The Uses of Planning Theory:

A Bibliographic Essay
John Friedmann
Preface
Studying planning at the University of Chicago in the early 50s, I was privileged
to be a student of Edward C. Banfield who offered the first planning theory
seinar ever to be held anywhere. !ong the assigned readings which
influenced e the ost was "arl #annhei$s Man and Society in an Age of
Reconstruction (1949; orig. 1940) a translation of which had %ust appeared, and
&erbert !. Sion$s Administratie !ehaior (19"#$ orig. 194%). #annhei was a
&ungarian sociologist who had fled to the United "ingdo %ust before the war
and was best 'nown for his wor' on the sociology of 'nowledge( Sion, an
!erican student of public adinistration would receive the )obel *ri+e for his
wor' on artificial intelligence any years later. ,hile #annhei was searching
for a deocratic alternative to the twin evils of counis and fascis, Sion
e-plored the possibilities of rational decision a'ing in the conte-t of !erican
bureaucracy. Banfield hiself was particularly fascinated by Sion and
undertoo' his own research into the field of housing policy in Chicago .#eyerson
and Banfield, /0551. &is conclusion that planning for public housing in the ,indy
City was all about politics, and that the planners$ purported rationalis was little
1
ore than an ideological so'e screen, led hi eventually to the study of urban
politics and a professorship at &arvard. But I was bitten by the bug of 2planning
theory3 .which neither then nor now can be precisely defined and encopasses
a vast terrain1 and have been engaged in thin'ing about planning ever since.
I ention this personal story because, since those early and tentative
beginnings, planning theory has becoe a respectable sub%ect with a %ournal
e-clusively devoted to the topic and courses on the history and theory of
planning offered in ost !erican planning schools, often as an introductory
sub%ect. In fact, coverage of planning theory is now andated for accreditation
purposes. 4espite this apparent 2success,3 s'eptical voices still disiss its
usefulness for practice. !s Sanyal has argued$ based on a survey of planning
practitioners, not one of the had found planning theory, or indeed any theory,
useful as they grappled with conflicting interests .Sanyal 50051. 6hey learned by
doing, Sanyal said, not fro theories. 6he present essay is y attept to argue
otherwise, stressing several 2uses3 of planning theory as I see the. I a fairly
certain that if they were pressed for an answer now, ost practitioners would
continue to validate Sanyal$s conclusion. But I believe that any intellectual
discipline has its particular role to play in the discourse about planning and
indeed in acadeic discourse generally, and that this discourse cannot but affect
the thousands of planning students who are pu++led by the 7uestion of 2what is
planning.3 8ver the years our answers to this e-istential 7uestion have changed,
and our writings on planning theory have helped to shape the inds of our
&
students as they eerged into their own practices. In this way, and for the ost
part unbe'nown to theselves, they have contributed to the generational drift in
our collective understanding of planning practice. ,e have distanced ourselves
fro a practice conceived as a for of rational decision9a'ing, the doinant
odel in the iediate post9war era, to our current understanding that planning
is inevitably ebedded in politics, reflecting and adapted to what for want of a
better ter we call the spirit of the ties.
6he writings that I will cite in this essay obviously reflect y own biases, and it
would be false odesty to deny that I have contributed to this discourse for ore
than 50 years and a perhaps responsible for soe of the shifts that have
occurred .:riedann 5005, ch. ;1. 8thers ay well disagree with what I call the
three central 2tas's3 of planning theory, or how the writers who contributed to this
discourse actually understood what they were doing. !nd so, because I value
discussion, I invite responses to the present version of what I perceive to be the
case.
!n essay such as this is necessarily written in a style that is ore or less
ipersonal. I will therefore inter%ect ore personal coents fro tie to tie
such as this *reface. 6he reader will recogni+e the by the italic script.
Introduction
'(anning theory is )ecoming an increasing(y g(o)a( discourse. *he e+onymous
,ourna( *lanning 6heory -as founded )y .uigi Ma//a of the 0niersity of Mi(ano
1
in the 1990s. Seera( o(umes of Ang(o2American +(anning theorists (Forester$
Friedmann$ 3ea(ey$ and Sandercoc4 among others) hae )een trans(ated into
5ta(ian and +u)(ished )y 6eda(o under the genera( editorshi+ of 6ino !orri of the
*echnica( 0niersity of !ari. 5n the 07$ 'atsy 3ea(ey$ -ith the strong su++ort of
the Roya( *o-n '(anning 5nstitute$ founded the ,ourna( *lanning 6heory and
*ractice -hich in &008 is ce(e)rating its tenth anniersary. 5n 9ermany$ 7(aus
Se((e at the 0niersity of Aachen has )een a ma,or contri)utor to +(anning
theoretica( discourse. 5ndiidua( contri)utions hae come from 5srae($ !ra/i($
:or-ay$ 6enmar4$ !e(gium$ and 9reece. And as recent issues of the China City
*lanning <eview .published in English1 demonstrate$ there is no- een a sma((
num)er of ;hinese +(anners -ho hae ,oined the discourse.
<hat is (ess c(ear is ho- -e shou(d ans-er the =uestion of >+(anning theory for
-hat?@ or -hy those of us -ho engage in theoretica( +ractice choose to do so.
S4e+tics sometimes argue that the coterie of se(f2identified theorists ta(4 chief(y
among themse(es$ that theory is an esoteric game of (itt(e or no +ractica( im+ort.
A contrary +osition such as 7(aus Se((eAs$ sees it as haing a centra( ro(e in
rene-ing +(anning +ractices (Se((e &00#). !eing of Se((eAs +ersuasion$ my
+ur+ose in this essay is to suggest three -ays that theori/ing in and a)out
+(anning contri)utes to our +rofessiona( fie(d$ -ith a +articu(ar em+hasis on :orth
America. *here eBist other -ays of contri)uting to +(anning theory -hich 5 -i(( not
refer to in this essay$ )ut 5 regard the three to )e discussed as centra( to our
4
endeaor. 5 refer to them as >tas4s$@ -hich is to say that they are ma,or concerns$
-hether eB+(icit or im+(icit$ of those +artici+ating in the discourse.
*he first tas4 is to eo(e a dee+(y considered humanist +hi(oso+hy for +(anning
and to trace its im+(ications for +ractice. *his is the philosophical tas4 of +(anning
theory. *he second tas4 is to he(+ ada+t +(anning +ractices to their rea(2-or(d
constraints -ith regard to sca(e$ com+(eBity$ and time. <hat 5 hae in mind here
are the constraints (and o++ortunities) -ith -hich the constant f(uB of the -or(d
+resents us$ a(ong -ith the gro-ing com+(eBity and sca(e of the ur)an$ and the
im+ortance that >difference@ ma4es. 5 ca(( this the tas4 of adaptation. *he third
tas4 is to trans(ate conce+ts and 4no-(edges generated in other fie(ds into our
o-n domain$ and to render them accessi)(e and usefu( for +(anning and its
+ractices. 5 ca(( this the tas4 of translation. 5n the remainder of this essay$ 5 -i((
e(a)orate on each of these tas4s )y dra-ing on s+ecific eBam+(es from the
(iterature.
I Evolving a humanist philosophy for planning and its practices
It doesn$t see so very long ago that planning was perceived to be a value9free
activity guided by professional if not scientific standards. *lanners, it was argued,
are guardians of the public interest. 6oday, it would be difficult to aintain this
position=or is it> In ?apan, for instance, planning is still largely perceived as a
technocratic activity e-ercised by 6o'yo9based bureaucrats .Sorensen 50051,
and versions of this attitude are widely held throughout East !sia. !nd although
%
)orth !erican planners no longer ebrace technocratic hubris, architects and
soe urban designers by and large still do, and econoists of the neo9classical
variety regard their pronounceents as scientifically based advice to policy9
a'ers who can then e-ercise their values in whatever way they choose. 6hey
believe in the a-i of spea'ing truth to power. In their understanding, facts and
values don$t i-( they are derived fro different logics.
!nd yet, as planners, we don$t have a well thought9out philosophical position
beyond the usual platitudes of 2participation.3 Soe planners today thin' of their
priary role as that of facilitating public discussion or ediating disputes. ,hile
they ay favor a different outcoe, their professional s'ill is priarily to assist in
2getting to yes3 aong sta'eholders, in arriving at an actionable consensus,
whatever that ay turn out to be. 6his facilitative approach is a considerable
distance fro an understanding of a planning practice ebedded in politics.
So the 7uestion for us is this@ can planners evolve a value9based philosophy as a
foundation for their own practices in the world> #y personal view is that this is
perhaps the a%or challenge before us in a world that, despite protestations to
the contrary, is increasingly aterialist, individualist, and largely indifferent to
huans$ ipacts on the natural environent. In the absence of a huan9
centered philosophy or soe other defensible construct, we will erely drift with
the ainstrea, helping to build cities that are neither supportive of life nor
ecologically sustainable.
#
A
*hat +(anning is not a a(ue2free actiity has )een -ide(y ac4no-(edged for some
time$ at (east in :orth America$ -here a(ue2)ased +(anning is no (onger a sa(ient
issue. *he ;anadian 5nstitute of '(anners$ for eBam+(e$ has an 82+oint
>Statement of Ca(ues@ that is meant to sere as a source of ins+iration and
guidance for +rofessiona( +(anner
(---.ci+icu.caDEng(ishDmem)ersD+ractice.htm). Moreoer$ for +rogressie
+(anners in the 0S and ;anada$ socia( ,ustice concerns hae )een an im+ortant
focus for decades$ eer since 'au( 6aidoff (19#%) made the case for +(annersA
adocacy of the +oor and ;hester 3artmanAs *lanners )etwor' )ewsletter in
19"%$ -hich has no- eo(ed into the =uarter(y ,ourna($ *rogressive *lanning
(3artman &00&). E=ua((y nota)(e is Susan FainsteinAs tire(ess adocacy of socia(
,ustice in the city (Fainstein &000; forthcoming). More recent(y$ some +(anning
schoo(s (es+ecia((y in ;anada)$ such as the Schoo( of ;ommunity and Regiona(
'(anning at the 0niersity of !ritish ;o(um)ia$ hae dec(ared themse(es to )e
committed to sustaina)i(ity and the democrati/ation of +(anning$ thus ma4ing a
s+ecific a(ue2orientation centra( to their mission. And oer the years$ arious
a(ue c(aims hae )een em)raced )y )oth the +(anning academy and many
indiidua( +ractitioners$ such as adocacy of the +oor and other margina(i/ed
+eo+(e$ citi/en +artici+ation$ inc(usieness$ and the right to housing.
*hese commitments did not$ ho-eer$ sim+(y >dro+ from the s4y@ )ut -ere the
resu(t of +o(itica( strugg(es$ de)ates$ and dramatic changes in the +eitgeist of our
"
societies. 0nder(ying them$ too$ -ere ne- researches$ ne- discourses$ and ne-
common understandings a)out the contem+orary -or(d. *hese -ritings$
addressed to +(anners )ut occasiona((y to a more genera( readershi+ as -e(($ are
+art and +arce( of -hat 5 ca(( the centra( tas4s of +(anning theory. 5f +(anning
+ractice is no-$ as 5 -ou(d argue$ )oth societa( and +o(itica($ and if -e (ie$ as -e
are o)(iged to$ in an increasing(y interconnected -or(d$ -e hae to thin4 more
and more dee+(y a)out the a(ues that shou(d inform our +ractices$ including
how to ove fro values to action. 5n the fo((o-ing +aragra+hs$ 5 -i(( gie the
merest hints of the eBtensie -or4 that (ies ahead for us.
5 )egin -ith -hat 5 )e(iee to )e our )irthright to human f(ourishing. 5n an essay
on the >good city@$ 5 argued that 2every huan being has the right to the full
developent of their innate intellectual, physical, and spiritual capabilities in the
conte-t of wider counities.3 5 ca((ed this the right to huan flourishing and
+ro+osed it as the most fundamenta( of human rights (Friedmann &00&$ 110).
1

'hi(oso+hica( anthro+o(ogy teaches us that indiidua( human )eings cannot )e
meaningfu((y descri)ed as an a)stract conce+t such as the uti(ity2maBimi/ing
>economic man@ of neo2c(assica( thought -hich$ -hen serious(y a++(ied in +o(icy
discourse$ can hae icious conse=uences (;(ar4 &00&). Rather$ from the
moment of conce+tion unti( -e die$ human )eings can on(y )e understood as
mu(ti2dimensiona($ socia((y2re(ated )eings$ or persons -ho$ oer the entire arc of
their (ies$ eo(e )io(ogica((y$ +sycho(ogica((y and in the socia( re(ations that
8
constitute our co((ectie eBistence. More recent(y$ -e hae come to understand
human interde+endence not on(y societa((y )ut a(so -ith the natura( enironmentF
)oth are essentia( to our continued sustenance and f(ourishing (6a(y and Far(ey
&004; ;(ar4 &00&). *his anthro2eco(ogica( mode( is essentia((y one of liitsF
(imited$ that is$ )y the re=uirements of )io(ogica( and +sycho(ogica( (ife$ cu(tura((y
mediated socia( o)(igations$ the eBtensie +roduction of use a(ues -ithout -hich
-e -ou(d not surie and -hich some refer to as the mora( economy$ and
natureAs ca+acity to sustain human (ife on earth at socia((y acce+ta)(e (ee(s of
(iing ('o(anyi 19"").
*-o crucia( o)serations fo((o- from -or4ing -ith a mode( of (imits. *he first is
that it c(ashes -ith the )e(ief in the +ossi)i(ity of un(imited cumu(atie gro-th in
materia( consum+tion and thus$ +resuma)(y$ of human ha++iness as -e(( (an
eer increasing >ha++iness?@)$ a )e(ief that has )ecome the dominant ideo(ogy in
+o(icy +(anning -or(d-ide. *he second is that an im+(ication of -or4ing -ith
either or )oth mode(s is )ound to (ead to contradictions that can on(y )e reso(ed
either +eacefu((y through a +o(itica( +rocess or$ fai(ing that$ )y de+(oying the
+o(ice +o-ers of the state. An eBam+(e is the off2(oading of the rising economic
and enironmenta( costs of un(imited materia( gro-th onto the (east +o-erfu(
sectors of the +o+u(ation (using the fu(( +o-ers of the state to enforce this
so(ution) andDor onto the -ea4est countries of the g(o)a( community$ many of
them in Africa and the Midd(e East. 5n other -ords$ increasing domestic and
g(o)a( ine=ua(ities are +art(y res+onsi)(e for generating the +resent -or(d
9
disorder ranging from drugs$ +eo+(e smugg(ing$ hunger$ and random io(ence
against cii(ian +o+u(ations to desertification$ g(o)a( -arming$ and the >(ong
emergency@ of +ost2+ea4 oi( (7unst(er &00#). Since io(ent so(utions may )e the
most +ro)a)(e )ut are a(so the (east desira)(e$ -e are for a(( +ractica( +ur+oses
(eft -ith on(y a range of +o(itica( o+tions.
At a theoretica( (ee($ these o+tions confront us -ith the cha((enge to deise
+o(itica( systems andDor +rocesses ca+a)(e of oercoming the inherent
contradictions in +u)(ic +o(icy -or4. *his (ine of argument ta4es us direct(y to the
=uestion of democratic theory most of -hich$ at (east in recent decades$ has had
the nation state as its focus. '(anners hae made fe- contri)utions to democratic
theory as such$ +ossi)(y )ecause our attention is oer-he(ming(y focused on the
(oca(.
&

*-enty years ago$ in an attem+t to -rite the history of +(anning thought$ 5
suggested that John 6e-eyAs eB+erimenta( +ragmatism$ 7ar( MannheimAs >third
-ay@ of democratic +(anning$ 7ar( 'o++erAs adocacy of an >o+en society@$ and
Ro)ert 6ah( and ;har(es .ind)(omAs +o(itica( economy offered +(anners a )ridge
to +o(itica( theory (Friedmann 198").
1
!ut turning to contem+orary +o(itica( theory
direct(y$ +erha+s the most inf(uentia( -or4 oer the +ast ha(f century has )een
She(don <o(inAs *olitics and Bision (&004; orig. 19#0). 5n a more radica( ein and
es+ecia((y re(eant for +(anners$ are the -ritings of 5ris Marion Goung on socia(
,ustice and the city (1990; &000) and ;hanta( MouffeAs edited co((ection$
10
4iensions of <adical 4eocracy@ *luralis, Citi+enship, Counity (199&)$
-hich )rings together some of the most e(o=uent +o(itica( +hi(oso+hers of our
time.
4
6uring the (ast decade$ a stir has )een made (most(y in :orth America) )y
adocates of de(i)eratie democracy. Carious attem+ts hae )een made to define
the meaning of this de(i)eratie turn in +o(itica( theory. *-o of the (eading
adocates of the a++roach define de(i)eratie democracy >as a form of
goernment in -hich free and e=ua( citi/ens (and their re+resentaties) ,ustify
decisions in a +rocess in -hich they gie one another reasons that are mutua((y
acce+ta)(e and genera((y accessi)(e$ -ith the aim of reaching conc(usions that
are )inding in the +resent on a(( citi/ens )ut o+en to cha((enge in the future@
(9utmann and *hom+son &004).
%
Cirtua((y a(( the de)ates that hae s-ir(ed
around this conce+t$ ho-eer$ hae cast their arguments in terms of a nationa(
+o(ity$ and the re(eance of +u)(ic >de(i)eration@ as this term is used )y +o(itica(
scientists has found (itt(e resonance among +(anners.
Archon FungAs recent -or4 is an eBce+tion. 0sing a series of siB case studies
from ;hicago$ Fung has gien us a detai(ed (oo4 at de(i)eratie democracy at
-or4 (Fung &004; see a(so Fung$ <right$ and A)ers &001). 3e ca((s it
Epowered *articipation and sees it as a strategy of administratie reform.
Among +o(itica( theorists$ his -or4 is eBce+tiona($ )ut his focus on the (oca(
11
community is a fami(iar one to +(anners$ es+ecia((y to those -or4ing in mediation
and negotiation$ such as Judith 5nnes and 6aid !ooher (&001).
5t is John Forester$ ho-eer$ -ho has ta4en de(i)eratie democracyAs mora(
ision furthest )y -or4ing it into the (anguage and +ractice of community +(anning
(Forester 1999). 3is ear(y -ritings focused on the art of (istening$ )ut in 6he
4eliberative *ractitioner he de+arted from the rationa(ist mode(s of +o(itica(
scientists and +hi(oso+hers such as JHrgen 3a)ermas to confront the dee+
grieances and +assionate commitments +eo+(e often )ring to +u)(ic
de(i)erations. 5f the +arties to a conf(ict see4 to reach agreement$ their +ains$
+assions$ and grieances$ he argues$ must first )e +u)(ic(y ac4no-(edged. Most
im+ortant(y for +(anning theory$ +erha+s$ is his em+hasis on -hat he ca((s
transforative learning that occurs -hen +eo+(e honest(y confront their emotions
and those of others in the course of ta(4ing -ith each other.
;entra( to ForesterAs -or4 is the +rinci+(e of dia(ogue$ -hich the Je-ish
+hi(oso+her Martin !u)er has ca((ed das Cwischenenschliche, that -hich )inds
humans together and$ in a -ider circ(e of interde+endencies$ ,oins us in (oing
attentieness to a(( (iing )eings on Earth (!u)er 19#%). 5n a )oo4 5 ca((ed 6he
Dood Society$ 5 eB+(ored this +rinci+(e in its mu(ti+(e forms and am)iguities$ and
suggested that human )onds can )e formed into socia( moements (or
tem+orary soda(ities) that$ through +ersona( engagement and +o(itica( strugg(e$
act as the (iing germ ce(( in the mora( transformation of human societies
(Friedmann 19"9). *oday$ Forester continues this eB+(oration )y focusing on
1&
more sta)(e$ +(ace2)ound communities in the sma(( s+aces of the city -hich are
its neigh)orhoods and other neg(ected$ often inisi)(e s+aces. 5t is interesting to
note ho- des+ite the gigantism of the modern ur)an$ s+reading as it does oer
thousands of s=uare 4i(ometers$ these intimate s+aces of ur)an (ife surie$
forming a ta+estry of socia( re(ations that is dee+(y meaningfu( for those -eaing
its +atterns. Efforts such as ForesterAs and othersA at constructing a mora(
foundation for +(anning are essentia( if -e -ant to further the good and aoid ei($
-hich is the dar4 side of +(anning in the serice of a +o-erfu($ inherent(y immora(
state (Giftache( 1998).
II Adapting planning practices to their real-world constraints: scale
comple!ity and time
6heorists are forever watching the world as it goes through its transforations.
:or soe, this is an e-citing prospect, but planners are not %ournalists who can
dispassionately observe the passing scene. 6hey have to as' theselves@ Diven
the reality of what is happening now, can planning powers intervene to shift the
balance of forces towards goals of social %ustice and inclusion in the ongoing
processes of urban and regional restructuring, and with what tools at hand>
6he si-ty plus years since ,orld ,ar II have been oentous ones as world
population increased three9fold, while the ratio of urban dwellers increased by
nearly five ties to reach fifty percent of the total by 500E. 6his scale of
deographic growth is without historical precedent, and planners have had to
11
wor' with only sidgens of 'nowledge to guide the. Soeone once called it
2planning without facts.3 )one of us could clai to understand what was actually
happening, or where we were headed, if indeed there was a destination. !s a
rule, we spo'e with far greater certainty than was warranted( soe ight even
argue that we were 2whistling in the dar'.3 Still, one had a sense of being close
to the ragged frontlines of history. 6hat at least is what I felt when I wor'ed
successively in Bra+il, Bene+uela, Chile, "orea, #o+abi7ue, 6hailand, ?apan,
and latterly in China. But I believe that even bac' hoe in )orth !erica,
planning was often ore a venturing forth into the un'nown terrain of the future
than the precise surgical procedure involved in, say, reoving a ruptured
appendi-.
I return then to the 7uestion of liits, this tie the liits of 'nowledge about a
world that despite incredible scientific achieveents in soe reals leaves
any of us perple-ed. ,e can iagine soething better than what we see
around us, but such visions are fugitive, and our actions, iperfect as they are,
often contribute to the general sense of turbulence rather than bringing us closer
to iaginary futures. Under these circustances, the best we can hope for is to
a'e pragatic responses to eergencies that are already upon us. Dlobal
waring is a telling e-aple.
6his then is the story of how planning theorists have tried to close the feedbac'
loop between observed events on the ground and the teachings of our
14
profession. !nd in this, at least, as I will try to show, their efforts have been
partially successful.
A
<isdom has it that to )e a good +(anner is to )e acute(y a-are not on(y of -hat
our -or4 can reasona)(y )e eB+ected to accom+(ish )ut a(so -hat it cannot; as
+rofessiona(s$ -e hae to )e a-are of our cognitie (imitations. *he a)so(ute
(imits of +(anning are gien )y -hat can )e re(ia)(y 4no-n$ and this is a function
of sca(e$ com+(eBity$ and time. <hi(e the sca(es of the ur)an are infinite in
+rinci+(e$ as a +ractica( matter$ s+atia( +(anning is a(-ays territoria((y )ounded$
and )oth the sca(es of the ur)an and the authority to act u+on them ary from the
g(o)a( to the infinitesima((y sma(( s+aces of neigh)orhood and city )(oc4. *his
)eing the case$ there can )e no sing(e$ una(tera)(e g(o)a( hierarchy of the ur)an
-hich is mu(ti+(y sca(ed at a(( +ertinent (ee(s.
*he +receding +aragra+h re=uires a ref(ectie comment. 5t assumes that
+(anning has something to do -ith (in4ing 4no-(edge to action (Friedmann 198").
*his is a -ide(y acce+ted ie- -ithin the +rofession$ )ut it fai(s to ac4no-(edge
the sort of isionary$ )o(d$ and u(timate(y ruth(ess s+atia( +(anning for -hich$ to
cite t-o notorious cases$ !aron 3aussmannAs 'aris and Ro)ert MosesA :e- Gor4
are -e((24no-n instances (3arey &001; !a((on and Jac4son &00"). And yet$
these isionary and +o(itica((y +o-erfu( )ureaucrat2+(anners -ho had the +o-er
to ma4e things ha++en hae )e=ueathed to us cities that in retros+ect$ and
des+ite criti=ues from arious =uarters$ are often great(y admired. 5n contrast to
1%
these em+resarios of ur)an transformation$ .e-is Mumford$ though neer a
+(anner himse(f$ (i4ened +(anning to a form of gardeningIa )it of +runing here$ a
)it of mu(ching there22that$ in rhythm -ith the cyc(es of nature$ -ou(d he(+ to )ring
a)out a )io2centric ur)an region (Mumford 1918). Enironmenta(ists today are
rediscoering Mumford$ -hi(e other o)serers$ im+atient -ith contem+orary :e-
Gor4As snai(2+aced +(anning +rocess$ cast nosta(gic )ac4-ard g(ances at Ro)ert
Moses and his decisieness$ +o(itica( acumen$ and a)i(ity to gie su)stance to his
ision. So the ,ury on -hat sort of +(anning -e shou(d hae$ and ho- much
>4no-(edge@ (and een -hat sort of 4no-(edge) is necessary for good +(anning
is$ 5Am afraid$ sti(( out.
*here is a(so the =uestion of -hat is meant a)oe )y a >re(ia)(e@ 4no-(edge for
+(anning decisions. Jr do isions suffice? S+ea4ing +ros+ectie(y as +(anners
often do$ -hat$ for instance$ is the )est route for a ne- transit (ine$ and -ou(d
)ui(ding it )e an economica((y sound decision? 0nfortunate(y$ =uestions of this
sort are neer +(ausi)(y ans-ered. Engineering criteria can )e ino4ed$ )ut in the
end$ -e 4no- that forecasts of future transit demand are unre(ia)(e$ the more so
the (onger the time +eriod in ie- (F(y),erg et a(. &001; A(tshu(er and .u)eroff
&001). Such decisions are u(timate(y (eft to +o(iticians$ )ureaucrats$ )usiness
(o))ies$ ur)an socia( moements$ and the media to reso(eIthat is$ to the
+o(itica( +rocess. 'arenthetica((y$ it might )e noted that (oca( +o(iticiansA tenure is
rare(y (ong enough to eB+erience the conse=uences of their choice. Since +u)(ic
1#
memory is simi(ar(y short$ +o(itica( decisions are fre=uent(y irres+onsi)(e$ if not
rec4(ess.
5 return then to the =uestion of 4no-(edge for +(anning. *hroughout the -or(d$
+(anning education re=uires at (east a first uniersity degree and$ in many
countries$ the e=uia(ent of an American masterAs degree. So one -ou(d thin4
that a high measure of forma( 4no-(edge is after a(( re=uired as a +oint of entry
into the +rofession. <here +(anning is taught in schoo(s of architecture$ -hich is
the case for a)out ha(f of :orth American +(anning schoo(s$ +(anning 4no-(edge
is often ta4en to mean interna(i/ing ur)an design +rinci+(es (see$ for eBam+(e$
3ester &00#). Jn the other hand$ -here +(anning is taught in schoo(s of +u)(ic
+o(icy$ as at 0;.A$ the 0niersity of Minnesota$ and Rutgers$ design may )e
neg(ected in faor of some ama(gam of 4no-(edge in ur)an geogra+hy$
demogra+hy$ statistics$ +u)(ic finance$ and socio(ogy. 'o(icy +(anners may
+ronounce on +(anning issues$ )asing their conc(usions on =uantitatie research
and ma++ing eBercises$ )ut more often than not$ their findings -i(( )e cha((enged
-heneer they run counter to +o-erfu( +riate or +o(itica( interests. 5n the +o(icy2
ma4ing arena$ +(anning eB+ertise is not necessari(y acce+ted as su+erior to other
+eo+(eAs ,udgments.
#
*here are good reasons for this. '(annersA +rofessiona( 4no-(edge is necessari(y
)ased on a ery (imited reading of the ur)an com+(eB. J)(iged to ma4e
>com+rehensie@ or >strategic@ +(ans for a city or region$ they face the a(most
1"
im+ossi)(e tas4 of re+resenting the city or region in t-o2dimensiona( s+ace at a
sca(e that can )e isua(i/ed at a sing(e g(ance. Eery ma+ is a mode($ and eery
mode( is a radica( sim+(ificationIan a)stractionIof rea(ity. <hat +(anners
choose to sho- then is a selection of aria)(es a(( of -hich are su),ect to change
oer time$ though the res+ectie directions and e(ocities of change -i(( ary. *he
first difficu(ty +(anners face$ then$ is to decide -hat aria)(es to incor+orate into
the +(an2ma4ing eBercise and -hich to ignore (that is$ rendering some of
+otentia((y im+ortant ones inisi)(e). *he ineita)(e )ias in this initia( choice -i((
)e in faor of aria)(es to -hich their +rofessiona( education has +re2dis+osed
them$ as -e(( as such data as are readi(y at hand. A)sent such data$ ne-
research -ou(d hae to )e done$ )ut funds for this are a(-ays scarce$ and +(ans
hae to )e +roduced according to a set schedu(e. 5n the natura( sciences (and in
economics)$ +o-erfu( mode(s (or theories) are re-arded -ith (ush research funds
and :o)e( +ri/es. Many +(anning +ractitioners$ ho-eer$ hae (itt(e +atience -ith
forma( mode(s of the ur)an. :or do they hae any -ay of ma4ing (ong2term
forecasts of ho- the ur)an com+(eB at any gien sca(e is (i4e(y to eo(e under
a(ternatie assum+tions$ such as +o(itica( change$ demogra+hic dynamics$
economic +erformance$ and sudden shifts in g(o)a( trends to name on(y four sets
of aria)(es oer -hich city +(anners hae (itt(e or no contro(. 'ros+ectie (and
use and circu(ation +(ans$ then$ are most(y demand2drien -ish images +ro,ected
onto t-o2dimensiona( ma+s$ images that ref(ect the hidden )iases of their socia(
c(ass and +rofessiona( training.
"
18
9ien ho- these circumstances constrain their craft$ is it sur+rising that
munici+a( +(anners are continua((y reising their +(ans to )ring them u+2to2date$
-hi(e any s+ecific +ro+osa(s come ineita)(y under fire from adersaries )oth
inside and outside the goernment? S+ea4ing genera((y$ the inf(uence of this ty+e
of +(anning on the sha+ing of ur)an com+(eBes has )een minima(. 'erha+s it is
for this reason that +(anning +ractice in :orth America has increasing(y turned
entre+reneuria($ focusing on +ro,ects and +artnershi+ arrangements rather than
com+rehensie +(ans$ and -hy theorists such as Forester (1989) and F(y),erg
(1998a) hae strong(y argued for a sty(e of +o(itica((y say +(anning.
For many +(anners$ this -as a(ready c(ear during the tur)u(ent siBties -hen socia(
moements f(ourished. Many American +(anning schoo(s )ecame hot s+ots of
socia( actiism -hich soon oershado-ed more traditiona( +(anning concerns$
such as (and use. 5n 19%9$ ;har(es .ind)(om$ a +o(itica( economist at Ga(e$
+u)(ished -hat -as to )ecome his most +o+u(ar ,ourna( artic(e eer (re+rinted
oer 40 timesK)$ +roocatie(y entit(ed >*he Science of Mudd(ing *hrough@
(.ind)(om 19%9). 5n it$ he argued against >syno+tic@ +(anning -hich he dismissed
as a uto+ian endeaor$ +ro+osing instead a >dis,ointed incrementa(ism@ in -hich
a (arge num)er of re(atie(y autonomous )ut net-or4ed actors -ou(d ad,ust their
o-n short2term +(ans$ each according to the continua((y changing conditions
confronting them. *his -as the com+etitie mar4et re2inter+reted for the -or(d of
+o(icy and +(anning. !ut fe- +(anners in the academy heeded his ca((; most -ere
sti(( in thra(( to the idea( of com+rehensieness. Et/ioniAs attem+t to com)ine
19
)road isions -ith incrementa( ste+s to achiee them$ -hich he ca((ed >miBed
scanning$@ -as simi(ar(y un+ersuasie (Et/ioni 19#8). '(anning theorists -ere sti((
in thra(( -ith a mode( of ho- to ma4e decisions rationa(.
5n <etrac'ing !erica@ ! 6heory of 6ransactive *lanning (19"1)$ 5 attem+ted to
rea(ign the meaning of +(anning in a country that had +assed through a decade of
socia( turmoi(. ;onscious that an historica( era -as coming to an end$ 5 out(ined a
ne- 4ind of >+ost2industria(@ +(anning )ased on socia( (earning. 5 sa- +(anners
engaged in see4ing +ositie socia( change and +ro+osed ,oining u+ -hat they
4ne- as a resu(t of their s+ecia(i/ed education -ith the eB+erientia( 4no-(edge of
ordinary citi/ens -ho -ou(d )e im+acted )y their decisions. 5 ca((ed this a
+rocess of >mutua( (earning@ -hich -ou(d ta4e +(ace through a series of face2to2
face transactions. *hree years (ater$ Argyris and SchLn (19"8) +u)(ished the
resu(ts of their o-n eBtensie researches on organi/ationa( (earning. *ogether$
these inf(uences$ see+ing out of the academy into eeryday (ife$ he(+ed create a
)road (earning meta+hor for a ty+e of +(anning +ractice that$ in the 0nited States
if not e(se-here$ has )ecome increasing(y +artici+atory on the sca(e of (oca(
communities and occasiona((y (arger ensem)(es.
*he surge of neo2(i)era( ideo(ogy in the (ate seenties and continuing right u+ to
the end of the mi((ennium +osed ne- cha((enges for +(anning. 'riate2+u)(ic
+artnershi+s started to )e formed that coined a ne- category of >sta4eho(ders@
most of -hom came from concerned goernment agencies and the cor+orate
sector$ -ith a ne- >third sector@ em)racing cii( society at some distance )ehind.
&0
Se(f2identified sta4eho(ders no- had a (egitimate c(aim to sit at the ta)(e -hen
decisions affecting their interests -ere )eing made.
8
*he seenties and eighties -ere indeed an era of historica( transition -hose
+rofound effects -ou(d )e fe(t around the g(o)e. MarBists eB+(ained -hat -as
ha++ening as a crisis of accumu(ation$ and some authors een toyed -ith the
am)iguous +hrase >(ate ca+ita(ism@ to characteri/e this +eriod (Mande( 19"%).
<hat they fai(ed to gras+ -as the regeneratie +o-ers of a system engaged in
an am)itious +ro,ect of g(o)a( restructuring. :eo2(i)era(ism sered as its mantra.
As neo2(i)era( nationa( regimes )egan do-n(oading usua((y unfunded
res+onsi)i(ities to states and cities$ they (eft (o-er2order goernments to fend for
themse(es. .oca( goernments -ere thus forced to com+ete against each other
as cities tried to ensure their fisca( ia)i(ity )y attracting in2)ound inestments to
shore u+ their eer2u(nera)(e economies ('orter &001). *his (eft neigh)orhood
communities that had )een +articu(ar(y hard hit )y the transition to a serice2
)ased economy to manage the shift from >fordist@ +roduction on their o-n. Many
-ere (eft stranded.
Ana(yses of -hat -as ha++ening -ere carried out chief(y )y geogra+hers$
socio(ogists$ and economists. From a MarBist +ers+ectie$ 6aid 3arey
eB+(ored ca+ita( theory and$ (ater$ +ost2modernity (3arey 198&; 1988). !ut it -as
!(uestone and 3arrisonAs 4eindustriali+ation of !erica (198&) and 3arrison and
&1
!(uestoneAs 6he Dreat U96urn@ Corporate <estructuring and the *olari+ation of
!erica (1988) that )ecame the most inf(uentia( stories of the decade.
5n an historica( treatment of +(anning doctrines$ 5 signa(ed the same +erce+tion of
a sea2change in American (ifeF the (ast third of *lanning in the *ublic 4oain
ac4no-(edged a form of +(anning 5 ca((ed radica($ -hich had its antecedents (eft
of the +o(itica( s+ectrum$ s+routing its many directions oer t-o centuries
(Friedmann 198"). Radica( +(anning today$ 5 argued$ -as grounded in the myriad
organi/ations of cii( societyF )eyond the reach of the state$ it -ou(d often )e in
o++osition to the state and sometimes to cor+orate enter+rise as -e((. '(anning
)y mo)i(i/ed communities (in softer (anguage$ +(anning >from )e(o-@) -as thus
ac4no-(edged as a ne- rea(ity. Manue( ;aste((s summed u+ a decade of fie(d
research into ur)an socia( moements in his masterfu( 6he City and the
Drassroots (1981)$ )efore turning to trace the (ineaments of the emerging ne-
net-or4 society (1989). *en years (ater$ .eonie Sandercoc4 (1998a) -ou(d
eBtend radica( +(anning to the strugg(es of margina(i/ed +eo+(es for their >right to
the city$@ inc(uding indigenous First :ations$ -omen$ gays and (es)ians$ and
other >oices from the )order(ands.@
*he 1990s and s+i((ing oer into the first fe- years of the ne- mi((ennium
gathered the harest of decades of socia( change and eB+erimentation.
'artici+atory +(anning had reached its a+ogee -ith the introduction of the
+artici+atory )udget )y 'orto A(egreAs ne- .a)or goernment (A)ers &000)$ an
&&
eB+eriment that has ins+ired simi(ar endeaors throughout !ra/i($ Euro+e$ and
;anada$ though none as attention2getting as the origina( eB+eriment. As non2
goernmenta( organi/ations +ro(iferated throughout the -or(d$ community
em+o-erment -as )eing touted as a +anacea for margina(i/ed neigh)orhoods in
the 9(o)a( South (Friedmann 1991a). ;ii( society$ a term -ith a (ong historica(
+edigree in +o(itica( +hi(oso+hy$ had )een reinented )y the (i)eration theo(ogy
moement of the ;atho(ic ;hurch in !ra/i( and then in .atin America more
genera((y (.ehmann 1990; Esco)ar and A(are/ 199&). 5nde+endent of its .atin
American usage$ it -as a(so used to descri)e the source of +o(itica( (i)eration as
eastern Euro+e shoo4 off its decades2(ong yo4e of ;ommunist ru(e (;ohen and
Arato 199&). <ith these contem+orary eB+eriences as )ac4ground$ cii( society
-as introduced into the oca)u(ary of +(anning in a )oo4 that inc(uded case
studies from 'orto A(egre$ Fran4furt (9ermany)$ .os Ange(es$ Santiago (;hi(e)$
and 'acific Rim cities (6oug(ass and Friedmann 1998; see a(so Friedmann et a(.
199#).
5n a ma,or contri)ution to the (iterature at rough(y the same time$ 'atsy 3ea(eyAs
Collaborative *lanning (199") argued +ersuasie(y that the cha((enges of ur)an
dee(o+ment in the neo2(i)era( era cou(d no (onger )e hand(ed effectie(y )y
goernment a(one )ut re=uired the +artici+ation of a(( sectors of society in a form
of +(anning that ino(ed dia(ogue and negotiations among sta4eho(ders see4ing
and actiona)(e consensus. ;onsensus )ui(ding among +eo+(e -ith conf(icting
interests$ ho-eer$ often re=uired the interention of mediators$ and )y the end of
&1
the century$ mediation had )ecome an im+ortant ne- )ranch not on(y of +(anning
)ut of (ega( studies as -e(( (.e!aron &00&). .arry Suss4ind and John Forester
made 4ey contri)utions to this ne- s+ecia(i/ation$ the first in a series of
+u)(ications cu(minating in 6he Consensus Building &andboo'@ !
Coprehensive Duide to <eaching !greeent (Suss4ind et a(. 1999)$ the
second in 6he 4eliberative *ractitioner@ Encouraging *articipatory *lanning
*rocesses (Forester 1999). :ot a(( +(anning theorists$ ho-eer$ sa- consensus2
)ui(ding as the -ae of the future. 5n <ationality and *ower, F(y),erg (1998a)
em)raced a mode( of +(anning that -as )ased eB+(icit(y on the -riting of
Machiae((i$ :iet/sche$ and Foucau(t. 5t -as a trenchant criti=ue of +(anning that
ac4no-(edged the ineita)(e +resence in society of differences in +o-er and the
a)i(ity of different grou+s to use it. >5n a Foucaudian inter+retation$@ F(y),erg
-rites$ >su++ressing conf(ict is su++ressing freedom$ )ecause the +rii(ege to
engage in conf(ict is +art of freedom@ (F(y),erg 1998)$ &09). *hus he eB+ressed
s4e+ticism a)out the non2+o(itici/ed +rocesses of mediation and )ui(ding
consensus.
Mediations not-ithstanding$ and -ith the a++earance of an increasing(y oca(
and +o(itica((y actie cii( society$ +o(itics and therefore conf(ict around a(ues and
+riorities hae )ecome centra( to +(anning. James 3o(ston (1999)$ an ur)an
anthro+o(ogist -ho has done eBtensie fie(d -or4 in !ra/i($ introduced the term
>insurgent citi/enshi+$@ -hich -as su)se=uent(y ado+ted )y Sandercoc4 -ho
made insurgent +ractices centra( to her +ath2)rea4ing -or4 on accommodating
&4
difference in the contem+orary metro+o(is$ though she -as =uic4 to +oint out that
>conf(ict@ around differences neednAt )e io(ent. 5n an ur)an -or(d$ she -rote$
insurgencies can resu(t from >a thousand tiny em+o-erments@ rather than from
reo(utionary adentures (Sandercoc4 1998)$ 1&921%9). .i4e .ind)(om$ she 4ne-
that )ig changes often come from an accumu(ation of many sma(( ones. A(though
dia(ogue and mediation hae their +(ace in the +o(itica( (ife of cities$ -here +o-er
differences are great$ and fundamenta( -or(d ie-s or strong(y he(d +rinci+(es are
at sta4e$ such as the uniersa( right to housing$ mediation cannot )e the defau(t
+osition. 'o(itica( strugg(es are needed.
9
5n conc(uding this +art of the essay$ 5 -ant to mention a fina( +(anning inention
-hich o-es as much to theory as to +ractice. 5 hae in mind the ne- interest in
>isioning@ that has emerged in res+onse to the increasing(y fragmentary
character of +(anning +ractices that are either +ro,ect2focused or ta4e +(ace on(y
in iso(ated (oca( neigh)orhoods s(ated for redee(o+ment. 5n Euro+e$ isioning
eBercises are often referred to as >s+atia( strategies@ (3ea(ey et a(. 199";
A()rechts &004; 3ea(ey &00#$ &00"). For 3ea(ey$ -ho has )een a (eading oice
eB+ressing this a++roach in +(aces such as :orthern 5re(and and the Amsterdam
region$ s+atia( strategies hae transformatie +otentia(. *hey are meant to
en(arge the thin4ing of +o(icy communities$ to eB+(ore ne- o+tions in a
coordinated -ay )ut -ithout re=uiring a forma( commitment to carry them out. 5n
her (atest )oo4$ she eB+(ainsF
Strategy2ma4ing$ understood re(ationa((y$ ino(es connecting 4no-(edge
resources and re(ationa( resourcesMto generate mo)i(isation force. Such
&%
resources form in institutiona( sites in goernance (andsca+es from -hich a
strategic framing discourse diffuses out-ardsM.Efforts in strategy2ma4ing may
)e initiated in many different institutiona( sites$ )ut to hae significant effects$ the
mo)i(isation dynamicMhas to moe to-ards arenas that are centra( to accessing
the resources (oer -hich a strategy needs) to gain inf(uenceM. (3ea(ey &00"$
198)
<hen -e (oo4 )ac4 oer the +ast ha(f century$ as 5 hae done here$ it is ama/ing
to note the changes that hae occurred in our thin4ing a)out +(anning and its
+ractices. 5 hae tried to trac4 some of the re(eant theoretica( de)ates$ and if 5
-ere to summari/e$ 5 -ou(d say that three )ig shifts hae occurred. *he first has
)een to-ards ma4ing +(anning more of a whole9society process rather than
+rimari(y a technica( one (e.g.$ 3ea(ey &00"$ &802&). As a coro((ary$ the second
shift has turned +(anning increasing(y into a political art$ -ith +(anners needing to
)e acute(y a-are of +o-er and the difference that +o-er ma4es (F(y),erg
1998a). 'racticing +(anners no- hae a sta4e in certain outcomes and therefore
need to )e c(eer in deising -ays that -i(( a((o- them to insert their o-n a(ues
and +ers+ecties into ongoing (societa() decision +rocesses (7rumho(/ and
Forester 1990). A third shift has )een the direct engagement of +(anners -ith the
art of getting things done$ and so -ith +(anning in >rea( time@ ('ressman and
<i(das4y 1984; Friedmann 1991); A()rechts and .ieois &004). *odayAs
+(anners are no (onger mere(y ana(ysts adising +o(iticians; they hae (or can)
)ecome political actors in their o-n right. John Forester (199#; 1999) has +ut the
&#
+o(itica( in the conteBt of mediation and conf(ict reso(ution in -hich$ echoing !ent
F(y),erg$ he +rioriti/es >+ractica( ,udgment.@
!efore +roceeding to +(anning theoryAs third tas4$ (et me reca(( the ma,or
>ada+tations@ oer the +ast fifty years or so to the continua((y changing if not
tur)u(ent conteBt in -hich +(anning +ractice is em)edded in :orth AmericaF
dialogue, social learning, utual learning, social participation, collaboration,
ediation, social obili+ation, social and political epowerent, and strategic
planning or visioning. *a4en together$ these terms and the theories to -hich they
are (in4ed hae contri)uted to changing the face of our +rofession.
III Planning theory as the wor" of translation
*lanning theory, li'e planning practice, is an eclectic or, put ore elegantly, an
inter9disciplinary, even trans9disciplinary field. !s planners, we have a growing
literature of our own, of course, and our professoriat is increasingly hoe9grown
rather than iported fro allied disciplines. 6his was not always the case, and
as a planning student at the University of Chicago, virtually all of y teachers
were econoists, geographers, sociologists, anthropologists, students of politics,
counication specialists, various developent types, and even the odd
historian. #el Branch, the first planning *h.4. out of &arvard$s Draduate School
of 4esign, was our physical planner, but his was a lone voice for the city as
artifact aong a faculty of social scientists. 6he University of Chicago did not
teach architecture, and an early attept to lin' up with the Illinois Institute of
&"
6echnology .II61, which did architecture and urban design, failed to ateriali+e
because of the deep cognitive division between the design tradition and the
critical9analytic social science orientation we professed. )evertheless, we prided
ourselves in being 2inter9disciplinary3, a pride that would ultiately coe to fall
when ten years after its founding, the *rogra for Education and <esearch in
*lanning was redlined during a a%or budget crisis. In its wisdo, the university
decided that if anything needed preserving, it was the disciplines with their large
undergraduate following( a sall, relatively new, inter9disciplinary graduate
progra such as ours was dispensable.
*lanners$ wor' has ostly to do with urban and soeties regional issues and
their dynaics that cannot be properly understood e-cept in a way that cuts
across disciplines. #ost graduate planning students are enrolled in a two9year
#aster$s progra and tend to ta'e, I would guess, ninety percent of their course
wor' in their own departent rather than go 2shopping3 in the disciplines let
alone in other professional schools. 6hey tend therefore to ibibe ost of their
'nowledge about planning fro professors who theselves have coe out of
planning schools. 6here is plenty of diversity within their own departent, of
course, since a range of speciali+ations, including transportation, public health,
housing, urban design, counity developent, and the li'e have nested under
the planning ubrella. But two years is a short tie, especially when core
re7uireents ta'e up a considerable portion of their tie, and ost students
&8
graduate as generalists with only a vague grasp of what the university as a
whole has on offer.
Fet, without reaching beyond its own borders in the search for pertinent
'nowledge, it is easy for planning to becoe ore and ore inward9oriented, a
professional field that defines itself chiefly by its own technical copetencies. In
the longer ter, building walls around our little turf will inevitably lead to
intellectual stasis. It is for this reason that I want to argue for a third tas' of
planning theory I call translation, that raises our hori+on to include the vast field
of huan 'nowledge or perhaps, to spea' with Geonie Sandercoc', of
'nowledges in the plural .Sandercoc' /00E, !ppendi-1.
I see planning theorists actively engaged in ining e-peditions into the universe
of 'nowledge, on the loo'out for concepts and ideas they believe to be of interest
in planning education. 6heir specific contribution to theory is to return fro these
e-peditions to hoe base and translate their discoveries into the language of
planning where they will either ta'e root or be uncereoniously forgotten.
A
As discussion in the +receding +arts of this essay has sho-n$ +(anning theorists
ty+ica((y enture )eyond the )oundaries of their +rofession. 3ere then 5 -i(( not
try to re+rise the trans2disci+(inary generation of +(anning 4no-(edge. 5nstead$ 5
-i(( high(ight the -or4 of a (eading +(anning theorist to -hom -e are inde)ted for
eB+anding our understanding of the domain of +(anningF Susan S. Fainstein. 5
&9
might e=ua((y hae chosen other +rominent scho(ars$ such as !ent F(y),erg$
John Forester$ .eonie Sandercoc4$ or 'atsy 3ea(ey -hose -ritings hae ins+ired
generations of students. !ut s+ace (imitations +reent me from citing more
eBam+(es.
Fainstein -or4s from -ithin a +o(itica( economy tradition -hose origins can )e
traced in MarBist and neo2MarBist -ritings. 3er contri)utions to +(anning theory
are distinctie in t-o -ays. First$ she has consistent(y esche-ed a)stract
theori/ing in faor of grounding theory in the rea(ities of s+ecific cities such as
:e- Gor4$ .ondon$ or Amsterdam. Much of her -or4 has )een critica( of +(anning
and -as fre=uent(y regarded as haing more to do -ith the ur)an than -ith
+(anning as such. Jer the (ast t-o decades$ ho-eer$ and this is her second
mar4 of distinction$ she has )een dee(o+ing a normatie )asis for +(anning the
>,ust city@ (Fainstein &000; forthcoming). As distinct from +rocess theorists$ she
insists on the im+ortance of (oo4ing at +(anning outcomes. <hat this means is
that +(anning and$ more s+ecifica((y$ +(anning theory$ cannot )e studied a+art
from the study of +articu(ar cities and their +o(itica( dynamics (Fainstein 1994).
10

5n her =uest for the >good city$@ Fainstein critica((y eBamines not on(y a(ternatie
isions of the city$ such as the :e- 0r)anism$ )ut engages authors -ho$ though
remote from most +(anning reading (ists hae had much to say on ho- to thin4
a)out the =ua(ity of ur)an (ife. Among them are John Ra-(s$ Amartya Sen$
Martha :uss)aum$ JHrgen 3a)ermas$ and most im+ortant(y$ 5ris Marion Goung.
10
6ra-ing s+ecifica((y on Goung (1990; &000)$ she argues for a +o(itics of co((ectie
identities$ of grou+ings according to gender$ race$ seBua( orientation$ and
immigrant status )eyond those of socia( c(ass -hich had )een the tradition on the
marBist .eft throughout most of the 19
th
and &0
th
centuries. She a(so su+ersedes
the customary e=uity argument of this tradition$ )y arguing not mere(y for greater
income e=ua(ity )ut for im+roements in the tota( circumstances of (ife of )oth
+oor and midd(e income grou+s in their +articu(ar (iing enironments. She
-ritesF >Fai(ure to ac4no-(edge the coherence of co((ectiities and their structura(
re(ationshi+ to each other eades a fundamenta( socia( issue of redistri)utionI
ho- to aoid im+osing an unacce+ta)(e )urden on the )etter2off. 3o- much
socia( conf(ict is an acce+ta)(e +rice to +ay for greater ,ustice? <hat
circumstances a((o- the diminution of contro( (+o(itica( and materia() of those -ho
hae a dis+ro+ortionate amount?@ (Fainstein forthcoming). 5ncreasing(y$ her
-ritings em+hasi/e societyAs sta4e in )etter serices$ amenities$ and other
co((ectie goods for eeryone.
Fainstein is +ainfu((y a-are of the difficu(ties faced )y a +rogressie +o(itics in the
0nited States. !ut$ she says$ it is im+ortant to remain o+timistic. >N!Oy continuing
to conerse a)out ,ustice$ -e can ma4e it centra( to the actiity of +(anning. *he
ery act of naming has +o-er@ (o+.cit.).

#onclusion
11
5 hae argued that doing +(anning theory has three tas4s that are centra( to its
endeaorsF the +hi(oso+hica( tas4 of eo(ing a humanist +hi(oso+hy to guide
+(anners in their -or4; the tas4 of ada+ting +(anning +ractices to the continua((y
changing course of human affairs; and the tas4 of trans(ating 4no-(edges and
conce+ts from fie(ds other than +(anning into our o-n (anguage. 5 see these tas4s
as ma4ing a distinctie contri)ution to the +(anning (iterature and u(timate(y to our
+rofessiona( +ractice as -e((.
5 hae a(so tried to sho- ho- +ursuing these tas4s gradua((y affects +(anning
+ractices$ usua((y ia +rofessiona( education$ -hen students are first introduced
to academic discourses in the fie(d. As an integratie$ trans2disci+(inary fie(d of
studies$ +(anning addresses (ife in a(( of its on2the2ground com+(eBity. Such an
understanding of its mission cannot dis+ense -ith a normatie foundation such
as human f(ourishing and the ,ust city$ -hich of course -i(( )e a(-ays contested$
foreer remaining >under construction.@ 5n a ra+id(y changing -or(d$ the +(anning
+rofession needs a(so continua((y ad,usted its orientation to -hat is ha++ening$
as these changes are inter+reted )y an array of disci+(ines su++(emented )y
+(annersA o-n +erce+tions and eB+eriences. Fina((y$ these t-o tas4s ca(( for a
third$ a reaching out )eyond oneAs o-n )it of turf to )ring )ac4 to our -or4sho+s
at home the insights gained from the 4no-(edge +ursuits of others. *hese three
tas4s are -hat 5 regard as centra( to the concerns of +(anning theorists and as
essentia( to the ita(ity of our fie(d.
1&
$eferences
A)ers$ Re)ecca &000$ Inventing Gocal 4eocracy@ Drassroots *olitics in Bra+il.
!ou(der and .ondonF .ynne Rienner.
A()rechts$ .ouis &004$ >Strategic (S+atia() '(anning ReeBamined$@ Environent
and *lanning B@ *lanning and 4esign, 11$ "412%8.
A()rechts$ .ouis and 9. .ieois &004$ >*he F(emish 6iamondF 0r)an :et-or4 in
the Ma4ing? European *lanning Studies, /5, H5/9;0.
A(tshu(er$ A(an and 6aid .u)eroff &001$ #ega9pro%ects@ 6he *olitics of Urban
*ublic Investent. <ashington 6.;.F !roo4ings 5nstitution 'ress.
Argyris$ ;hris and 6ona(d A. SchLn 19"8$ 8rgani+ational Gearning@ ! 6heory of
!ction *erspective. Reading$ MAF Addison2<es(ey.
!a((on$ 3i(ary and 7enneth *. Jac4son$ eds. &001$ <obert #oses and the #odern
City@ 6he 6ransforation of )ew For'. :e- Gor4F <. <. :orton.
!(uestone$ !arry and !ennet 3arrison 198&$ 6he 4eindustriali+ation of !erica.
:e- Gor4F !asic !oo4s.
!renner$ :ei( &004$ )ew State Space@ Urban Dovernance and the <escaling of
Statehood. JBfordF JBford 0niersity 'ress.
11
!u)er$ Martin 19#%$ 6he "nowledge of #an@ Selected Essays. Edited )y Maurice
Friedman. :e- Gor4F 3ar+er ;o((ins.
;aste((s$ Manue( 1981$ 6he City and the Drassroots@ ! Cross9Cultural 6heory of
Urban Social #oveents. !er4e(eyF 0niersity of ;a(ifornia 'ress.
;(ar4$ Mary E. &00&$ In Search of &uan )ature. .ondonF Rout(edge.
;ohen$ Joshua$ 1998$ >6emocracy and .i)erty$@ in John E(ster$ ed.$ 4eliberative
4eocracy. ;am)ridgeF ;am)ridge 0niersity 'ress$ 18%2&11.
;ohen$ Jean .. and Andre- Arato 199&$ Civil Society and *olitical 6heory.
;am)ridge$ MAF M5* 'ress.
6a(y$ 3erman E. and Joshua Far(ey$ &004$ Ecological Econoics. <ashington
6.;F 5s(and 'ress.
6aidoff$ 'au( 19#%$ >Adocacy and '(ura(ism in '(anning$@ ?ournal of the
!erican Institute of *lanning, 11F 4$ 1112118.
6oug(ass$ Mi4e and John Friedmann$ eds.$ 1998$ Cities for Citi+ens@ *lanning
and the <ise of Civil Society in a Dlobal !ge. :e- Gor4F <i(ey.
14
E(ster$ John$ ed.$ 1998$ 4eliberative 4eocracy. ;am)ridgeF ;am)ridge
0niersity 'ress.
Esco)ar$ Arturo and Sonia E. A(are/$ eds. 199&$ 6he #a'ing of Social
#oveents in Gatin !erica@ Identity, Strategy, 4eocracy. !ou(der$ ;JF
<estie- 'ress.
Et/ioni$ Amitai 19#8$ 6he !ctive Society@ ! 6heory of Societal and *olitical
*rocesses. :e- Gor4F Free 'ress.
Fainstein$ Susan S. 1994$ 6he City Builders@ *roperty 4evelopent in )ew For'
and Gondon, /0E095000. JBfordF !(ac4-e((.
Fainstein$ Susan S. &000$ >:e- 6irections in '(anning *heory$@ Urban !ffairs
<eview, 1%F4$ 4%12"8.
Fainstein$ Susan S. forthcoming$ >'(anning and the Just ;ity$@ in 'eter Marcuse
et a(.$ eds.$ Searching for the ?ust City. :e- Gor4 and .ondonF Rout(edge.
F(y),erg$ !ent 1998a$ <ationality and *ower@ 4eocracy in *ractice. ;hicagoF
0niersity of ;hicago 'ress.
1%
F(y),erg$ !ent 1998)$ >Em+o-ering ;ii( SocietyF 3a)ermas$ Foucau(t and the
Puestion of ;onf(ict$@ in Mi4e 6oug(ass and John Friedmann$ eds.$ Cities for
Citi+ens@ *lanning and the <ise of Civil Society in a Dlobal !ge. :e- Gor4F <i(ey.
F(y),erg$ !ent et a(. &001$ #egapro%ects and <is's@ !n !natoy of !bition.
:e- Gor4F ;am)ridge 0niersity 'ress.
Forester$ John 1989$ *lanning in the :ace of *ower. !er4e(eyF 0niersity of
;a(ifornia 'ress.
Forester$ John 1999$ 6he 4eliberative *ractitioner@ Encouraging *articipatory
*lanning *rocesses. ;am)ridge$ MAF M5* 'ress.
Friedmann$ John 19"1$ <etrac'ing !erica@ ! 6heory of 6ransactive *lanning.
9arden ;ity$ :.G.F Anchor 'ressD6ou)(eday.
Friedmann$ John 19"9$ 6he Dood Society. ;am)ridge$ MAF M5* 'ress.
Friedmann$ John 198"$ *lanning in the *ublic 4oain@ :ro "nowledge to
!ction. 'rincetonF 'rinceton 0niersity 'ress.
Friedmann$ John 1991a$ Epowerent@ 6he *olitics of !lternative 4evelopent.
JBfordF !(ac4-e((.
1#
Friedmann$ John 1991)$ Q*o-ard a :on2Euc(idean Mode of '(anning$Q ?ournal of
!erican *lanning !ssociation$ %9F1$ 48&28%.
Friedmann$ John &00&$ 6he *rospect of Cities. Minnea+o(isF 0niersity of
Minnesota 'ress.
Friedmann$ John$ Re)ecca A)ers$ and .i(ian Aut(er$ eds. 199#$ Eergences@
,oen$s Struggles for Givelihood in Gatin !erica. 0;.A .atin American Studies
o(. 8&. .os Ange(esF 0;.A .atin American ;enter 'u)(ications.
Fung$ Archon$ &004$ Epowered *articipation@ <einventing Urban 4eocracy.
'rincetonF 'rinceton 0niersity 'ress.
Fung$ Archon$ Eri4 J(in <right$ and Re)ecca A)ers$ eds.$ &001$ 4eepening
4eocracy@ Institutional Innovations in Epowered *articipatory Dovernance.
.ondonF Cerso.
9ott(ie)$ Ro)ert$ &00%$ :orcing the Spring@ 6he 6ransforation of the !erican
Environent #oveent. Reised and u+dated edition. <ashington$ 6;F 5s(and
'ress.
1"
9utmann$ Amy and 6ennis *hom+son$ &004$ ,hy 4eliberative 4eocracy>
'rincetonF 'rinceton 0niersity 'ress.
3a,er$ Maarten and 3. <aagenar &001$ 4eliberative *olicy !nalysis@
Understanding *olicy !nalysis in the )etwor' Society. ;am)ridgeF ;am)ridge
0niersity 'ress.
3ar+er$ *homas .. and Stan(ey M. Stein$ &00#$ 4ialogical *lanning in a
:ragented Society. :e- !runs-ic4$ :JF ;enter for 0r)an 'o(icy ResearchI
;0'R 'ress.
3arrison$ !ennet and !arry !(uestone$1988$ 6he Dreat U96urn@ Corporate
<estructuring and the *olari+ing of !erica. :e- Gor4F !asic !oo4s.
3artman$ ;hester <. &00&$ Between Einence and )otoriety@ :our 4ecades of
<adical Urban *lanning. :e- !runs-ic4$ :JF ;enter for 'o(icy Research.
3arey$ 6aid$ 198&$ 6he Giits of Capital. JBfordF !(ac4-e((.
3arey$ 6aid$ 1988$ 6he Condition of *ost9#odernity. JBfordF !(ac4-e((.
3arey$ 6aid$ &001$ *aris@ Capital of #odernity. .ondonF Rout(edge.
3ea(ey$ 'atsy 199"$ Collaborative *lanning@ Shaping *laces in :ragented
Societies. .ondonF Macmi((an.
18
3ea(ey$ 'atsy &00#$ >Re(ationa( D;om+(eBity and the 5maginatie 'o-er of
Strategic S+atia( '(anning$@ European *lanning Studies, 14$ %&%24#.
3ea(ey$ 'atsy &00"$ Urban Cople-ity and Spatial Strategies@ 6owards a
<elational *lanning for 8ur 6ies. .ondonF Rout(edge.
3ea(ey$ 'atsy et a(.$ eds. 199"$ #a'ing Strategic Spatial *lans@ Innovation in
Europe. .ondonF 0;. 'ress.
3ester$ Rando(+h *. &00#$ 4esign for Ecological 4eocracy. ;am)ridge$ MAF
M5* 'ress.
3och$ ;har(es J. &00"$ >'ragmatic ;ommunicatie Action *heory$@ ?ournal of
*lanning Education and <esearch, &#F1$ &"&281.
3o(ston$ James 1999 (orig. 199%)$ > S+aces of 5nsurgent ;iti/enshi+$@ in James
3o(ston$ ed.$ Cities and Citi+enship. 6urhamF 6u4e 0niersity 'ress.
5nnes$ Judith E. and 6aid E. !ooher &001$ >;o((a)oratie 'o(icy Ma4ingF
9oernance *hrough 6ia(ogue$@ in Maarten 3a,er and 3endri4 <agenaar eds.$
4eliberative *olicy !nalysis@ Understanding Dovernance in the )etwor' Society.
;am)ridgeF ;am)ridge 0niersity 'ress. &001.
19
7noB$ 'au( and 'eter J. *ay(or$ eds. 199%$ ,orld Cities in a ,orld Syste.
;am)ridgeF ;am)ridge 0niersity 'ress.
7rumho(/$ :orman and John Forester 1990$ #a'ing E7uity *lanning ,or'@
Geadership in the *ublic Sector. 'hi(ade(+hiaF *em+(e 0niersity 'ress.
7unst(er$ James 3o-ard &00#$ 6he Gong Eergency. :e- Gor4F 9roe 'ress.
.e!aron$ Miche((e &00&$ Bridging 6roubled ,aters@ Conflict <esolution fro the
&eart. San FranciscoF Jossey2!ass.
.efe)re$ 3enri 1991a$ 6he *roduction of Space. ;am)ridge$ MAF !(ac4-e((.
.efe)re$ 3enri 1991)$ Criti7ue of Everyday Gife, o(.1. .ondonF Cerso.
.ehmann$ 6aid$ 1990$ 4eocracy and 4evelopent in Gatin !erica@
Econoics, *olitics and <eligion in the *ost9,ar *eriod. 'hi(ade(+hiaF *em+(e
0niersity 'ress.
.ind)(om$ ;har(es E. 19%9$ >*he Science of Mudd(ing *hrough$@ *ublic
!dinistration <eview, 19F&$ "9299.
40
.ind)(om$ ;har(es E. and 6aid 7. ;ohen 19"9$ Usable "nowledge@ Social
Science and Social *roble Solving. :e- 3aenF Ga(e 0niersity 'ress.
Mande($ Ernest 19"%$ Gate Capitalis. At(antic 3igh(ands (:e- Jersey)F
3umanities 'ress.
Mannheim$ 7ar( 1949$ #an and Society in an !ge of <econstruction. :e- Gor4F
3arcourt2!race. (Jrig. 1940).
Marcuse$ 'eter and Rona(d an 7em+en$ eds.$ &000$ Dlobali+ing Cities@ ! )ew
Spatial 8rder. JBfordF !(ac4-e((.
Meyerson$ Martin and Ed-ard ;.!anfie(d 19%%$ *olitics, *lanning, and the *ublic
Interest@ 6he Case of *ublic &ousing in Chicago. :e- Gor4F Free 'ress.
Mouffe$ ;hanta( 199&$ 4iensions of <adical 4eocracy@ *luralis, Citi+enship,
Counity. .ondonF Cerso.
Mouffe$ ;hanta( &00%$ 8n the *olitical. .ondonF Cerso.
Mumford$ .e-is 1918$ 6he Culture of Cities. :e- Gor4F 3arcourt$ !race and ;o.
41
'o(any$ 7ar( 19""$ 6he Givelihood of #an. Edited )y 3arry <. 'earson. .ondonF
Academic 'ress.
'orter$ Michae( E. &001$ >Regions and the :e- Economics of ;om+etition$@ in
A(an J. Scott$ ed.$ Dlobal City9<egions. JBfordF JBford 0niersity 'ress$ ch. 9.
'ressman$ Jeffrey .. and Aaron <i(das4y 1984$ Ipleentation. !er4e(eyF
0niersity of ;a(ifornia 'ress.
Sandercoc4$ .eonie 19""$ Cities for Sale. Me()ourneF Me()ourne 0niersity
'ress.
Sandercoc4$ .eonie 1990$ 'ro+erty$ 'o(itics$ R 0r)an '(anningF A 3istory of
Austra(ian ;ity '(anning 189021990. &
nd
edition. :e- !runs-ic4$ :JF
*ransaction !oo4s.
Sandercoc4$ .eonie$ ed.$ 1998a$ Ma4ing the 5nisi)(e Cisi)(eF A Mu(ticu(tura(
3istory of '(anning$ !er4e(eyF 0niersity of ;a(ifornia 'ress.
Sandercoc4$ .eonie 1998)$ 6owards Cosopolis@ *lanning for #ulticultural
Cities. :e- Gor4F <i(ey.
4&
Sandercoc4$ .eonie &001$ Cosopolis 5@ #ongrel Cities in the 5/
st
Century.
.ondonF ;ontinuum.
Sanya($ !ish-a+riya &00&$ >9(o)a(i/ation$ Ethica( ;om+romise and '(anning
*heory$@ *lanning 6heory, 1 (&)F 11#2&1.
Sassen$ Sas4ia$ ed. &00&$ Dlobal )etwor's, Gin'ing Cities. .ondonF Rout(edge.
Sassen$ Sas4ia &00#a$ Cities in a ,orld Econoy. 1
rd
ed. *housand Ja4s$ ;AF
'ine Forge 'ress.
Schram$ Sanford F. and !rian ;aterino &00"$ #a'ing *olitical Science #atter.
:e- Gor4F :e- Gor4 0niersity 'ress.
Se((e$ 7(aus &00#$ ed.$ Cur rIulichen Entwic'lung beitragen. *lanung neu
den'en, vol. /. 4ortund@ 4orothea <ohn.
Simon$ 3er)ert A. 19"#$ !dinistrative Behavior. 1
rd
ed. :e- Gor4F Free 'ress.
(Jrig. 194%).
Smith$ Michae( 'eter &001$ 6ransnational Urbanis@ Gocating Dlobali+ation.
Ma(den$ MAF !(ac4-e((.
Sorensen$ Andre &00&$ 6he #a'ing of Urban ?apan. Gondon@ <outledge.
41
<o(in$ She(don &004$ *olitics and Bision@ Continuity and Innovation in ,estern
*olitical 6hought. EB+anded edition. 'rincetonF 'rinceton 0niersity 'ress. (Jrig.
19#0).
Giftache($ Jren 1998$ >'(anning and Socia( ;ontro(F EB+(oring the 6ar4 Side$@
?ournal of *lanning Giterature, 1&$ 19#240#.
Goung$ 5ris M. 1990$ ?ustice and the *olitics of 4ifference. 'rincetonF 'rinceton
0niersity 'ress.
Goung$ 5ris M. &000$ Inclusion and 4eocracy. JBfordF JBford 0niersity 'ress.
Endnotes
44
1
A right is any c(aim$ indiidua( or co((ectie$ on organi/ed society and its institutions$ een though not a((
such c(aims are uniersa((y ac4no-(edged (Sen 1999). 6eried from the human right to f(ourishing are
>human needs@ that can sere as guide+osts to +(anning -or4$ such as MaB2:eefAs matriB of human needs@
that is )ased on the four eBistentia( categories of )eing$ haing$ doing$ and interacting (6a(y and Far(ey &004$
&19240).
&
*-o eBce+tions to this genera(i/ation come to mindF A)ers (&000) and 3a,er and <aagenar (&001). !oth
hae one foot in +(anning and +o(itica( science.
1
A significant s+in2off from 6e-ey is the +ragmatic communicatie action theory of ;har(es 3och (&00") as
-e(( as 3ar+er and SteinAs >neo2+ragmatic@ +(anning theory (&00#).
4
!ent F(y),erg has )rought to my attention the edited o(ume #a'ing *olitical Science #atter
(Schram and ;aterino &00") in -hich his theories of phronesis or +ractica( ,udgment are ta4en u+ )y a
num)er of +o(itica( scientistsIa rare )ut significant instance -here a +(anning academic has inf(uenced
+o(itica( theory.
%
For another formu(ation )y the originator of de(i)eratie democracy de)ate$ see ;ohen 1998;
for criti=ues$ the o(ume )y E(ster (1998) is +ro)a)(y the )est starting +oint.
#
5n +rinci+(e$ ur)an design cou(d )e faced -ith the same s4e+ticism$ )ut the (anguage of design
is foreign to most +eo+(e -ho are +re+ared to (eae designs to star architects or architectura( ,uries
ad,udicating among a(ternatie isions
"
For a trenchant criti=ue of -hat +(anners can 4no- >re(ia)(y$@ see .ind)(om and ;ohen (19"9).
8
Jrgani/ed (a)or$ neer ery interested in (oca( +(anning issues$ -as further margina(i/ed through anti2union
(egis(ation and the ongoing +rocesses of de2industria(i/ation.
9
For a )ri((iant ana(ysis of the unreso(ed tension )et-een consensus and +o-er conf(icts as directions of
+o(itica( +ractice$ see Mouffe &00%.
10
Sandercoc4As +o(itica( economy of (and dea(s in Me()ourne (Austra(ia) is an ear(y +recursor to FainsteinAs
ana(ysis (Sandercoc4 19"%; 1990).
Ac"nowledgmentsF 5 am dee+(y gratefu( to .eonie Sandercoc4$ !ent F(y),erg$ 'atsy
3ea(ey$ 'eter Marcuse$ Susan Fainstein$ John Forester$ 7(aus Se((e$ Serena 7atao4a$ and
seera( anonymous critics for their many comments and suggestions to ear(ier ersions of
this essay. As is a(-ays the case$ 5 a)so(e them a(( of any remaining errors of omission
and commission -hich$ a(as$ are ery much my o-n. My sincere than4s a(so to 7aren
;ha++(e -ho after a year$ +rodded me to underta4e this massie reision of -hat 5 had
origina((y su)mitted.