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36th WEDC International Conference, Nakuru, Kenya, 2013

DELIVERING WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE SERVICES
IN AN UNCERTAIN ENVIRONMENT

Microbiological contamination risk and water quantity in
Cochabamba city periurban water community systems.

A. Mercado, &A.Romero, [Bolivia]

REFEREED PAPER

Periurban neighbourhoods in Cochabamba, are not covered with municipal water supply system. People
have built their community water supply systems. A diagnostic on 36 of this type of systems looking at
their infrastructure, water quality, and volume water supply provided is the topic of this paper.
Diagnostic of infrastructure was made based on reported inspection on main structures of the system.
41% of systems presented high pollution risk, 15% medium risk, 32% low risk, and 6% very low risk.
Water quality analysis at sources presented Iron above regulations in 33% of sources, and
microbiological contamination in 46%. At consumption points microbiological contamination reached
50%, this type of contamination increased from 28 to 43% when the source is groundwater.
Water supply per inhabitant per day in 10 of 36 systems showed that 90% is below the volume provided
by municipal water company, and below national water supply design standards.


Introduction

Only 47% of Cochabamba city population is covered by water supply from the municipal company
(SEMAPA, 2010), most of the non-covered population is placed in periurban areas. In the area where there
is no coverage by central system, there are independent water supply systems, which basically have two
schemes: they have their own source (mostly underground), and others only have the infrastructure but
depend on water trucks which frequently deliver water to their tanks, which deliver the water to the network.
Most of these water supply systems are maintained by the users, organized in committees which take
charge of distribution of water and fees collection, as well as some basic operation activities. In general
committee members do not have adequate training on technical issues related to the water distribution
system.
ASICASUR is a social organization that groups community water systems in order to improve their
management capacity among other objectives.
According to WHO (Rojas, 2006), water quality for human consumption can be controlled by monitoring
water sources, storage system, distribution management and household water handling; these tasks should be
done by water distribution system operators.
Previous studies (Lee and Schwab, 2005) reported that poorly maintained distribution systems can act as
vehicle of distribution of pathogens; similarly a study conducted in 16 periurban water distribution systems
in Cochabamba, Bolivia reported that microbiological contamination increased from sources to user points,
probably due to the lack of maintenance of the water distribution system (Mercado Guzman, 2012)
(Romero, 1992) (Romero A. C., 2008)The main objective of the present study is to evaluate infrastructure
and water quality of community water distribution systems related to ASICASUR in order to provide
suggestions to improve the water quality. It is expected that simple actions arise, which could be made by
the users of the water distribution systems.
It is also foreseen to study how much water people of community water systems receive, and compare it
with national design standards and values provide by the municipal water distribution company.


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Methodology


Table 1. Example of protocol used for infrastructure diagnostic
A. SOURCE : GROUNDWATER Answer
1. Is there a pipe of the well sealed? Yes No
2. Is the pipe of the well in good conditions (without cracks)? Yes No
3. Is the pipe of the well at least 50 cm above ground? Yes No
4. Is the well adequately protected? Yes No
5. Is the area surrounding the well free of puddles, garbage and grass? Yes No
6. Is there perimeter fencing? Yes No
7. Does perimeter fencing avoids the entry of animals? Yes No
8. Is there a protection Trench? Yes No
9. Is the protection trench cleaned? Yes No
10. Is the area 30 m around free of latrines? Yes No
Pollution risk. Number of No answers: 8 to 10 (Very high) 5 to 7 (High) 3 to 4 (Low) Less than 3, (Very
low) a 3 Muy Bajo
B. DRIVE LINE
1. Is the well flow rate regulation valve protected? Yes No
2. Are accessories and drive line free of leaks? Yes No
c. STORAGE TANKS
3. Is storage tank free of crack son walls and roof? Yes No
4. Is the inspection cover well sealed? Yes No
5. Is the inspection cover without cracks and damage? Yes No
6. Is the inspection cover locked? Yes No
7. Is the interior of the tank free of sediments and algae? Yes No
8. Is vent pipe free of clogging, and with a mesh for avoiding the entry of birds and other elements? Yes No
9. Is over flow pipe free of clogging, and with a mesh for avoiding the entry of birds and other elements? Yes No
10. Is cleaning pipe in good conditions and free of clogging? Yes No
11. Are valve chamber and cleaning pipe chamber clean and locked? Yes No
12. Are valves of cleaning pipe and distribution pipe free of leaks? Yes No
13. Is surrounding area clean, free of puddles and garbage? Yes No
14. Is there perimeter fencing? Yes No
15. Is perimeter fencing in good condition and avoiding the entry of domestic animals? Yes No
16. Is there a protection trench? Yes No
17. Is the protection trench free of garbage? Yes No
D. DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
18. Is network buried in all its length? Yes No
19. Is network free of visible leaks in pipes? Yes No
20.Are distribution valves in good conditions? Yes No
21. Are stand posts with support bases, in good conditions and with no puddles surrounding? Yes No
E. HOME CONNECTIONS AND TAPS (Check only 20% of home connection in every inspection)
22. Are cutting valves in good conditions? Yes No
23. Are water meters working in good conditions? Yes No
24. Are home connections and taps in good conditions, with no leaks and puddles around? Yes No
25. Is the tape free of hoses connecting to open containers or puddles? Yes No
F. OTHER
26. Is the water supply continuous? Yes No
27. Is there enough pressure in the last points of the network? Yes No
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28. Is there a chlorination system in the water supply system? Yes No
Pollution risk. Number of No answers: 18 to 28 (Very high) 10 to 17 (High) 5 to 9 (Low) Less than 4, (Very low)

Water quality diagnostic was made with samples both in sources and consumption points. At sources a
physicochemical and bacteriological analysis was made, while only bacteriological at consumption points. It
was presumed that deterioration in bacteriological quality from source to consumption could be caused by a
lack of maintenance of the infrastructure.
Diagnostic of infrastructure consisted in reported survey of a visit to the components of the water
distribution system; the visit was made in company of the operator of the system. Main parts considered
were: source, storage tanks, water distribution network, and home connections. An example of the protocol
used is presented in Table 1.
Degree of pollution risk is based on the number of No answers of the protocol, this pollution risk can be
labeled as very high, high, medium low and very low.
Several systems were visited between 2009 and 2011. In 2009 water distribution systems were visited
once, in 2010 and 2011 systems were visited two times. In 2012 some water distribution systems were
visited in order to know how much water each person received; these calculations were based on flow rate of
the source, and information on consumption of average family in the water system.

Results
A summary of microbiological pollution risk of studied water distribution systems is presented in Table 2

Table 2. Microbiological pollution Risk of studied water distribution systems and their sources.
N Systems 2009 Risk. N Systems 2010 Risk N Systems 2011 Risk
1
Asociacin Mulamayu-
Groundwater Low 17
Virgen del Rosario -
Groundwater High 29
Central Itocta Water
truck High
2
Comit de Agua PDA -
Groundwater Low 18
Seor de Burgos -
Groundwater High 30
San Andres water
truck Low
3
Asociacin Agua Cruz -
Groundwater High 19
El Palmar -
Groundwater Medium 31
APAAS -
Groundwater High
4
Asociacin de Agua San
Miguel Km 4 - Groundwater. Low 20
San Jose de la
Banda Alambrado -
Groundwater High 32 Bolivar - Groundwater Low
5
Comit de Agua Eucaliptos
Norte - Groundwater Low 21
RocasBlancas
water truck High 33
Calicanto Water
truck High
6
Seor de Exaltacin -
Groundwater Low 22
22 de abril Water
truck High 34
Villa IsrraelCisternas-
Water truck Low
7
Asociacin de agua potable y
riego Morro Itocta -
Groundwater Low 23
San Severino -
Groundwater High 35
Villa IsrraelVertiente
Water truck High
8
Asociacin 14 de Septiembre
- Groundwater Low 24
Buena vista -
Groundwater 36
Villa Venezuela -
Groundwater Low
9
Comit de servicios de agua
potable 1ro de mayo.. -
Groundwater
VeryLo
w 25
Mejillones-
Groundwater High
10
Comit de agua Nuevo
Amanecer - Groundwater Medio 26
26 de noviembre -
Groundwater Medium
11
Asociacin de agua Fortaleza
el Paraso - Groundwater
VeryLo
w 27
Tamborada A -
Groundwater High
12
Asociacin de agua potable
Nio Divino - Groundwater Medium 28
San Miguel Alta
TensinGroundwater High High Risk 41%
13
Asociacin de agua potable
San Haniel - Groundwater Medium Medium Risk 15%
14
Comit de agua Chaquimayu
- Spring High Low Risk 32%
15
Prestacin de servicios
bsicos Sivingani -
Groundwater Medium VeryLow Risk 6%
16
Comit de agua Aguas de
Manantial - Groundwater Low

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According to table 3, 56% of the water systems present a medium and high microbial pollution risk. This
means that infrastructure deficiencies may promote microbial contamination to water provided to users.
These deficiencies could be avoided with simple and not expensive measures of operation and maintenance.

Table 3. Percentage of samples above Bolivian water quality regulations.
Sampling points/N
samples Turbidity Conductivity Iron Manganese
Thermo tolerant
Coliforms
Total
Coliforms
Total Sources/48 19 17 33 27 46 44
Groundwater/ 32 19 25 41 41 28 22
Springs / 5 40 0 40 0 80 80
Watertrucks/ 11 9 0 18 0 91 91
Consumption/46 9 9 26 37 50 35
Groundwater/ 37 11 11 32 46 43 27
Springs / 1 0 0 0 0 100 100
Watertrucks/ 8 0 0 0 0 75 63


Figure 1. WEDC Turbidity on water
systems


Figure 2. WEDC Conductivity on water
systems



Figure 3. WEDC Iron on water systems Figure 4. WEDC Microbiological
contamination on water systems.


Table 3 indicates that iron and manganese are above regulation in 33% and 27 % of analysed samples
coming from sources and 46% of samples present microbiological contamination by thermo tolerant
coliforms. Iron and Manganese are naturally present mostly in groundwater sources, while microbiological
contamination comes mostly from springs and water trucks. At consumption points it is visible that
microbiological contamination increases in systems with ground water sources, while it keeps high
concentration in systems coming from surface and water truck sources.
Conductivity is above regulation in 17% of sources, which correspond to groundwater. Most of the
systems depending on groundwater which in some areas present high concentration of salts, giving a not
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pleasant taste to the water. In these cases people uses water mostly for other uses than drinking, usually
drinking water is provided by water trucks.
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 present results of water quality for turbidity, conductivity, Iron and Microbiological
contamination, for groundwater and other sources, besides consumption points. Bolivian regulations for the
parameter is presented in red line.
Increasing of microbiological contamination from source to consumption point, is related with activities of
operation and maintenance, since most of the water system boards have no knowledge about water quality,
therefore they pay little or no attention to these activities. See Figure 4.
Another factor influencing water quality at consumption points is that there is no treatment processes in
any of the visited systems.
There was no visible correlation between bacteriological contamination at consumption point with the
microbiological pollution risk obtained for each community water system. Neither there was relationship
between the other water quality parameters presented and the microbial pollution risk of water systems.
According to Bolivian regulations design water supply per inhabitant in communities up to 500
inhabitants in highland areas is between 30 and 50 l/h/d, for cities between 20000 and 100000 inhabitants in
the valley zone (such as Cochabamba city) the value is between 150 and 200 l/h/d. Table 4 presents values
as low as 20 l/h/d in some community water systems, mainly due to lack of water in sources, therefore
people living in many community water systems receive as much water as very small rural communities.

Table 4. Estimation of volume per inhabitant per day in community water systems compared
with the municipal system.
Water system name Type of source
Mean volume of water used in the
month per connection (m
3
)
Volume per
inhabitant per day
(l)
Central Itocta Water truck 4 27
San Andres Water truck 3 20
San Miguel km 4 Groundwater 4 27
PDA
Groundwater and water
trucks 5 33
Villa Isrrael Water trucks 3 20
Sivingani El rincon Groundwater 5 33
Nio Divino Groundwater 12 80
San Haniel Groundwater 5 33
Seor de Exaltacin Groundwater 20 133
14 de Septiembre Groundwater 14 93
SEMAPA** 130
** Municipal water company which provides water to the city of Cochabamba

CONCLUSIONS

Diagnostic of 36 water community systems in Cochabamba city, showed that 41% of them presented high
risk, 15% medium pollution risk, 32% low risk, and 6% very low risk. Water quality in the same systems at
sources presented Iron above regulations in 33% of sources, and microbiological contamination in 46%. At
consumption points microbiological contamination reached 50%, this type of contamination increased from
28 to 43% when the source is groundwater; since most of the systems do not have adequate maintenance it is
possible to be the cause of the increase of contamination from source to consumption.
Water supply per inhabitant per day in 10 water community systems showed that 90% is below the
volume provided by municipal water company, and below national water supply design standards, with 40%
between 20 and 30 l/h/d, and 80% between 20 and 80 l/h/d, meaning that people living in areas covered by
these water systems receive less water than people living in area covered by municipal water system.
Deficiencies found from Microbiological pollution Risk for each community water systems could be
repaired with simple activities that could be performed by water boards.
Developing a training program for these water boards could reduce pollution risks in water community
systems.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend thanks to the project Yaku al Sur - Fortalecimiento de la Gestin
Comunitaria del Agua en Cochabamba (Bolivia) AID CeVI/9137, Yaku al Sur - strengthening of water
management at community level in Cochabamba (Bolivia) AID CeVI / 9137, who financially supported
activities partially presented in this paper.

References
CEDIB. (2006). Datos de la zona Sur Cochabamba Data from South zone of Cochabamba.
Cochabamba: CEDIB.
Centro de Aguas y Saneamiento Ambiental. (2009). "Calidad de agua en sistemas de abastecimiento en
poblaciones rurales dispersas" - Water quality in scattered communities water supply systems.
Cochabamba.
Mercado Guzman, A. R. (2012). "Diagnostico de la calidad del agua e infreaestructura en 16 sistemas de
agua comunitarios de la zona sur de cochabamba" - Diagnostic of water quality and infrastructure in
16 community water systems of south zone of cochabamba city.XII Congreso Nacional de Ingenieria
Sanitaria y Ambiental. Cochabamba.
MINISTERIO DE SERVICIOS Y OBRAS PBLICAS . (2004). "Norma Boliviana NB 512. Agua
Potable, requisitos" - Bolivian standard NB 512. Drinking water, requirements. La Paz: IBNORCA.
Ministerio de Vivienda y Servicios Bsicos. (1999). "Programa de control y seguimiento de la calidad
del agua en servicios de agua para comunidades menores a 5000 habitantes" - Water quality program
for water supply systems in communities with less than 5000 inhabitants. La Paz.
Rojas, R. (Marzo de 2006). "PLANES DE SEGURIDAD DEL AGUA (PSA). Hojas de divulgacin
tcnica" - Water security programs. Organizacion Panamericana de la Salud . OPS.
Romero, A.M., Iiguez, M.T., Gonzales, G., Arnez, M (1992). Saneamiento Basico en zonas perifericas
de la ciudad de Cochabamba Sanitation in periurban areas of Cochabamba city. Centro de Estudios
de Poblacin. Serie Documentos N 16, Cochabamba Bolivia, 1992.
Romero, A. M., Coronado, O., Muoz G., Claros L. Reuso de aguas residuales y su impacto en suelos y
aguas freticos Reuse of wastewater and its impac on soil and water table. Congreso internacional
Gestin sostenible del agua: reutilizacin, tratamiento y gestin de la calidad. ISBN 978-958-44-3709-9
Pag.: 335-340. 2008. Colombia
SEMAPA. (2010). http://www.semapa.com.bo. Verified on november 8th 2012,
http://www.semapa.com.bo/institucional2.asp


Contact details

lvaro Rodolfo Mercado
Centro de Aguas y Saneamiento Ambiental, Facultad
de Ciencias y Tecnologia. UMSS. Calle Sucre Frente al
Parque La Torre. Cochabamba. Bolivia
Tel: 591-4-4250660
Fax:591-4-4229480
Email: alvaromercado.g@fcyt.umss.edu.bo
www: http://casa.fcyt.umss.edu.bo

Ana Mara Romero
Centro de Aguas y Saneamiento Ambiental,
Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnologia. UMSS. Calle
Sucre Frente al Parque La Torre. Cochabamba.
Bolivia
Tel: 591-4-4250660
Fax:591-4-4229480
Email: yakuviva1@yahoo.com
www: http://casa.fcyt.umss.edu.bo