Fracking Outpacesscience D Environmental Studies

8/25/2014 Fracking OutpacesScience on Its Impact | EnvY : The Journal of the Yale School of Foresty and Environmental Studies
http://environment.yale.edu/envy/stories/fracking-outpaces-science-on-its-impact 1/7
Admissions Alumni Giving
Balazs Justin
J
ust a decade ago, only the smallest sliver of the U.S. population had even heard of
hydraulic fracturing, or fracking. Today, its one of the most incendiary environmental
topics going. In recent years, wells built for this form of natural gas extraction have spread
by the thousands through various parts of the country, an expansion many argue outpaces
the science done to understand its potential impacts. Whether fracking can continue
spreading without major harm to the environment or public health, and whether it promises
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, are questions researchers are still working to answer.
Alumni Profiles
Phillip Johnson '00
Matthew Jokajtys '11
Tara Moberg '08
Fracking is a process for extracting natural
gas from shale layers typically thousands of
feet deep. These targeted shales arent
especially permeable, meaning most of the
gas is trapped. So drillers blast the rock
layers with highly pressurized water
containing chemicals that reduce friction
between water and rock. The chemicals
make up only a small fraction of the fluid. A
few, such as ethylene glycol, are toxic, and some constituents of fluid mixes are protected as
trade secrets. Sand in the mix helps to prop open the cracks that will release the natural gas.

Fracking has dramatically increased the amount of natural gas accessible to drillers in the
United States. Indeed, after natural gas imports peaked in 2007, the country has seen a boom
in domestic production and in construction of natural gas power plants. The U.S. Energy
Information Administration forecasts that by 2035 electricity production using natural gas
will roughly double to meet about half the countrys electricity needs.

Fracking Outpaces
Science on Its Impact
BY MARK SCHROPE
Share Share Share Share More
A
In no case have we made a
definitive determination that the
fracking process has caused
chemicals to enter groundwater.
EPA administrator Lisa Jackson
B
PHILIP JOHNSON 00
Supporting Research and Affected Communities
When Phil Johnson first left Yale to become a
senior officer with The Heinz Endowments
environment program, hydraulic fracturing was
the last thing he thought hed be working on.
Though he grew up in Cooperstown, N.Y., situated
above part of the Marcellus-Utica Shale, he, like
most people at that time in 2009, barely knew
what fracking was.

But the topic was beginning to raise concerns in Pennsylvania, where the
organization focuses its work. So Heinz asked Johnson, who has both public
health and environmental science masters degrees from Yale and will
receive his FES Ph.D. shortly, to explore how the organization could best
support fracking research and community activities. New extraction
activity was emerging before our eyes, says Johnson. We wanted to get
up to speed quickly to determine what, if any, kind of grant-making we
could do to address it.

As Johnson and program director Caren Glotfelty dug into the topic, one of
the first priorities they identified was establishing baseline health and
Key natural gas sources, like the Marcellus-Utica shale beds beneath parts of New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia, are typically situated beneath rural regions. Some
people living in such areas and benefiting from jobs or sales of drilling rights welcome the
expansion. But many other residents have grown increasingly fearful that natural gas
extraction using fracking might unintentionally foul their water supplies and other
environmental resources.

s fracking and associated issues have gained increasing attention, interest in the topic
has spread far beyond those living in the shale regions. People have widely varying
opinions, says James Saiers, professor of hydrology at F&ES. But my experience suggests
that these opinions are often not very informed. He and others at Yale are taking part in a
panel discussion on September 18 on a topic that is literally reshaping many parts of the
country.
Perhaps the greatest fear tied to fracking is
that the process and associated activities
will contaminate drinking water sources.
The Independent Petroleum Association of
America, a natural-gas industry
representative, maintained in a recent
press release that there have been no
proven cases of hydraulic fracturing
impacting groundwater. EPA
administrator Lisa Jackson has similarly, though more equivocally, said, In no case have we
made a definitive determination that the fracking process has caused chemicals to enter
groundwater. But there are several routes by which fracking could at least potentially cause
problems.

Despite the high pressures involved with fracking, researchers such as Saiers say its unlikely
that the fracking itself, which might occur a mile or more below the surface, could actually
blast a path to drinking water sources, which are typically just a few hundred feet down.
Thats a reasonable assumption, says Saiers, based on definitive microseismic studies
conducted during fracking operations. A lot of qualified hydrologists would believe that.
A related hypothesis is that cracks
resulting from fracking make connections
with existing cracks, allowing fluids and
gases to migrate higher up than expected.
Some modeling suggests its possible.
Seismic tests can reveal where cracks run,
but typically not to a degree that can
determine whether there are continuous
paths. Saiers says that systematic tests
havent been done to fully prove this issue,
leading to assumptions on both sides of the
debate.

ut there are other points of concern. If
wells arent properly installed,
specifically if there are problems with the
concrete used to seal the space between the
main well pipe and the surrounding earth,
T
environmental data to better discern potential problems. The realization of
this need came, in part, after studying the experiences of people in areas
such as Wyoming, where such baseline information was severely lacking.
This was, for instance, making it very difficult for families and communities
to tie air- and water-quality issues to fracking and related activities they
felt were to blame.

If you dont have baseline knowledge, its hard to do decision-making,
says Johnson. Its hard to understand what the future scenarios might be
and respond to them.
With Heinz support, research groups around Pennsylvania have been able
to develop monitoring techniques and datasets. Johnson points out that
such work is just a start, as comprehensive monitoring would ultimately
require support from a number of other sourcessupport that researchers
are now better equipped to seek.

Heinz has made a concerted effort to support community groups gathering
health and other information in the region and training others to do so.
They have also supported the establishment of key information sources for
residents, such as the website fracktracker.org. The idea is that the more
groups there are engaging in a coordinated fashion across a large
geography, the more well be able to collectively understand whether or
not there are impactspositive or negativeand at what scale.
MATTHEW JOKAJTYS 11
Probing Insurance Industrys Concern Over Fracking
After completing a joint law and environmental management degree at
F&ES and Pace in 2011, Matthew Jokajtys went to work for a global
insurance company and was struck by a growing concern within the
industry about fracking. As an extracurricular project, he dug into the
then fracking fluid or methane could find
its way toward the surface via the
improperly sealed space. Over time well
pipes themselves can also corrode and leak,
creating other pathways.

A related issue is that in some fracking
regions, oil and natural gas drilling has
been going on for decades or even a
century, leaving a legacy of over 150,000
abandoned wells scattered about
Pennsylvania alone. The old pipes or
deteriorated concrete casings could be
conduits between the upper and lower
reaches. Initial investigation of a recent
geyser of methane and water near fracking
operations in Union Township, Penn.,
suggested that a 70-year-old abandoned
and unmapped well might have been the
methane pathway that caused the problem.

And, of course, while most attention focuses on the fracking itself, that process is only one
component of an overall drilling operation. Various stages of fracking that have to do with
handling fluids, for instance, offer at least the potential for spills or leaks that could affect
water sources.

here have been some high-profile cases in Pavilion, Wyo., and Dimock, Penn, where
government or other analyses have found elevated levels of volatile organic compounds,
such as benzene and methane, in wells close to natural gas operations but without making
definitive connections. And the documentary Gasland drew attention to cases of families
plagued by well-water contamination issues they believe came about only after drilling began
in their areas.
Natural gas companies have settled some legal claims with such homeowners, but without
admission of guilt. Some researchers have raised questions about the accuracy of some of the
material in Gasland, but Saiers says one thing about the film not in question is how it depicts
the angst of families struggling with major water problems. When it shows how people feel
about it, thats legitimate, says Saiers. And its important.
In most cases, fracking operations are in less affluent rural areas where citizens often rely on
private wells and have fewer resources to address water supply problems or to fight against
companies they feel may be responsible. But Saiers says socioeconomic disparities dont
seem to be a key driver in where drilling spreads. The richest shale just tends to be in rural
areas, and urban areas with far fewer open spaces are harder to tap anyway. My impression
is that these companies follow the gas, he says.
There are, however, rich shales in the
watershed that supplies New York City.
That rural watershed remains untapped
because the state of New York has a
temporary moratorium on fracking as
debate continues over the best permanent
S
topic, and the results of his inquiry will be
published in an upcoming issue of the American
Bar Associations journal, Natural Resources and
Environment Magazine.

In July Nationwide, one of the worlds largest
insurance companies, announced it wouldnt
cover any personal or commercial claims for
damages, such as drinking water contamination, potentially tied to
fracking. Their argument is that this is not a new policy but simply a
clarification of existing policy. And though Nationwides position has yet to
be challenged in court, its a good indicator of fear and uncertainty in the
industry.

Based on what Ive seen, it seems like the controversy surrounding
insurance policies doesnt necessarily stem directly from the act of
fracking, says Jokajtys, who now works at a boutique environmental law
firm in Manhattan. It stems partially from the controversy surrounding
it. In particular, the fierce stances some citizens are taking on fracking
have insurance companies wary of whats to come.

But with so much fracking activity, its clear that businesses will need the
insurance issues settled, perhaps through companies offering new
insurance products that directly cover fracking hazards claims.

Alternatively, some fear fracking could become uninsurable. Jokajtys says
that would mean costs for related injuries, property damage or
environmental declines would fall to individual companies, taxpayers or
even the victims of any problems that might arise. Another option, he
says, would be for states to set up funds to cover damages as they have
for problems with leaking underground storage tanks.

Insurance is all about pricing risk, and if the insurance industry doesnt
have enough information to accurately price that risk, says Jokajtys,
theyre not going to want to develop and sell the products.
policy.

Flammable taps resulting from excessive
methane are a dramatic display of
problems potentially tied to fracking.
Methane can make its way into drinking
water through a variety of paths apart from
fracking, such as from abandoned wells,
because it exists throughout various
subsurface layers. Saiers says peer-
reviewed studies have found methane in
drinking water aquifers prior to shale gas
development.

A Duke University study of water wells in
New York and Pennsylvania released last
year in the Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences concluded that
methane levels were significantly higher in
wells closer to fracking operations. As
important, the researchers found that, at
least in some cases, this methane had a
chemical signature closer to that of
methane from the deep shale than from
shallower subsurface layers.

Not surprisingly the industry wasnt
overjoyed with our conclusions about
methane, says lead author Robert Jackson, an environmental scientist at Duke. But some
environmentalists were upset too, he says, because the study also concluded there were no
signs of fracking fluids in the wells, and some detractors felt they hadnt done enough to test
for this possibility. Then there were the people that called him up in tears because they were
so thankful that someone was even looking closely at the issue.

ome also criticized Jacksons team for not comparing their methane measurements
against baseline measurements taken before fracking began, but thats because the data
simply dont exist. For a variety of reasons, baseline water-quality measurements and
studies have been sparse, though newer regulations in Pennsylvania do require water quality
testing prior to new drilling.

Jackson believes the simplest explanation for his groups findings is that the methane is
coming up through or around abandoned oil or natural gas wells or new wells that were
inadequately cased. He says that some of the water wells his group has tested were so
saturated with methane that the water bubbled like champagne. So while its true that
methane can contaminate wells without any help from fracking, he says even without
baseline data, if a person begins seeing such an obvious sign of contamination as bubbling
after fracking begins, it can be a reliable indicator or a connection. Too much methane in
water can cause an explosion, but Jackson says its not clear what, if any, health threats that
low concentrations of methane pose.

Technological advances have enabled companies to drill horizontally and reach shale miles
O
TARA MOBERG 08
Studying Frackings Demand on Water
One key environmental concern associated with
fracking is how much water the process
consumes. Fracking a single well can take millions
of gallonsa third of that amount makes its way
back up the well as flowback, and has to be
collected and processed or recycled.

Since completing her masters in environmental
science at F&ES in 2008, Tara Moberg has spent
much of her time thinking about the ecological implications of removing
billions of gallons of water from waterways in the Marcellus-Utica shale
region, whether for fracking or other industrial uses.

As a freshwater scientist with The Nature Conservancy, shes helping to
complete a study commissioned by Pennsylvania state agencies analyzing
the minimum flow needs for waterways in the region, with the goal of
informing policy decisions on water removal.

The long-term study first focused on the massive Susquehanna, whose
basin runs from New York through Pennsylvania to Maryland and includes
everything from small tributaries to the deep, wide waters of the main
river farther south.

Moberg and her colleagues begin a basin study by first examining the
different types of ecosystems found there. They identify the species found
in each, and the processes, such as stream velocity, that affect them. Then
they set up workshops with regional experts and review available data on
key species to figure out how their water needs change throughout the
year.

The Susquehanna River Basin Commission used The Nature Conservancys
Susquehanna report as the basis for a new draft policy on water
withdrawals and minimum waterway levels. Thousands of comments on
the policy, particularly from industry, have poured in, and the final policy
hasnt yet been announced.
away from the well head. This reduces the surface footprint of operations, but the thousands
upon thousands of these rigs still arrive with consequences.
In Pennsylvania, access roads for fracked wells must often be cut through some of the
regions most pristine remaining forests. Roadways also typically have to cross streams and,
depending on how they are constructed, can block water flow needed by plants and animals
downstream. But a more widespread concern is the ecological effects of companies tapping
waterways to get the millions of gallons needed for fracking wells.
ne potential positive for natural gas is
that it burns relatively cleanly. In
simplest terms, burning natural gas
produces substantially lower greenhouse
gas emissions than coal or oil. Based on
this, some have pointed to a potential role
for expanded natural gas usemade
possible thanks to frackingas a transition
to renewable energy. Natural gas also
burns much cleaner than coal without
releasing pollutants such as mercury and
sulfur dioxide.

But reality rarely plays out in simplest
terms. At each step along the natural-gas
production linefrom drilling, to
transport, to usethere are opportunities
for leakage. A key phase comes when
drilling and fracking operations are
completed and operators must connect the
new well to a production pipeline. Methane
coming from the new well can be lost
during this switchover and either burned
off or flared, converting it to carbon
dioxide, or vented straight to the
atmosphere.

Because methane, which is the main
constituent of natural gas, is a much more
efficient heat trapper than carbon dioxide,
venting and flaring it can eliminate some of
the benefits of lower greenhouse gas emissions provided by natural gas. These losses, along
with other leakage, could be pumping a substantial amount of methane into the atmosphere,
but just how much isnt clear.

The bottom line is, there have to be more measurements in many more places to really
constrain these leakage rates, says Saiers. And transporting huge amounts of water used in
fracking, and the resulting waste, can also lead to significant greenhouse gas emissions and
pollution.

Regardless, at least some of the losses might be controlled. Earlier this year the EPA put in
place new regulations to improve poor air quality associated with drilling. Companies will
now be required to use equipment that prevents the leakage of methane and other gases
T
Without a policyand the United
States isnt good with energy policy
theres a real possibility that
natural gas would delay
development of renewables.
James Saiers, F&ES hydrology professor
The question isnt can hydraulic
fracturing be done safely? Its will
it be done safely?
Robert Jackson, Duke University environmental
scientist
during drillingtechniques known as green completionsthough flaring methane into the
atmosphere will still be legal during a transition phase that ends in 2015.
heres also a less obvious concern
about natural gas potential role in
climate change. The issue is price. For now,
sustainable power sources, such as wind
and solar, remain much more expensive per
unit of energy than fossil fuels. As oil prices
have risen in recent years, oil has become
nearly as expensive as renewables, making
pursuit of sustainable options more
economically feasible.
But the United States massive shale natural gas reserves and frenzied expansion of drilling
have pushed natural gas prices down. Its now so cheap that many power companies have
shifted toward greatly expanded natural gas use. With such a cheap, domestic energy source
dominating the U.S. energy landscape, it could dramatically slow any movement toward
more expensive renewables.

Besides green completions rules, there have been other recent regulatory changes to address
some fracking concerns. Pennsylvania beefed up rules for concrete casings for wells and now
requires baseline water sampling around new drilling sites, for instance.

But many still wonder how safely fracking can be done on a larger scale. Researchers say that
too many open questions remain. As big as the issue is, there is not a tremendous amount of
new science on the environmental impacts of fracking, says Saiers.
Dukes Jackson says that even with the
uncertainties, the current debate is far
more divisive than it needs to be. The
hydraulic fracturing debate is like our
political debateits just unnecessarily
polarized. There are many people out
there, I believe, who just want there to be a
problem, he says. On the other hand, my
frustration with industry is their unwillingness to acknowledge any problems whatsoever.
That unwillingness, he suggests, complicates research efforts by preventing the release of
some data and makes it look like industry is hiding something.

There have been problems, but Jackson says its also important to remember that numerous
wells have been drilled and used without causing any known problems. The question isnt
can hydraulic fracturing be done safely? Its will it be done safely?.
Share this page:

environment Yale || Stories | Bookshelf | About | Subscribe | Home
2012 Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies

Fracking Outpacesscience D Environmental Studies

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Fracking Outpacesscience D Environmental Studies

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

8/25/2014 Fracking OutpacesScience on Its Impact | EnvY : The Journal of the Yale School of Foresty and Environmental Studies

Вам также может понравиться