed Doctor honoris cams by the Terhniral Uni\-er.\ity of
Budapest. Hrrngary: in 1988 he was rlected to the N;itional A~l dr my of Engineering, Washington,
DC, as Foreign Associate; and in 1990 he hecame an Honorary Member of the Japan Socieb f'or
Technoloby of Plasticity, ToLyo. I l e is also an IIonorary Member ot the International Institntion
for Prod~~ction Engineering Research CIRP, for which I I ~ served as president in l985/86.
PREFACE
This book is intended to be a broad general introduction to thr fundamentals of metal-forming
technology. Includrd are the relevant aspects of metallurgy, tribology, technical theory of plas-
ticity, material properties, and process data determination. Also dealt with are production meth-
tds, tools, machine tools, arid other equipment, as wrll as tool-manufacturing methods and prob-
lems of prodriction economy. Much of the detailed information is presented with a view toward
easy application in the solution of practical problems. In its entirety, the material is selected so as
to represent a comprehensive handbook of rnetal forniing.
The book is divided into six parts and thirt)-thrre chapters. Part 1 concentrates on the fun-
damentals of metallurgy, material properties. plasticity theory, tribology, and machine tools. In
addition, it gives a systematic presentation of all known metal-forming processes following the
German DIN standards 8582 to 8587. As is seen in Chapter 2, this system is based on stress state,
process kinematics, and tool or workpiece geometry. As such it effectivel) contributes to an easier
understanciing of the differences between forniing processes as well as the general influence of the
strrss state on forming limits, tool loading, and so on. Other aspects, ho\vever, such as process
temperature and sheet or bulk forming, are not accounted for in some parts of this system As
these parameters will have a great influence on the selection of tools, machines, and other equip-
ment, the presentation of forming and separating processes is divided in Parts 2 to 5 into the
following topics: bulk-metal forming; sheet-metal forming; piercing, blanking, and slug prepara-
tion; and metal forniing under sprcial conditions. Within these four central parts of the book, not
only the particular technolog) and its sperific theory but also workpiece materials, tools, and
equipment are covered in great detail. Sonie processes, such as rolling, upsetting, and heading,
are treated in a somewhat concise manner because there is already much excellent literature avail-
able on these topics, The same applies to the discussion of metallurgy, technical theory of plastic-
ity, and tribolog? in Part I . Tht concluding Part 6 deals with tools for rnetal forming, their clas-
sification, special design features, material selection, and manufacture in general.
Resides the chapters tlealirrg with some of the fund;mrntals of metal forming, Part 1 also
contains two atlditi~mal chapters One is devoted to machine tools in general: basic design features,
characteristics. and of hammers, screw presses, mechanical presses, and hydraulic
presses. The othrr prcscnts the irrterrelatior~ between processes, tools, and machine tools with
xii PREFACE
regard to workpiec~ accuracy and inclndes information on typical dimensional accuracy values for
a variety of prcxwwes.
In Part 2 the nlost important processes of bulk-nietal forming are dealt with. The term bulk-
rrwtnlf,~nr~ing signifies that, during deformation, substantial changes of cross sections. wall thick-
ness, and so on. take place: the niatcrial will be clisplaced in three dimensions. The starting mater-
ial mill be in the form of bars, billets. slugs, or (for larger partq) even ingots. Bulk-metal forming
plays a11 important role in the production of semifinished products by rolling, extn~sion, and forg-
ing. Althougll all these processes. aq well as drawing. ironing, and indentation processes like hob-
bing, are discussed, the emphasis of this book is more on secondary processes, namcly, those used
for the p~duc t i on of workpirces from semifinished prodncts, snch as bar stock. Consequently
forging and especially hot-(lie forging, drawing, ironing, and cold, warm, and hot extrusion are
treated in detail, while rolling. upsetting, and indentation processes are presented in a less cotn-
prchensive niamler. In the chapter on rolling, however, is found a discussion of some important
processes for the production of finished workpicces (such as roll forgmg, surface rolling, thread
rolling, rolling of spline shafts and gears, and flow turning), together with an introduction to the
theory of strip rolling.
Part 3 deals with the important processes of sheet -nwt al . fi ~n~~i ~~g. The latter is characterized by
the formation of hollow parts with more or less uniforrn wall thickness from flat-rolled niatcrial;
cxccpt for same processes, such as stretch forming, the wall thickness is not changed significantly.
Extensive thinning must be avoided hecause process limits are often revealed b j necking with
subsequent ductile fracture. In general the range of deformation is much smaller in
sheet-metal fimning than in bulk-metal tbrming. As the success of sheet-metal forming depends
to a large extent on the metallurgical and mcchanical properties of the parent materials, one chap-
ter of Part 3 is devoted to sheet-metal properties and the corresponding test methods. The
process groups dealt with In the five other chapters are bending. deep drawing, spinning and flow
turning, flanging, stretrh forming, and expanding
In Part 4 peripheral processes of metal forming, such as piercing and blanking (mainly with
regard to sheet metal), slug preparation, and heat and surface treatment for various processes (pri-
marily for cold forging), are presented. Thcse chapters contain many details taken fiom industrial
practice.
Part 5, devoted to metal ibrming under special cwnditions, contains chapters on high-energy-
rate formmg, forming under hydrostatic presqure, ft~rlning with superimposed vibrations, forming
while the material is in a special state (e.g., supevlastic forming), and thermomechanical forming
(e.g., ausforming). These processes are important and applicable in special cases, where conven-
tional methods fail to produce parts of very complex geometly, where the material is very difficult
to form, or often whwe parts are to be made from expensive materials in small qnantities. The
processes presented here belong partly to hulk-forming and partly to sheet-forming techniques,
but the sdient featnres of these processes made it llreferable to combine them in a separate part
of this book.
It should be mentioned here that fbr the last hvo decades the computer has strongly influ-
enced the technique of metal forming, for exa~nple: ( I ) by opening the field of numerical analysis
to processes, (2) by improving data processing in the experimental investigation of such areas as
tribology and materials behavior. and (3) by allowing detailed analysis of the stress and strain states
in tools, marhine tools, and other rquipment under mect~an~cal and tlierlnal loading. In fact many
data presented in this book were obtained by co~nputer work. On the other hand, in spite of a sig-
nificant increase in capacic combined with a sharp drop in prices, the use of computers is still in
its infancy for tasks snch as process design arid optimization, work preparation (including cost esti-
mation), computer-aided design and machining of tools, or process design for nunierically con-
trolled forging. This is mostly dne to the lack of applicable software. There is no doubt, however,
th;ct there will be fast and broad progress, which may revolutionize wide fields of metal forming
technique before the end of'this centuy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr. Tql an Altan, Rattelle Columhus Laboratories, Research Leader*, and Prof. John A. Srhey,
IJniversiv of Waterloo. Ontario. supported the project by reading various chapters and by u g -
gesting improvement?.
PREFACE xiii
Prof. B.F. von Turkovich, University of Vermont, Burlington, encouraged the editor to start the
project and made valuable suggestions.
The editor wishes to thank Brigitte Wand, Institut fur Umformtechnik der Universitat
Stuttgart, for her engaged and careful assistance during the preparation of the manuscript and
during proofreading. He also wishes to thank the pnblisher, especially Harold B. Crawford and
Susan Thomas, for the excellent cooperation and for the suhstantial support during the prepara-
tion and production of the handbook. Finally he wishes to express his deep gratitude and devotion
to his family who accepted his absence from home for many evening and weekend honrs over sev-
eral years so that this book could appear.
*Now Profes.wr and Head, Engit~eering Research Center for Net Shape Mat~ufacturing, Ohio State
Uniucrsity. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
PREFACEFORTHE SECOND PRINTING, 1994
Since 1985, the Handbook of Metal Fonrring has been used by many thousands of students and
engineers in the U.S. and in many other countries. An official and an unofficial reprint in two
southeast Asian countries also seem to be good indicators for the usefulness of this type of hand-
book, which offers solid, experimentally backed up data and other information for a large variety
of processes both in the SI system and in the U.S. customary system. On the other hand, the book
is a very comprehensive and systematic introduction to the broad field of metal forming technolo-
gies, their fundamentals, materials, t r i hol o~, and tool technolop for beginners and engineers
from other fields.
I n the preface for the first printing, it was mentioned that the introduction of the computer,
which became increasingly effective for metal forming since approximately 1970, would influence
process and tool design and their optimization, numerical process control, and product quality
dramatically before the end of the 20th century. This has heen confirmed hy the very fast develop-
ment of powerful and economical computer hardware and s o f ~ a r e and their increasing applica-
tion. This development is still in full flow and will without douht contrihute significantly to the
near net shape or net shape production of many complex components by forming technologies. A
large variety of books, many publications in conference proceedings and transactions, as well as
information from software companies provide information ahout this important and fascinating
field.
However, discussions show very clearly that the well trained and experienced expert will be
needed even more in the future for the successful time, and money saving realization of a scientifi-
cally based and application oriented modern metal forming technique. The editors of the
Handbook of Metal Forming are convinced that this volume will contrihute significantly to this
aim for many years to come.
PUBLISHING NOTE
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers has sewed metalworking professionals since its begin-
nings in 1932. It is with a sense of responsibility to these members and associates that we issue
this second printing of the Handbook of Metal Fonriing, which otherwise might have gone out of
print. For this opportmity to sewe manufacturing, we are grateful to Professor Kurt Lange, Dr.
Markus Knoerr, and Dr. Tavlan Altan at the Engineering Research Cent er for Net Shape
Manufacturing at Ohio State University; Ms. Caroline Davis at Springer-Verlag; Ms. Bonnie
Beacher and Mr. Harold B. Crawford at McGraw-Hill; and all thr editors, reviewers, and contrib-
utors to the Handbook of Metal Fornring.
Dearborn, Michigan, 1994
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