Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
METALLURGY &
MECHANICS OF
SOLIDS LAB
MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
`
LIET
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
METALLURGY LAB
1. STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
2. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
3. PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
4. IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
5. INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
6. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
7. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
LIET
METALLURGY
LAB
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
LIET
METALLURGY LAB
1. STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
2. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
3. PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
4. IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
5. INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
6. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
7. EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
Experiment No 1
STUDY OF METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
Aim: - To Study the Metallurgical Microscope
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
LIET
Experiment No. 2
PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
Aim To Prepare Specimen for metallographic examination.
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
LIET
LIET
Experiment No. -3
PREPARATION OF MOUNTED SAMPLE
Aim: Preparation of Mounted
mountingPress/cold setting resins.
samples
with
the
help
of
LIET
LIET
10
Experiment No. 4
IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
LIET
11
L+S
austinite
LIET
12
LIET
13
estimate of the two phase, namely austenite and cementite. The eutectic
mixture has been given the name ladudnite equation is:
Liquid ---- austenite + cementite (eutectic mixture-ladudnite).
The eutectic mixture is not usually seen in the microscope.
Microstructure of austenite is not stable at room temperature and must
undergo another reaction during cooling.
Eutectoid reaction: There is a small solid solution area to the left of the
line CH. we know that 910 C represents the changes in the crystal structure
of pure iron from F.C.C(r) to B.C.C(alpha).The area is a solid solution of the
small amount carbon dissolved in the B.C.C(alpha) Fe and is called Ferrite.
The diameter shows third horizontal line DHF which represents a eutectoid
reaction . The eutectoid point J is at 0.8% c to 723 c. Any austenite presents
of ferrite and cementite called pearlite. The equation may be written as
Solid-----------ferrite + cementite
Below eutectoid temperature every alloy will be consists of a mixture of
ferrite and cementite. In the alloy containing less than 2% all known as steel
and those containing more than 2% are known as cast-iron. The steel range
in further sub divided by the euectoid carbon context 0.8% c. Steels
containing less than 0.8% are called hypo eutectoid steels. Similarly castiron with less than 4.3% c are hypo eutectoid cast-iron and above 4.3% c
are hypo eutectic cast-iron.
DEFINITIONS OF STRUCTURES:
CENENTITE: This is iron carbide or Fe3C contains about 6.67%C by weight.
It is hard and brittle compound with little tensile strength. It is the hardest
structure with the rhombic structure.
AUSTENTINE: This is name given to solid solution. It is solid solution of
carbon dissolved in iron max solubility is 2%C at 2065 F. It is not stable at
room temperature and is possible to contain austentine only under contain
conditions.
LEDEBURITE: This is eutectic mixture of Austentine and cementite.
Ledeburite contains around 4.3%C and is formed at temperature of 2065 F.
FERRITE: This is the name given solid solution. It is
solid
solution of small amount carbon dissolved in iron. The maximum solubility is
0.025%C at 1335 F and it is dissolved only 0.008C at room temperature.
This is the softest structure.
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
14
LIET
15
Experiment No. 5
INTRODUCTION TO CAST IRON
AIM: To determine the structure of given cast iron specimen using
metallurgical microscope.
APPARATUS: Specimen, metallurgical microscope, etchant, emery paper.
MAGNIFICATION: 450X.
TYPES: There are mainly three types of cast irons, viz.,
1. Gray cast iron
2. Spheroidal or nodular cast iron
3. White cast iron
1.Grey cast iron: Grey cast iron is in the faces of graphite plates. It has
excellent damping capacity. So it is mainly used in bed of Lathe machine to
absorb vibrations.
Composition:
C:3.2-3.7%
Mn:0.5-1.0%
P:0.1-0.2%
S:2.0-3.5%
Properties:
Strength : 15-40Kg/mm2
Elongation: <1%
Hardness : 150-300BHN
Tensile strength is important in selecting Grey cast iron for parts that are
subjected to static load in directed tension. Such parts include pressure
vessels, housing valves. Iron above 40,000 Ps in tensile strength is usually
considered as high strength iron. The stress-strain curve does not show a
straight line position. Thus a definite modulus of elasticity cannot be
determined.
Compressive strength is important, when Grey iron is used for machinery
support like all the brittle materials. The compressive strength of grey cast
iron is much greater than its tensile strength as it is largely a function of
shearing strength.
The hardness of grey iron is an average result of the soft graphite in the iron
and the metallic matrix. Variation in graphite size and redistribution will
cause wide variation in hardness.
The microstructure is primary factor in determining the hardness of grey
cast iron. Increasing contents of carbon and silicon will result in decreasing
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
16
100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
OBSERVATION
MATERIALS
WITH ETCHENT
MAGNIFICATION
ETCHENT
100X
2% NITAL
C ----> 3 to 3.5%
P ----> 0.025 to 2.25%
Si-----> 2 to 2.5%
Mn ----> 0.15 to 0.65%
S ----->0.15 to 0.04%
LIET
17
Properties
Strength
38 to 80Kg/mm2
Elongation 6 to 20%
Hardness
100-300BHM
Exp No :5.2
MAGNIFICATION
100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
OBSERVATION
MATERIALS
MAGNIFICATION
100X
ETCHENT
2% Nital
OBSERVATION
- Microstructure Revels nodular iron showing
spheroids of graphite in a matrix of perlites with little amount of ferrite.
Because of shape of graphite it is known as Nodular Cast Iron. This type of
cast iron has better mechanical properties. These are made of selective
composition of cast Iron with the addition of nodulizing against before
pouring
MATERIALS
LIET
18
white silica structure. The use of White cast iron is mostly as raw material
for malleable cast iron.
Composition
C ---->2.3 to 3%
P ----> 0.1 to 0.2%
Si-----> 0.5 to 1.3%
Mn ----> 0.5 to 1%
S ----->0.6 to 1%
Properties
Strength
140 to 175Kg/mm2
Hardness
350 to 500BHM
MAGNIFICATION 100X
ETCHENT
BEFORE
MAGNIFICATION 100X
ETCHENT
2% NITAL
LIET
19
Experiment No. 6
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL
Aim : To determine the structure of given Plain Carbon Steel specimen using
metallurgical microscope.
Apparatus : Specimen, metallurgical microscope, Etchents and emery
papers
Magnification : 100X
Observation: The given specimen is dry polished using the emery paper, by
means of wet polishing machine the fine polish is done. When a
magnification of 100X is used, the specimen is observed under the
microscope, a scratch free surface, if not seen fine polish is repeated again
the dark spot on white back ground which can be observed on the specimen,
before etching are oxide unpurified the specimen is etched for 15 seconds.
the etchant Natal (nitric acid 1.5ml ether alcohol).
After etching the
specimen if properly washed. Now specimen is dried with a drier and the
specimen is observed under the microscope.
EUTECTIOD STEEL:
Steels containing 0.8% C are called Eutectoid steels. The microstructure
reveals a very fine plate like or lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite.
The degree of fineness depends on rate of cooling the white ferrite
background or matrix which makes up most of the eutectoid mixture,
contain the plate of cementite.
Properties: Tensile strength - 1,20,000 psi
Elongation
- 20% n 2 inches
Hardness
LIET
20
Uses: Eutectoid steel is used to make knifes, cutting edges etc . also making
springs, shear blades, wind, chisels, cold sets, hammer, small casing dies.
1.MEDIUM CARBON STEEL: Medium carbon steel contains 0.4% C. the
change in low, medium and high carbon steel are mainly due to the relative
amount of ferrite and pearlite. The closer the carbon content to eutectoid
composition, the more pearlite will be present in the microstructure. The
medium carbon steel contain, approximately 50% pearlite. Thin layers of
ferrite are farmed in each side of the cementite plate. Process continues by
the formation of alternate layers of the cementite and ferrite to give the fine
layer point mixture known as pearlite.
Properties:
Tensile strength
75,000 Psi.
% yield point
- 44,000Psi
-48%
Elongation % in
-30%
BHN
-165
Uses:
Most of the common hand tools, such as pliers, open end reaches and screw
drivers and made from medium carbon steels.
2.LOW CARBON STEEL: In this 0.2%C dissolved in the spaces of the F.C.C
iron takes place at 1666 F far pure iron and decreases in temperature with
increasing carbon content. The carbon which comes out from of the solution
is dissolved in the remaining austenite. So that, as cooling progresses and
the amount of ferrite increases, the remaining austinite reaches in carbon.
Just above upper critical temperature in the microstructure consists of 25%
austenite and 75% ferrite. The remaining 25% of austenite and containing
0.8%C now experiences eutectoid reaction.
Properties:
Approximate tensile strength:40,000(0.75) + 12,000 (0.25) 60,000 Psi
LIET
21
Yield point
-36,000Psi
Reduction in area
- 64%
Elongation % in Zin
- 37%
BHN
-115
Uses: valves, gears, crank shaft, connecting rods, railway angles, fish plate,
small forging.
EXPERIMENT -6.1
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: BEFORE
OBSERVATION
: 100% OF Pearlite
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: 2% Nital
OBSERVATION
LIET
22
: BEFORE
OBSERVATION
MATERIAL
MAGNIFICATION: 100%
ETCHANT
: 2% Nital
OBSERVATION
Steel showing 25% of perlite within the network of ferrite (white ore).
The specimen is low carbon steel containing 0.15%C. the steel is austinitised
at 900 0C far 1 hour and cooled in the furnace for 48 Hrs. the % of pearlite
is less as the percentage of carbon is also less.
MATERIAL: LOW CARBON STEEL
LIET
23
Experiment No. 7
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF BRASS
AIM : To determine the structure of given brass metal and alloys using
metallurgical microscope.
APPARATUS: Metallurgical microscope, polishing machine, driver,
medicated cotton, etchant.
PROCEDURE:
1. Firstly obtain a flat surface of the specimen by filling.
2. Support the polishing the paper, family of a flat glass plate.
3. Polish the specimen, under very light pressure resulting in forward
direction only.
4. Observe the scratches on specimen, the scratches should not be very
deep but at the same time, they should be uniformly in same direction.
When the above condition is satisfactory. Go the next finer paper.
5. After polishing on 4*0 paper. Wash our hands and specimen to do fine
polishing on the polishing wheels first use sio2, powder on wheel and wash
of the specimen to remove sio2, before going the second wheel. Finally use
magnesium powder as abrasive on another polishing wheel. Always keep the
cloth wet, other abrasives systems may be substituted.
MAGNIFICATION: 100X
ETCHANT: 2% per sulphate
LIET
24
Experiment No. 8
EXAMINATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF COPPER STRUCTURE
Aim:
To determine the structure of given copper metal and alloys using
metallurgical microscope.
APPARATUS: Metallurgical microscope, polishing machine,
paper, medicated cotton, etchant, wrier.
emery
PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
MAGNIFICATION :
100 X
ETCHANT
2% PER SULPHATE
OBSERVATION :
The specimen is a pure copper annealed the
microstructure is solid solution of copper the black dots are due to cuprous
oxide that is formed rolling by oxides.
MATERIAL
COPPER.
LIET
25
MECHANICS OF
SOLIDS LAB
LIET
26
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
AIM: - Study of Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.)
LIET
27
LIET
28
provided on the control panel & the pilot lamp shows the transmission of
main supply.
METHOD OF TESTING:Initial Adjustment: - before testing adjust the pendulum with respect to
capacity of the test i.e. 8 Tones; 10 Tones; 20 Tones; 40 Tones etc. For ex: A specimen of 6 tones capacity gives more accurate result of 10Tones
capacity range instead of 20 Tones capacity range. These ranges of capacity
are adjusted on the dial with the help of range selector knob. The control
weights of the pendulum are adjusted correctly. The ink should be inserted
in pen holder of recording paper around the drum & the testing process is
started depending upon the types of test as mentioned below.
TENSION TEST:Select the proper job and complete upper and lower check adjustment.
Apply some Greece to the tapered surface of specimen or groove. Then
operate the upper cross head grip operation handle & grip the upper end of
test specimen fully in to the groove. Keep the lower left valve in fully close
position. Open the right valve & close it after lower table is slightly lifted.
Adjust the lower points to zero with the help of adjusting knob. This is
necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower table. Then lock the jobs
in this position by operating job working handle. Then open the left control
valve. The printer on dial gauge at which the specimen breaks slightly return
back & corresponding load is known as breaking load & maximum load is
known as the ultimate load.
COMPRESSION TEST:Fix upper and lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head & lower
table respectively. Place the specimen on the lower plate in order to grip.
Then adjust zero by lifting the lower table. Then perform the test in the
same manner as described in tension test.
FLEXURAL OR BENDING TEST:Keep the bending table on the lower table in such a way that the central
position of the bending table is fixed in the central location value of the lower
table. The bending supports are adjusted to required distance. Stuffers at
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
29
the back of the bending table at different positions. Then place the specimen
on bending table & apply the load by bending attachment at the upper
stationary head. Then perform the test in the same manner as described in
tension test.
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:Place the specimen on the lower table & lift it up slightly. Adjust the zero
fixed value at the bottom side of the lower cross head. Increase the load
slowly ultimate load value is obtained. Then release the load slowly with left
control valve. Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter
on the specimen & measure the diameter of the impression correctly by
microscope & calculate Brinell hardness.
SHEAR TEST:Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists
of cutter. The specimen is inserted in roles of shear test attachment & lift the
lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then apply the load such that the
specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen breaks in two pieces
then it will be in angle shear, & if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in
double shear.
LIET
30
LIET
31
LIET
32
2.Weights
5. Dial indicator
DIAGRAM:-
Figure 1
THEORY:If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at
its center, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the
original position of the beams and its position after bending at different
points along the length of the beam, being maximum at the center in this
case. This difference is known as deflection In this particular type of loading
the maximum amount of deflection (ymax) is given by the relation,
ymax= W L3/48 EI (i)
E = WL3/48 I ------------- (ii)
LIET
33
Y= d/2
BENDING STRESS
Where,
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the arrangements of the setup as shown in the figure 1.
LIET
34
2. Place the beam on the knife edges so as to project equally beyond each
knife edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the beam
3. Note the initial reading of dial indicator at distance of L/4 from left end of
the beam
4. Add a weight of 0.5 kg and again note the reading of the dial indicator at
that same point.
5. Go on taking readings by adding 0.5kg each time till you have minimum
eight readings.
6. Find the deflection () in each case by subtracting the initial reading of
Dial indicator.
7. Calculate the bending stresses and Youngs Modulus for different loads
using relation
b = MY/I
E=WL3/48 I
8. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection ().On the graph choose
any two convenient points and between these points find the corresponding
values of E.
OBSERVATION TABLE :S.N
o.
Load
W
(N)
Bending
moment
M= WL/4 ,Nmm
Bending
stress
b= MY/I
N/mm2
Deflection of the
beam
Initial Final
(mm)
RESULT:
Youngs
Modulus
EN/mm2
LIET
35
1. The youngs modulus for steel beam is found to be----- N/mm 2 and from
graph ------- N/mm2.
2. The youngs modulus for wooden beam is found to be----- N/mm 2and
from graph ------- N/mm2
PRECAUTION
1. Make sure that beam and load are placed at proper position.
2. The cross- section of the beam should be large.
EXPERIMENT NO:-3
LIET
36
COMPRESSION TEST
AIM- To Determine the Compressive Strength and Crushing Load of the
Brick
APPARATUS: Bricks, Vernier Caliper, Scale, Etc.
FORMULA: Compressive strength of concrete =
Load (Kgs)
LIET
37
nature of force on other hand in case of frame structure bricks are used only
for construction of portion walls, layers comes directly on the lower layers or
wall. In this case bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force. Hence
for safely measures before using the bricks in actual practice they have to be
tested in laboratory for their compressive strength.
PROCEDURE: 1.
2.
Check all pipeline joints are firmly tight. Ensure that pipeline doesn't
get buckled due to over tightening.
3.
Press the operating Handle in the bracket of the pump or push fit it
accordingly.
4.
Loosen the Dip stick and tighten the pressure Release valve.
5.
Keep the specimen to be tested between the upper and lower platen
leaving a small space between the top platen and the specimen say
5mm.
6.
7.
Continue pumping till the black needle (slips back) leaving the redpointer at a certain reading. The reading indicated by the red pointer is
the maximum resistance offered by the brick i.e Compressive Strength
of the brick.
LIET
8.
38
The pressure release piston of the jack specimen and keep the valve is
released gradually and the goes down. Remove the broken test next
one.
9.
EXPERIMENT NO:-4
IZOD TEST
LIET
39
DIAGRAM
LIET
40
LIET
41
PROCEDURE:lzod test
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the
steel specimen in impact testing machines vice in such away that the notch
face the hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of the
vice.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is
already there, and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the
operating manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen
through its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen.
Then it continues to swing. At its topmost height after breaking the
specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the pendulum falls back. Note
the indicator at that topmost final position.
5. Again bring back the hammer to its idle position and back.
IZOD TEST
Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum
164 Joules
2 Joules
LIET
42
900
OBESERVATION:Izod Test.
Impact value of - Mild Steel __________N-m
RESULT:-The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be
________Joules.
PRECAUTION:1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
2. Hold the specimen (lzod test) firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.
LIET
43
EXPERIMENT NO:-5
CHARPY TEST
AIM: - To Determine the impact strength of steel by Charpy test.
APPARATUS: - 1. Impact testing machine
2. A steel specimen 75 mm X
10mm X 10mm
THEORY:-An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of
material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of
un notched specimens do not always reveal the susceptibility of a metal to
brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material.
Several engineering material shave to withstand impact or suddenly applied
loads while in service. Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to
strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of impact tests,
the notch bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test
measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying
an impulse load. The test measures the notch toughness of material under
shock loading. Values obtained from the tests are not of much utility to
design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note
that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or
toughness of the same material under different condition. This test can also
be used to assess the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material
occurring due to lowering of temperature.
LIET
44
CHARPY TEST
Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum
300 Joules
1 Joules
1410
LIET
45
OBSERVATION:Charpy test
Impact value of - Mild Steel _________ N-m
RESULT:The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be ___________
PRECAUTION:1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
2. Hold the specimen firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.
Joules.
LIET
46
EXPERIMENT NO:-6
HARDNESS TEST
AIM: - To conduct hardness test on mild steel, carbon steel, brass and
aluminum specimens.
APPARATUS:- Hardness tester, soft and hard mild steel specimens, brass,
aluminum etc.
DIAGRAM:-
LIET
and
47
economical
way
of
determining
the
resistance
of
materials
to
LIET
48
Right side. Lever front position is 'A' position and lever rear position is 'B'
position.
PROCEDURE
1. The Test specimen is kept in the Anvil Table.
2. Turn the screw rod till the small dial pointer reads 3 and bigger black
dial pointer reads zero by keeping lever in position 'A
3. Turn the lever to position 'B'.
4. The pointer needle moves and stops. Again go back to position A and
note down the reading of the pointer in Black scale.
5. It gives the Rockwell Hardness.
6. For Brinell Test Select 187.5 Kgf Load and change the Indentor to
2.5mm Ball. Read the Brinell Hardness in Red Dial.
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No
Specimen
Mild steel
Brass
Aluminum
Reading
Reading
Reading
Mean
Brass
Aluminum =
LIET
49
EXPERIMENT NO:-7
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
50
SPRING TEST
AIM : To determine the stiffness of the spring & modules of the rigidity of the spring wire.
APPARATUS:
1) Spring testing Machine, 2) A spring, 3) venire calipers scale.
THEORY:
Springs are elastic member which distort under load & regain their original shape when
load is removed. They are used in railways, motor cars, scooters, motor cycles etc. According to
their uses springs are perform the following functions
1) To store energy as in clock springs.
2) To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
3) To apply forces to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
4) To measure the forces in spring bar.
5) To change variation characteristics of no. as in flexible moving of motors
The spring is usually made of either high carbon steel (6,7-10%) or medium carbon steel. Brass
18/8 stainless steel and other metal alloys are used for corrosion resistant. There are several types
of springs are available for different applications springs may be classified as helical springs,
leaf springs and flat springs depending upon their shape. They are fabricated of high shear
strength material such as high carbon alloy steel spring from element of not only mechanical
system but also structural system. In several cases it is essential to ideally complex structural
system by suitable springs.
PROCEDURE:
1) Measure the dia of the wire of the spring by using venire & dia of spring coil by
venire caliper.
2) Count the no. of turns.
3) Insert the spring in spring testing machine and load the spring by suitable weights and
note the corresponding axial deflections in tension or compression.
4) Increase the load and take corresponding axial deflection readings.
5) Plot a curve between load Vs deflection. The slope of the curve gives the stiffness of
the spring.
LIET
51
Load (W)
N
Deflection (mm)
Original Final
Modulus Of
Rigidity (C)
Modulus Of
Rigidity (C)
II ) Compression Test
S.no
Load (W)
N
Deflection (mm)
Original Final
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of venire caliper = .cm.
Dia of spring wire (d ) =mm (mean of 3 readings)
Dia of spring coil (D) = .mm (mean of 3 readings)
Mean coil diameter (Dm) = D d = ..mm.
No. of turns (N) = .
Stiffness or Spring Constant K= W/
8WDm3 N
Modulus of rigidity = ------------------,
Spring index = Dm/D
D4
Spring index = ..
PRECAUTIONS:
METALLURGY & MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB MANUAL
LIET
52