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Manipulator
Elements
Manipulator Elements
o Manipulator
o Actuators
oSensors
o End Effectors
o Controller
o Software
o Power supply
What is a Sensor?
o A sensor (also called detector) is a
converter that measures a physical
quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer
or by an (today mostly electronic)
instrument
o Each sensor is based on a
transduction principle! ie a
conversion of energy from one form
to another
o Sensors measure a physical quantity!
they do not provide state
Why robot need SENSORS?
o "umans adapt to changes in
their environment in part by
using sensors to detect what is
going on in their environment
o Similarly sensor constitute robot#s
window to the environment A
robot needs sensing to be an
active participant in the
environment
o $he ability to adapt to particular
surroundings in one definition of
intelligence
Classes of Sensors
o Sensors for robots can be divided into three classes%
&nternal sensor (Proprioceptive)
E'ternal sensors (E'teroceptive)
Sensors fall somewhere in between( interloc)s
o Another classification of sensors is based on the emission of
energy
Active
Emits energy! eg radar
Passive
Passively receive energy eg camera
Internal Sensors
o Measures values internally to the system
o Earliest robots did not have internal sensors $hey
were programmed by setting up mechanical stops
to determine the limit of a movement
o $he first comple' sensors used by robots used
feedbac) information to ascertain the present
conditions or the position
o $he governor is a mechanical device that uses
ad*ustable spinning weights to control the
rotational speed of devices such as generators
and motors
o +or rotational *oints a shaft-encoder can be used to
detect very fine rotational movements
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External Sensors
o Measure and observe the robot
environment! ob*ects in it
o ,ne of the earliest sensor for
robots was a microswitch or
pressure sensor that would detect
when the robot had something in
its gripper
o -ater photoelectric devices were
also used to detect ob*ects in the
gripper
o -asers! cameras! radar! pro'imity
sensors can also be used as
e'ternal sensors
General sensor classification
General sensor classification Characteriin! sensor performance
o Measurement in real world environment is error prone
o .asic sensor response ratings(
Dynamic range: /atio between lower and upper limits! usually
in decibels
Range: 0ifference between min and ma'
Resolution: Minimum difference between two values
Linearity: 1ariation of output signal as function of the input
signal
Bandwidth or frequency: $he speed with which a sensor can
provide a stream of readings
Sensor performance in a situation
o Characteristics that are especially relevant for real world
environments
o Sensitivity: /atio of output change to input change
o Cross-Sensitivity: Sensitivity to environmental parameters
that are orthogonal to the target
parameters
o Error/ccuracy: 0ifference between the sensor#s output
and the true value
o Systematic/Deterministic Error: Caused by factors that
can be modeled (in theory)! eg!
calibration of a laser sensor
o Random Error: eg! hue instability of camera! blac) level
noise of camera
o Re!roduci"ility: /eproducibility of sensor results
Simple on"off touch sensor
o A simple switch
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#otentiometer
o $he resistance change as the )nob rotates
Whis$ers
o Springy wire suspended
through conductive
2hoop3
o 0eflection causes contact
with 2hoop3
o /eaches beyond robot a
few centimeters
o Simple! cheap! provides
the binary output
%umpers
o $he bumper is connected
to a microswitch
o 4hen the bumper hits on
something the microswitch
gives an output
&nidirectional
Reed s'itch
Omnidirectional
Reed s'itch
Roller contact
s'itch
(i!ht sensors
o Photoresistor (-0/)
o Photodiode
o 0ifferential photodiode
o Phototransistor
)hermal sensor
o $hermal resistor
/esistance of the sensor varies with the temperature
$wo types of thermal resistors
o P$C
o 5$C