6.

Rules of Mixture
The mechanical and physical properties of composite materials depend
in a complex way on the type, form, quantity and arrangement of the
constituents. Rules of mixture are equations which attempt to express
these dependencies in a predictable fashion. Several different
approaches have been used (summarised in Daniel and shai, !""# and
discussed in more detail by $ibson, !""#%, but they are all based on
various degrees of simplification, and may be semi&empirical. t
follows that the user should treat the predictions with caution,
especially if properties are to be used for anything more than
preliminary design, and should endeavour to understand the
assumptions underlying the formulae.
The rule of mixtures for composite density was derived in 'hapter (.
)ere we concentrate on expressions for elastic and thermal properties.
*odels of composite strength are discussed in 'hapter ".
+.! ,nidirectional -ly . longitudinal modulus
The sign and nomeclature convention used here is shown in /ig. +.!.
The orthogonal axes !, 0 and 1 relate to the fibre direction, in&plane
transverse and through&thic2ness transverse directions respectively.
3e note that the unidirectional ply has two different in&plane tensile
moduli (4
!
and 4
0
%. To a first approximation, 4
1
4
0
. 3e also need
two values of -oisson5s ratio to describe the lateral contraction resulting
from in&plane tension, as shown in /ig. +.0. The conventional notation
is that
i6
denotes the contraction in the 6&direction when stress is
applied in the i&direction.
+&!
1
3
2
3
1
2
/ig. +.!7 8rthogonal directions
in unidirectional ply.
/rom /ig. +.0, it can be deduced that the lateral strain (
0
% resulting
from a stress applied in the fibre direction (9!5% is much larger than the
longitudinal strain (
!
% resulting from a transverse (905% applied stress.
)ence,
!0
:
0!
. n fact the -oisson5s ratios and moduli are related by7
0
!
0!
!0
4
4
=

(+.!%
n deriving the rule of mixtures, the following assumptions are made7
/ibres are uniform, parallel and continuous.
-erfect bonding exists between fibres and matrix.
; longitudinal load produces equal strain in fibre and matrix.
3e apply a load /
!
in the longitudinal direction . this is shared equally
between reinforcement and matrix so that /
!
< /
f
= /
m
.
3riting loads in terms of stresses and areas we obtain7
m m f f !
; ; ; + =
(+.0%
where ; < ;
f
= ;
m
is the cross&sectional area of the ply.
;pplying )oo2e5s law we replace stress with the product of strain and
modulus7
m m m f f f ! !
; 4 ; 4 ; 4 + =
(+.1%
+&0
fibre
direction
(1)
fibre
direction
(1)

2
= -
12

1

1
= -
21

2
/ig. +.07 Definition of in&plane
-oisson5s ratios in orthotropic
material
>ut we have assumed equal strain (
!
<
f
<
m
%, so7
m m f f !
; 4 ; 4 ; 4 + =
(+.#%
or
;
;
4
;
;
4 4
m
m
f
f !
+ = (+.(%
The terms ;
f
? ; and ;
m
? ; are the 9area fractions5 of fibre and matrix
respectively. n our unidirectional composite, these are clearly
equivalent to the constituent volume fractions, so we can write7
( )
f m f f m m f f !
@ ! 4 @ 4 @ 4 @ 4 4 + = + = (+.+%
; similar rule of mixtures is commonly used for -oisson5s ratio7
m m f f !0
@ @ + =
(+.A%
These two rules of mixture are generally accepted as corresponding
well with experimental data . *atthews and Rawlings (!"""%, for
example, state that agreement is within (B.
To a reasonable approximation, if 4
f
:: 4
m
, then 4
!
< 4
f
@
f
.
3e should, however, ta2e note of the fact that reinforcing fibres may
not be isotropic. 'arbon and aramid, for example, rely on a three&
dimensional oriented microstructure for their exceptional mechanical
properties, but quoted values almost always refer to the axial direction.
There seem to be few data available on transverse properties (partly
because they are obviously very difficult to measure%. Shindo (0CCC%
quotes values for the ratio of longitudinal to transverse modulus from
about !+ for high strength carbon fibre, up to more than DC for highly
oriented high modulus carbon fibre. )ence both 4
f
and possibly
f
in
4quations +.+, +.A and the other rules of mixture presented here should
be interpreted with care . this applies to thermal as well as elastic
properties.
+.0 ,nidirectional -ly . transverse modulus
/or loading in the transverse (905% direction, the state of stress in the
relatively flexible matrix is much more complex, and not surprisingly
the transverse modulus 4
0
turns out to be a matrix&dominated property.
$enerally, the rules of mixture are based on simply assumptions of
stress distribution, and are much less reliable than those for longitudinal
properties.
The simplest approach is a series model of fibre and matrix in which
any -oisson5s contraction is ignored, and the stress in each of the
constituents is assumed to be the same. ; detailed derivation can be
+&1
found, for example, in *atthews and Rawlings (!"""% or )ull and
'lyne (!""+%. The result is7
m
m
f
f
0
4
@
4
@
4
!
+ =
or
f m m f
m f
0
4 @ 4 @
4 4
4
+
=
(+.D%
;gain, we note that 4
f
should properly be associated with the transverse
rather than longitudinal value of modulus.
f 4
f
:: 4
m
and @
f
@
m
then we may write
( )
f
m
0
@ !
4
4

(+."%
which is of course independent of the modulus of the reinforcement.
The literature abounds with alternative models for transverse modulus,
which see2 to improve on the rather poor experimental agreement
observed with 4quation +.D. ; simple modification (which allows for
fibres restricting the -oisson contraction% is to replace the matrix
modulus in 4quation +.D with
0
m
m
m
!
4
4

=
(+.!C%
where
m
is the -oisson5s ratio of the matrix.
; commonly&used alternative is the )alpin&Tsai model for transverse
modulus7
( )
( )
f
f m
0
@ !
@ ! 4
4

+
=
(+.!!%
where
( )
( )
m f
m f
4 4
4 4
+

=
The parameter is ad6ustable, but is usually close to unity. 4quation
(+.!C% is generally considered to more reliable than the simpler
alternative.
The various rules of mixture for longitudinal and transverse modulus in
,D glass?epoxy are plotted in /ig. +.1. /ibre and matrix moduli were
+&#
ta2en as AC $-a and 1 $-a respectively. Eote that the simple constant
stress model for 4
0
is a lower bound.
+.1 ,nidirectional -ly . shear modulus
;s the tensile modulus relates tensile stress and strain, so the shear
modulus is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain7
i6
i6
i6
$

=

Eote that the subscripts 9i65 indicate the plane in which the shear
modulus is defined.
The rule of mixtures for shear modulus is based on the same
assumptions as that for transverse tensile modulus, and hence should be
treated with similar caution7
m
m
f
f
!0
$
@
$
@
$
!
+ =
(+.!0%
The )alpin&Tsai equations are applicable to shear modulus, giving the
preferred expression7
( )
( )
f
f m
!0
@ !
@ ! $
$

+
=
(+.!1%
with
( )
( )
m f
m f
$ $
$ $
+

=
(+.!#%
+&(
/ig. +.17 Rules of mixtures
modulus for ,D glass?epoxy
composite. *atrix -oisson5s
ratio ta2en as C.#.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction
m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)
E
1
(equation 6.6)
E
2
(equation 6.11)
E
2
(equation 6.10)
E
2
(equation 6.9)
;gain, the parameter is approximately equal to !.
;ssuming transverse isotropy, we expect $
!1
< $
!0
.
The third shear modulus is usually obtained from7
( )
01
0
01
! 0
4
$
+
=
(+.!(%
+.# ,nidirectional -ly . -oisson5s ratio
f our unidirectional ply (/ig. +.!% has transverse isotropy, we expect
!1
<
!0
(see 4quation +.A%. )ull and 'lyne (!""+% give the following
expression for the other out&of&plane -oisson5s ratio in terms of the
bul2 modulus (F%7
F 1
4
!
0
0! 01
= (+.!+%
where
m
m
f
f
F
@
F
@
F
!
+ =
with
( )
f
f
f
0 ! 1
4
F

=
and
( )
m
m
m
0 ! 1
4
F

=
Three dimensional elastic constants are rarely required for routine
calculations, but they may well be needed in finite element or other
numerical analyses. /or reference, Tables +.! and +.0 give theoretical
values of all the elastic constants for ,D glass and carbon?epoxy
composites over a limited range of fibre volume fractions. The other 1
-oisson5s ratios may be obtained from 4quation +.!. The constituent
properties used are listed in Table +.1. There is a wide range of
published values, and these data should be used for illustrative purposes
only. Eote that some of the properties in Table +.1 have been obtained
by 9bac2 calculation5 . i.e. deduced from empirical composite data
rather than measured as primary data.
+&+
Table 6.1: Rules of mixtures values for elastic constants of UD E-glass
fibre/epox !units of tensile an" shear mo"uli are #$a%.
V
f
E
1
E
2
= E
3
12
=
13

23
G
12
= G
13
G
23
C.# 0".D +.( C.11 C.+( #.1 0.C
C.#( 11.0 A.0 C.10 C.+# #.D 0.0
C.( 1+.( D.! C.1! C.+1 (.1 0.(
C.(( 1"." ".! C.1C C.+0 +.C 0.D
C.+ #1.0 !C.# C.0" C.+C +.A 1.0
C.+( #+.+ !!." C.0D C.(" A.+ 1.A
C.A #"." !1.D C.0A C.(A D.+ #.#
Table 6.&: Rules of mixtures values for elastic constants of UD high
strength carbon fibre/epox !units of tensile an" shear mo"uli are
#$a%.
V
f
E
1
E
2
= E
3
12
=
13

23
G
12
= G
13
G
23
C.# D".D +.D C.10 C.AC 1.( 0.C
C.#( !CC.A A.A C.1! C.+" 1.A 0.1
C.( !!!.( D.A C.1C C.+D #.C 0.+
C.(( !00.# "." C.0" C.++ #.1 1.C
C.+ !11.0 !!.# C.0D C.+( #.+ 1.(
C.+( !##.! !1.1 C.0A C.+# #." #.!
C.A !(#." !(.D C.0+ C.+1 (.1 #."
Table 6.': (onstituent properties for Tables 6.1 an" 6.& !#ibson)
1**+%.
E-glass
fibre
HS (T300)
carbon
fibre
aramid
fibre
epox
resin
longitudinal tensile
modulus ($-a%
A1 00C !(0 1
transverse tensile
modulus ($-a%
A1 !1.D #.! &
longitudinal shear
modulus ($-a%
1C.! ".C 0." 0.!
transverse shear modulus
($-a%
1C.! #.D !.( &
longitudinal -oisson5s
ratio
C.00 C.0C C.1( C.#
transverse -oisson5s ratio C.00 C.0( C.1( &
+&A
+.( *ultidirectional -ly . in&plane tensile modulus
The calculation of elastic properties for laminae or laminates is
normally underta2en with numerical laminate analysis ('hapter D%.
)owever, it is possible to modify 4quation +.+ to give an estimate of
tensile modulus for composites in which the fibres are neither
continuous or unidirectional.
; correction factor to allow for the loss of efficiency if fibres are not
perfectly aligned in the load direction was given by Frenchel (!"+#% as7

=
i
#
i o
cos (+.!D%
where a proportion
i
of the fibres has orientation
i
, and the
summation is carried out over the various angles present in the
reinforcement. /or example, in a biaxial reinforcement with fibres
oriented at #(
o
to the load direction, we have
( ) ( ) 0( . C #( cos ( . C #( cos ( . C
o # o #
o
= + =
The orientation correction factor is then included in 4quation +.+,
giving the semi&empirical7
% @ ! ( 4 @ 4 4
f m f f o G
+ =
(+.!"%
)ere
G
is a length correction factor for 9short5 reinforcing fibres. /or
fibres greater than a critical length (see section +.+%, and for continuous
fibres,
G
< !. Table +.# gives appropriate values of
o
for common
forms of reinforcement.
Table 6.+: ,rientation correction factors for non-UD reinforcement
!E-uations 6.1. an" 6.1*%.
orien!a!ion
o
unidirectional !
biaxial C.(
#(
o
C.0(
random (in&plane% C.1A(
random (1D% C.0
4quation +.!" applies strictly to in&plane reinforcement. n woven
fabrics, the fibres exhibit 9waviness5 in the through&thic2ness direction.
This 9crimp5 is greatest in plain weave styles, but less in twill and satin
forms (see 'hapter 1%. 3e can use 4quation +.!D to estimate an
additional orientation factor to allow for the loss in reinforcing
efficiency due to out&of&plane waviness.
+&D
;ssuming that the path of a tow in a woven fabric is sinusoidal, the
orientation factor can be obtained numerically as a function of weave
crimp angle ($rove and Summerscales, 0CCC%. The results are shown
in /ig. +.#. n a woven reinforcement, both orientation factors should
be combined to allow for in-plane and out-of-plane deviation from the
load direction.
+.+ Short /ibre Reinforcement
3hen considering continuous fibres, we can safely assume conditions
of uniform stress or strain in the longitudinal direction. This is not the
case with discontinuous fibres, due to the nature of the load transfer at
the fibre ends. 3hen a stiff fibre is embedded in a relatively flexible
matrix, shear stress and strain are a maximum at the fibre ends (/ig.
+.(%. The tensile stress in the fibre, on the other hand, is Hero at the
fibre end and increases towards the centre (/ig. +.+%.
+&"
0.
0.5
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Crimp angle (degrees)
/ig. +.#7 'alculated
orientation distribution
factor for a plain weave tow
with varying crimp angle.
Schematically, the shear stress at the fibre?matrix interface and the
tensile stress in the fibre are as shown in /ig. +.A. The common
theoretical derivation of these stress distributions relies on the so&called
shear lag model, which describes the transfer of tensile stresses from
matrix to fibre via shear stress at the interface. This and other models
are described in detail in )ull and 'lyne (!""+%.
/or our purposes, a simplified model will suffice. 3e consider the
balance of the tensile force in the fibre (diameter D% with the shear
force at the interface7
0
DG
#
D
c
0
f

=

(+.0C%
G
c
is the length of the fibre over which the interfacial shear forces act.
Referring to /ig. +.A, it is clear that the average tensile stress in the
+&!C
/ig. +.(7 /inite element
model of single glass fibre
(blue% embedded in epoxy
resin. The model is
axisymmetric about the
upper edge, and is sub6ected
to a uniaxial tensile strain.
,pper picture shows
undeformed mesh . note
high shear strain at fibre end.
/ig. +.+7 'ontours of tensile
stress in the fibre direction.
Eote low stress at fibre end,
increasing to maximum
value about A radii towards
the centre.
/ig. +.+7 Schematic
variation of fibre tensile
stress and interfacial shear
stress in a 9short5 fibre.
(*atthews I Rawlings,
!"""%
!
fibre is less than its maximum value of 4
f

m
, where
m
is the strain in
the matrix. *oreover, if the fibre length G J G
c
, then the tensile stress
nowhere reaches its maximum value. G
c
is thus referred to as the
critical length . defined as the minimum length of fibre required for the
tensile stress to reach its failure value. ;t this point, from 4quation
+.0C we have7

0
D
G
f
c
(+.0!%
where
f
K
is the fibre tensile strength. >y inserting values of interfacial
or matrix shear strength for in 4quation +.0!, the critical aspect ratios
(G
c
? D% for various fibre?matrix combinations can be estimated. Table
+.( gives some typical values.
Table 6./: (ritical length an" aspect ratio for some composite sstems
!from 0atthe1s an" Ra1lings) 1**6%.
ma!rix fibre "
c
(mm) "
c
# $
aluminium boron !.D 0C
epoxy boron 1.( 1(
epoxy carbon C.0 1(
polyester glass C.( #C
alumina Si' C.CC( !C
The average stress in a fibre reaches "CB of the value in a continuous
fibre when G (G
c
. /or fibre lengths G : G
c
, the average fibre stress is
given approximately by
+&!!
!c " 2 /ig. +.A7 Tensile and shear
stres distribution for a single
fibre embedded in a matrix
(Daniel I shai, !""#%.

=
G 0
G
!
c max
f
ave
f
(+.00%
;lthough the length correction factor (
G
% in 4quation +.+ depends on
fibre length as expected, the theoretical models also include elastic
properties of fibre and matrix and the fibre distribution7
( )
( ) 0 ? G
0 ? G tanh
!
G

=
(+.01%
where
( ) D R 0 ln D 4
$ D
0
f
m
=
)ere 0R is the interfibre spacing and $
m
the matrix shear modulus.
'alculations in )ull and 'lyne (!""+% for carbon and glass
reinforcement show that
G
< C.0, C.D" and C."" for fibre lengths of C.!,
!.C and !C.C mm respectively. n /ig. +.D, we have calculated the
length correction factor for glass fibres in epoxy resin, assuming a
mean interfibre spacing of 0C times the fibre diameter.
This would suggest that, so far as stiffness is concerned, the length
correction factor can be ignored for fibre lengths over about ! mm. t
should be noted, however, that processes such as in6ection moulding of
thermoplastics can cause considerable fibre damage. Data from
@etrotex examined glass fibre?nylon feedstoc2, containing # mm long
fibres. ;fter moulding, almost all the fibres had lengths ranging from
C.! to C.A mm . only !0B of all the fibres had a length greater than C.D
mm. The lower stiffness of discontinuous fibre&reinforced composites
+&!0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
fibre length (mm)
l
e
n
g
t
h

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
/ig. +.D7 Theoretical length
correction factor for glass
fibre?epoxy, assuming inter&
fibre separation of 0C D.
is of course also due to the fact that typical volume fractions are much
lower than with aligned, continuous reinforcements.
n short fibre&reinforced thermosetting polymer composites, it is
reasonable to assume that the fibres are always well above their critical
length, and that the elastic properties are determined primarily by
orientation effects. The following equations give reasonably accurate
estimates for the isotropic in&plane elastic constants7
0
D
(
!
D
1
4 4 4 + =
0
#
!
!
D
!
4 4 $ + =
!
$ 0
4
=
(+.0#%
)ere, 4
!
and 4
0
are the tensile moduli of a unidirectional ply of the
same fibre volume fraction, as given by 4quations +.+ and +.!! (or its
alternatives%. Results from 4quation +.01 are plotted in /ig. +." for a
random glass ? epoxy composite.
+.A Thermal 4xpansion
'oefficients of thermal expansion are of considerable relevance, since
many polymer composites experience temperature changes as an
integral part of their processing cycle. Rules of mixture are discussed
in 'hapter !C.
+&!1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
fibre volume fraction
m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)

a
n
d

P
o
i
s
s
o
n
'
s

r
a
t
i
o

x

!
E
#

$ 10
/ig. +."7 4lastic constants of
0D random glass fibre&
reinforced epoxy. -oisson5s
ratio is multiplied by !C for
clarity.
+.D 4xercises
!. ,sing an 4xcel spreadsheet, or otherwise, produce an equivalent set
of curves to those in /ig. +.1 for high strength carbon fibre
reinforcement.
0. The following empirical data was published in an 8wens 'orning
Design Data >oo2. 'ompare these data with the appropriate
predictions from rules of mixtures.
1. ;n aligned short fibre composite is stressed to a mean interfacial
shear stress of ( *-a. f the tensile strength of the reinforcement is
1#CC *-a, what fibre length is required for the composite to have its
maximum load carrying capacityL
#. ,sing /ig. +.D, plot an approximate graph of tensile modulus versus
fibre length for a short fibre glass?epoxy composite.
(. ,sing 4quation +.00, estimate the fibre length at which you would
expect a glass?polyester composite to have "(B of the strength of one
reinforced with continuous fibres.
+. S2etch and label the variation of tensile stress along the length of a
high strength carbon fibre of length G < G
c
if it is aligned in the load
direction and the applied strain is C.!B.
A. ; test specimen containing a single )S carbon fibre is sub6ected to a
uniaxial tensile test. ;t maximum stress, the fibre brea2s into pieces
each of length C.+0( mm. The fibre is !C m in diameter, has
+&!#
longitudinal tensile modulus 0#C $-a and an ultimate tensile strength
of 0(CC *-a. (a% 3hat is the interfacial shear strength of the
compositeL (b% f the composite has a longitudinal modulus of DC $-a,
what was the applied stress at fibre failureL ($ibson, !""#%.
+&!(