Acknowedgment

Firstly, I would love to express my gratitude to the Lord who kept me right on His
path while wrapping up this final assignment of English Morphology. Also, it is my honour to
dediate this final assignment to my !eloved parents and sister.
It was literally a long "ourney !efore I ould eventually handle this very epi moment.
#hat "ourney might have !een outrageously grey without the presene of $r. %ohannes
Ananto &rayogo, M.&d, M.Ed whom enthused his students to arry off what should matter.
#hen I am deeply thankful for everything he told during the four'month leture. English
Morphology now looks more en"oya!le.
It should !e a good start for me to explore more a!out English Linguistis !eause I
am with no dou!t that the !iggest thing always emerges from a tiny thing whih we !rush
aside. #hus I will always appreiate anyone whose ritis on this paper are surely frank and
hopefully they are a!le to retify it so as to have it revised sometime.
#hank you.
#he author
1
Motto
YOUR
WORD
IS
YOUR
BOND
2
Sea of Approva
#his is to ertify that the English Morphology assignment of Helmi $ana (.A. has !een
approved !y the leturer of English Morphology.
Malang, May ), *+,-
$r. %ohannes Ananto &rayogo, M.&d, M.Ed.,
.I& ,/01,+*1 ,/1)+, , ++,
3
Tabe of Contents
Acknowedgement....................................................................................1
Motto........................................................................................................2
Sea of Approva.......................................................................................3
Tabe of Contents......................................................................................4
Summary of the Lectures.........................................................................5
Compaton of To-be-presented Papers..................................................10
4
Summary of the Lectures
English Linguistis em!raes
,. &honology 2 #he study of phonologial relationships within
English
*. 3emantis 2 #he !ranh of linguistis onerned with
meaning
4. 3yntax 2 #he study of the priniples and proesses !y
whih sentenes are onstruted in English
-. 3oiolinguistis 2 #he desriptive study of the effet of any and all
aspets of soiety, inluding ultural norms,
expetations, and ontext, on the way English is
used and the effets of its use on soiety.
0. &ragmatis 2 It studies the ways in whih ontext ontri!utes
to meaning
). &hilology 2 #he !ranh of English linguistis whih deals
with the struture, historial development, and
relationships of English
5. $iahroni Linguistis 2 6onerned with the way in whih English has
developed and evolved
1. 3ynhroni Linguistis 2 6onerned with English as it exists at one point
in time
/. and so on7
#o !egin with, there are nowadays at least 4*0,+++ English words whih are possi!le
to !e added sometime.
#here are five sorts of language genre2
,. Fro8en
*. Formal 2 In ertain ases, it is used when one is in a seminar
4. 6onsultative 2 It an !e used when one is asking for other9s signature
-. 6asual 2 It is used in a daily onversation, suh as talking to a
friend
0. Intimate 2 6ontaining sweet words
5
#he orpus of English knowledge
,. Language 3kills2
:riting
;eading
3peaking
Listening
*. Language 6omponents
<rammar
=oa!ulary
3pelling
&ronuniation
For a !asis, M>;&HEME is the smallest, yet meaningful unit of a language that
annot !e further divided.
:ords, however, an !e grouped into some ategories, alled either :>;$
6LA33E3 or part of speeh, as following2
,. =er!s
*. .ouns
4. Ad"etives
-. Adver!s
#here are two types of morpheme2
,. Free morphemes are morphemes whih an our !y themselves as whole words,
suh as good, eat, and drink.
*. (ound morphemes are those whih must !e attahed to another, suh as 'ed, -ly,
anti-.
(ound morphemes are of two main types2
,. $erivational morpheme 2 morpheme whih reates an entirely new word.
It annot stand alone and thus, hanges the part
of speeh, suh as the words loud and loud?y@.
(oth have different meanings.
*. Infletional morpheme 2 morpheme whih provides further information
6
a!out an existing lexial item. It stands alone
and does not hange the part of speeh.
Infletional morphemes are2
's 2 to form pluralA for third person
's 2 for genitive
'ing 2 for progressive tense
'ed 2 for past tense
'en 2 for past partiiple
'er 2 for the use of omparative degree
'est 2 for the use of superlative degree
Most of the affixes are inluded in derivational morphemes. Affixation an !e su!'
ategorised as follows2
,. &refix 2 &laed at the !eginning of a word
*. Infix 2 &ut in the middle of a word
4. 3uffix 2 &laed in the !ak of a word
-. 6onfix 2 &laed !oth at the !eginning and the !ak of a word
0. 3uprafix 2 >ne word, !ut inluded in different word lasses
!eause of different tone, intonation or stress
#here are some ad"etives ending in Bly and they are not a!solutely adver!s, suh as2
,. Friendly
*. Lovely
4. Lovely
-. Lonely
0. 6ostly
). :eekly
5. Heavenly
1. <hostly
/. Miserly
,+. Cntimely
,,. and so on7
7
A ompound is a word formed !y the om!ination of two independent words.
6ompounding is om!ining more than one free morphemes to form a new word.
#here is a slight differene !etween ompound and phrase. 6ompounds whih have
words only have primary stress on its first word while words in phrase have their
independent stress, suh as2
!lDk!ird !lDk !ird
a kind of a !ird any !irds whose olour is !lak
;edupliation is repetition of part of a !ase to reate a new meaning. In English,
redupliation ours less freEuently. #here are is a small num!er of redupliative
words, suh as2
,. :illy'nilly
*. Humpty'dumpty
4. &ing'&ong
-. 3ee'saw
0. 6hit'hat
). ;a88le'da88le
5. Lovey'dovey
1. :alkie'talkie
/. #eeny'weenie
,+. and so on7
Meanwhile, oinage is the invention of a new word or phrase
Allomorph is mem!er of variants of the same morpheme, for instane2
ox oxen
child children
Fero morpheme or also alled null morpheme is an Ginvisi!le9 affix. It an !e seen as
follows2
sheep H sheep I JKJ H ;>># ?LsheepM@ I &LC;AL to show that this is in plural form
Internal formation of a word an !e seen as follows2
8
Activities 2 four morphemes
,. At
*. Ative
4. Ativity In order
-. Ativities
(lend is a word that is made up of parts of two other words and om!ining their
meanings, for example motel from motor and hotel, brunch from breakfast and lunch,
et.
6lipped words are words shortened !y ommon use. Most of them are a shortened
a!!reviation of a word whih makes them easier to spell, for instane2
,. 6a! 2 6a!riolet
*. (ike 2 (iyle
4. Fan 2 Fanati
-. =et 2 =eteran
0. (us 2 >mni!us
). Ad 2 Advertisement
5. 3pes 2 3petales
9
Compaton of To-be-presented Papers
REDUPLICATION IN ENGLISH
(y 2 &han Lien Nen &hi, Ho 6hi Minh 6ity Cniversity of Eduation
&resenters 2 Andrei 6.A
$iky 3ena A.:
Definition
In morphology, redupliation is the repetition of a sylla!le, a morpheme or a word.
Three Kinds of Reduplication in English
;edupliative ompounds proper ?also alled exat redupliation@
ontains usual free forms, onomatopoei stems and pseudo'morphemes.
Usual free forms suh as pretty-pretty ?affetedly pretty@, goody-goody ?sentimentally
and affetedly good@, never-never ?an ellipsis of a phrase never-never system whih
means La hire'purhase system in whih the onsumer may never !e a!le to !eome
the owner of the thing purhasedM@
Onomatopoeic repetition exists !ut it is not very extensive, for example2 hush-
hush?seret@, murmur ?to speak or say very Euietly@, pooh-pooh ?to express ontempt@.
Pseudo-morphemes whih do not our elsewhere, like in blah-blah ?nonsense, idle
talk@. &eople often say blah, blah, blah when they do not want to repeat what
some!ody has said or written. 3ome nursery words, suh as2 quack-quack ?duk@,
Pops-Pops ?father@, bye-bye, choo-choo ?a train@, night-night, no-no, pee-pee, poo-
poo also !elong to this type.
A!laut om!inations
twin forms onsisting of one !asi morpheme ?usually the seond@, sometimes a
pseudo'morpheme whih is repeated in the other onstituent with a different vowel. In
a!laut redupliations, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel and the
redupliated a!laut variant of the vowel is a low one ?:ikipedia@. #here are two
typial hanges2 J J B JOJ, suh as chit-chat ?gossip@, dilly-dally ?loiter@, knick-knack
?small artiles of ornament@, riff-raff ?the mo!@, shilly-shally ?hesitate@, zigzag ?a line
or pattern that looks like a series of letters :9s@, pitter-patter ?a Euik light knoking
sound@7, and J J B J J, suh as ding-dong ?said of the sound of the !ell@, ping-pong
?ta!le'tennis@, singsong ?monotonous voie@, tiptop ?first'rate@, criss-cross ?to move or
exist in a pattern of lines rossing something or eah other@
;hyme om!inations
;hyme om!inations2 are twin forms onsisting of two elements ?most often two
pseudo'morphemes@ whih are "oined to rhyme. 3ome typial examples for this
su!group are2 razzle-dazzle ?notiea!le ativity or very olorful appearane intended
to attrat attention@, lovey-dovey ?darling@, harum-scarum ?disorgani8ed@, helter-
skelter ?in disordered haste@, hoity-toity ?sno!!ish@, hurry-scurry ?great hurry@, hurdy-
gurdy ?a small organ@, namby-pamby ?weakly sentimental@, illy-nilly ?ompulsorily@.
10
Group Full
reduplication:
the exact
repetton of a
sound or word
Partial reduplication: redupcaton of
ony a part of a word
Subgro
up
Vowel
alternation
Onset
alternation:
h-C / C-w
1
Rhyming
words:
rhyme -
dmnutve
sumx
2
Exampl
es
- murmur
- quack quack
- eavng-eavng
3
- cht chat
- crss
cross
- see saw
- handy
dandy
- hury bury
- bow wow
- teeny
weeny
- booge
wooge
- ovey dovey
ENGLISH BACK-FORMATION IN THE 20th AND THE EARLY 21
st
CENTURIES
by Nadda Stakov (Pzen)
(ak'formation ?also alled !ak'derivation, retrograde derivation or deaffixation,
hereafter referred to as (F@ is desri!ed in numerous soures as, e.g. Pthe oining
of a new word !y taking an existing word and forming from it a morphologially
more elementary word. It is usually a matter of deleting an affixP ?Huddleston, &ullum,
*++4, ,)45@. #he soure words are often words !orrowed from another language, mainly
from Frenh or Latin.
1. English BF in the literature
- MarhandQs ?,/)+, ,/)/@ !he "ategories and !ypes of Present-#ay $nglish
%ord-&ormation, !ased on a detailed analysis of the lexis in the first edition of the
>E$ ?>xford English $itionary@, sees the proess as one of diahroni relevane
only and emphasi8es the importane of semanti relation !etween the soure and the
resulting item.
- &ennanen in his work "ontributions to the study of back-formation in $nglish,,/)),
sees the phenomenon from either the diahroni and synhroni points of view.
&ennanen defines P(ak'formation or retrograde derivation is a kind of inverted or
reverse derivation. .ormally, derivation means the formation of new words from
1
2
3
11
existing ones !y means of affixes ?prefixes, infixes, or suffixes@.(ak'formation
works in the opposite diretion, i.e. from what is, or looks like,or is taken for a
derived form, !akwards to the QrootQ, whih does not really existP ?,/)), /@.
- &ennanen9s researh define six ategories aording to the part of speeh of the soure
word and the resulting word.
#ype I. A ver! is !ak'formed from an agent noun ?nomen agentis@ or an instrument
noun.
#ype II. A ver! is !ak'formed from an ation noun ?nomen ationis@, usually
denoting the a!strat for the ver!.
#ype III. A ver! is !ak'formed from an ad"etival word whih is taken to !e
a derivative from the ver!, e.g. present or past partiiple.
#ype I=. A noun is !ak'formed from an ad"etive
#ype =. An ad"etive is !ak'formed from an a!strat su!stantive, adver!
or another ad"etive, whose !asi word it is taken to !e.
#ype =I. A PprimaryP su!stantive is !ak'formed from what is taken to !e its
derivative
2. BF in the !
th
and earl" 1
st
centur"
In this era, freEuently there are two kind of relations !etween soure and result words
shown
a. Antonymy !. Hyponymy
flappable Runflappable patriate ' repatriate, pheresis' plasmapheresis
Furthermore, !ased on the present study onduted !y the author, she extend six
types into nine types
a. &refix !ak'formations . Ad"etive from agent noun
opsin ' rhodopsin paratrooper ( paratroop
sorption ' absorption ) adsorption do-gooder ( do-good
!. Infletional (Fs
gigaflop'gigaflops
bicep ' biceps
#. Results and ma$or findings
Here the rank of the most produtive proess of !ak formation
T"pe %% , examples2 enculturate R enculturation, gentrify R gentrification. #here are several
exeptions, e.g. bibliography, concordance or one-handness ?those words are still noun@
T"pe %, examples2
comede R comedian, deal R dealer
T"pe %%%, examples2 anonymize R anonymized, silicone R siliconed
T"pe %&, examples2 flash R flashy
(esides those types a!ove, there is also another formation of whih undergoes an inrease,
that is (F of ompounds, e.g 2 ord-process R ordprocessing car*ack R car-*acking
drop-ship R drop-shipment
6omment2
12
In our perspetive, (ak Formation ?(F@ proess is sort of uniEue proess in extrating new
word with same meaning relationship, even though the part of speeh hanges. Cnlike
affixation, whih inserts additional morpheme, (F omit that affixation to reate new word.
#hrough this "ournal, we an omprehend more a!out (FSits ontri!ution as soure of new
words in English, its funtion and numerous voa!ulary items whih apparently are !ak
formed.
Redupcatons
In redupliation, the !ase is a word ?or part of the word@ that is often opied. #he
redupliated element is alled the redupliant, and most often repeated only one as in you
are a sik'sik man or you9re really really sik.
Full Reduplication
Full redupliation involves the exat repetition of a sound or word. In English, full
redupliation is used to provide emphasis.
e.g2 Are you LEA=I.<'leaving nowT
i.e. are you Greally9 leaving ?for good@ or merely stepping out for a minuteT
Partial Reduplication
&artial redupliation involves redupliation of only a part of a word ?e.g. hit'hat,
flip' flop@. &artial redupliation involves onsonant a!laut or vowel alternation ?e.g. J i'OJ as
in rip rap and Ji'oJ as in ping pong@. #here are three types of partial redupliations namely
vowel alternations, onset alternations and rhyming words.
Vowel Alternation
=owel alternations is a kind of redupliation whih has a su!stitution on its vowel in
the fisrt sylla!le.
a. hit'hat
!. riss'ross
. see'saw
Onset alternations it is a redupliation that our when the the first onsonant of redupliant
is su!stituted.
a. handy'dandy
!. hurly'!urly
. !ow'wow
d. teeny'weeney
As for rh"mes 'ith diminuti(e suffi)es, the English words tend to lak independent
meanings !ut take on a new meaning when om!ined ?e.g. wishy'washy, hoity'toity@. #hese
words are often found in nursery rhymes and hildren9s story !ooks.
a. !oogie'woogie
13
!. lovey'dovey
Casscaton Of Morphemes
Free And Bound Morphemes
A morpheme s free f t s abe to appear as a word by tsef. It s bound f
t can ony appear as part of a arger, mut-morphemc word. Every
morpheme s ether free or bound.
Free morphemes are aso referred as roots.
Bound morphemes are aso referred to as amxes, among whch there are
prexes, nxes, and sumxes.
(2) a. prefxes: un-happy, re-wrte, pre-vew
b. sufxes: wrt-ng, quck-y, neghbor-hood
c. infxes: (very rare n Engsh) speech-o- meter
Bound morphemes may be derivational or infectional
Derivational Morphemes
Derivational morphemes create new words. They derive new words
from other words. e.g., unhappy un + happy;
Happness happy + ness;
prevew pre + vew.
Further propertes
change part of speech or the meanng of a word
a. part of speech: us-able (V A),
trouble-some (N A),
judg-ment (VN)
b. meanng: dis-!om"ort, e#-boy"riend
c. both: use-less (VA)
are not requred by syntax
are not very productve: dis-like, *dis-hate
usuay occur before nectona su_xes: work-er-s
can be ether sumxes or prexes (in english)
Infectional Morphemes
Infectional morphemes, on the other hand, do not change meanngs or
parts of speech, but nstead smpy make mnor grammatca changes
necessary for agreement wth other words.
e.g., cats $ cat + s; cooer + coo + er.
There are ony eight nectona morphemes: -s, -ed, -ng, - en, -s,
-'s, -er, -est
They do not change meanng or part of speech:
!at - !ats - !at%s nouns
They are requred by the syntax
They are very productve
They occur after dervatona morphemes, usuay at the very end of
the word (in english)
14
They can ony be sumxes (in english)
pura Noun -s boys
possessive Noun -s boys
comparatve Ad| -er older
superlative Ad| -est oldest
present Verb -s waks
past Verb -ed waked
past participle Verb -en driven
present participle Verb -ng driving
ontent and !unction Morphemes
Morphemes (bound or free) can be ether content or function
morphemes.
ontent morphemes carry some semantc content
as opposed to performng a grammatca functon. For exampe !ar&
-able& -un.
!unction morphemes act soey to provde
grammatca nformaton and syntactc agreement. and& 'lural (s
)his arti!le e#'lains about mor'heme* +t e#'lains the material in a
sim'le way and easy to be understood by the reader* )his arti!le
gives more in"ormation about the !on!e't o" mor'heme and the
!lassi,!ation o" mor'heme* -ordula .e -uthy not only e#'lained
about the !on!e't but also give the e#am'le "rom "amiliar words*
)he weakness is this arti!le is not well organi/ed in terms o"
stru!ture* +t would be easier i" it is served using !hart or diagram*
The Borrowed Words n |akarta Post Newspaper: A Case of Engsh Varetes
"bstract#
When usng Engsh to descrbe oca-based concepts, events, phenomena,
oca cutura practces and tradton, and oca ora and fauna, t s
common practce to adopt oca anguages. The adopted oca anguages
w enrch the varetes of Engsh, for exampe, Maaysan Engsh has
aksa to descrbe a spcy coconut noode soup dsh and |apanese Engsh
has kmono to descrbe tradtona |apanese cothes. It goes wthout sayng
that |akarta Post, one of the Engsh newspapers n Indonesa, uses
15
borrowed words n nformng news speccay reated to Indonesan
context and cuture. Ths paper, therefore, dscusses the borrowed words
used n the aforementoned newspaper from three dherent perspectves:
(1) transaton strategy; (2) borrowng process; and (3) cross ngustc
excazaton. It s expected that the persstent use of Indonesan words n
Engsh texts w produce Indonesan Engsh varetes.
Key words
: borrowed words, |akarta Post, transaton strategy, borrowng process,
cross ngustc excazaton, cutura practces and tradton, Indonesan
Engsh
$% Bac&ground
Nowadays, Engsh s a goba context. Labeed as the nternatona
anguage, Engsh has spread to dherent parts of the word and ts
speakers can be found amost everywhere ncudng n Indonesa. In
genera Indonesan context, Engsh s spoken as a foregn anguage.
However, for certan areas n the bg ctes n |ava, Engsh has been ke a
second anguage. Engsh s spoken by educated urban mdde cass
excessvey mosty to enhance prestge, and peope are exposed to
advertsements contanng some or fu Engsh words (Sneddon, 2003).
Indonesan meda have overexposed ther readers wth many Engsh
words; as a resut, a great number of Indonesan words are derved from
Engsh. A comparatve study of the meda has dented a massve
borrowng n 30 years (from 1966to 1996); more than 600 ad|ectves and
more than 500 verbs are derved from Engsh n the 1996specmen,
compared to ony 126 ad|ectves and 39 verbs n the 1966 sampes
(Sneddon, 2003).
The Center for Language Deveopment (Badan Pengembangan dan
Pemberdayaan Bahasa) has ntroduced and promoted the Indonesan
equvaents to avod excessve borrowngs; however, peope st seem to
be more comfortabe usng the borrowed words. We can st hear many
students prefer to say "webste" nstead of aman mengunduh, and
"upoad" nstead of mengunggah (Suwarno, 2011). In ths paper, we
examne f smar phenomena aso take pace whenever Engsh meda
reported cutura specc news. The paper ams at ndng and anayzng
Indonesan words used by Engsh meda n Indonesa. In the ong run,
persstent use of Indonesan words coud produce Indonesan Engsh
varetes. As for now, there are some Indonesan borrowed words, whch
have been frequenty and convenenty used n Engsh: orangutan,
bamboo, agar, amok,rattan, proa (type of boat), and paddy.
'% Indonesian Borro(ed )ords in Media
In |akarta Post, one of the Engsh newspapers n Indonesa, borrowed
words speccay reated to Indonesan context and cuture are commony
16
used to nform news. There are many possbtes n the process of wrtng
artces n the paper reated to the use of Indonesan borrowed words. If
the wrter of the artce rees on ready-made news wrtten n Indonesan,
there s a great possbty that the Indonesan borrowed words occur
because of foregnzaton approach adopted by the wrter when transatng
the Indonesan text nto the Engsh text. The wrter does ths because the
words are so ocay specc that ther equvaent n Engsh cannot be
found, and forcng to use Engsh words reectng smar contexts or
phenomena w msead the readers. There s aso a possbty that the
wrter, beng an Indonesan mutngua person, drecty wrtes the artce
n Engsh, and when comng across the words featurng Indonesan
events, contexts or phenomena he or she smpy uses Indonesan words
unconscousy n spte of usng Engsh words havng semantc equvaents
because of ther habt of dong code swtchng n communcatng.
Regardess the wrtng process adopted n producng the artce, ths paper
w focus on the sampe of Indonesan borrowed words and dscuss them
whether they are nevtabe or whether they can be expressed n Engsh
wthout dstortng ther ntended meanng. The former case mpes that
the Indonesan borrowed words have a possbty to enrch the varetes of
Engsh vocabuary smar to the case of the word aksa from Maay and
the word kmono from |apanese. The atter case, however, mpes that the
wrter s suggested to use Engsh wthout mxng t wth other anguages f
t s not necessary because they are supposed to communcate n Engsh.
Ths paper w dscuss the borrowed words found n |akarta Post day
newspaper from three perspectves: (1) transaton strategy;
(2) borrowng; and (3) cross ngustc excazaton.
*% "nal+,ing the Indonesian Borro(ed )ords from -ranslation Strateg+
.erspective
There are two strateges n transatng text, domestcaton and
foregnzaton (Venut, 1995). In the case when the target anguage (TL) s
Engsh and the source anguage (SL) s Indonesan, the former refers to
brngng the SL text to be competey expressed n the TL, whe the atter
refers to keepng some parts of the text expressed n the SL. In
domestcaton, the transator eaves the reader n peace whe n
foregnzaton, the transator s sendng the reader abroad, to face the SL
envronment and cuture (Venut, 1995). If the wrter of an artce n
|akarta Post uses an Indonesan artce as the source they mght mantan
some of the Indonesan words and thus they can be sad to use a
foregnzaton strategy. However, t nterestng to nd out whether or not
the decson taken s approprate. It s necessary therefore to dscuss ths
phenomenon n the dscusson part of ths paper.
/% "nal+,ing the Indonesian Borro(ed )ords from Borro(ing .erspective
17
Borrowng s the adopton of words by the users of one anguage from
dherent anguages and ths process has been practced by Engsh users
n the hstory of the deveopment of Engsh vocabuary. Engsh speakers
have borrowed a great dea of words from amost a anguages n the
word (Curzan & Adams, 2009). Ths case s natura because Engsh has
been spoken n many dherent regons, whch Kachru (1985, n Krkpatrck,
2007) cas three crces: (1) the nner crce (the tradtona cutura and
ngustc bases of Engsh); (2) the outer crce (the nsttutonazed non-
natve varetes (ESL) n the regons that have passed through extended
perods of coonzaton); and (3) the expandng crce (the regons where
the performance varetes of the anguage essentay n the EFL context).
In the past, the deveopment of borrowed words n the outer crces were
more productve than that n the expandng crce, but due to the
ncreasng strength of the roe of Engsh n many of the expandng crces,
the growth of borrowed words n the regons cassed as the expandng
crce s faster than that n the outer crce. The Indonesan borrowed
words found n |akarta post are the exampes of such phenomena.
Accordng to Gros|ean (1982), borrowng can be cassed nto three:
oanwords, oan bend sand oan shfts. Loanword s the type of borrowng
n whch a parts are used and adapted morphoogcay and
phonoogcay to the base anguage (pzza, spaghett). The second one,
oan bend a s borrowng n whch one part s borrowed from another
anguage whe the other part s the base anguage ("gumbaum" s a
bend from Engsh "gum" and Greek "baum" meanng "gum tree"), whe
oan shft s borrowng by takng a word n the base anguage and
extendng ts meanng to produce a new meanng (the Portuguese
"humoruse" whch prevousy meant "caprcous" s shfted
nto"humorous"). Borrowng occurs when an approprate equvaent
cannot be found. Thus, n the case of borrowng n |akarta Post, ths study
w anayze whether the equvaents of those borrowed words cannot be
found n Engsh.
0% "nal+,ing the Indonesian Borro(ed )ords from ross 1inguistic
1exicali,ation .erspective
Kadarsman (2010) undernes that anguage s a cuture entty, and ths
dea refers to the thought that peope use anguage arbtrary to
communcate wth others of the same cuture n day actvtes (Sapr and
Whorf, 1921, n Kadarsman, 2010). The word "cuture" used here
ndcates that anguage s not smpy name gvng, but as de Saussure
(1916, n Kadarsman, 2010) asserts that every word s an arbtrary sgn
consstng of sgner (form) and sgned (meanng). Investgatng
the borrowed words n |akarta Post can be referred to cross ngustcs
excazaton because the form of the words and ther meanng exst
smutaneousy. In ths context, there are three knds of crossngustc
excazaton (Kadarsman, 2010). The rst s equa excazaton ( bum
=earth,angt =sky),the second s nequa excazaton (pad, gabah
beras, nas= rce), and the thrd s ncompatbe equvaent n whch the
18
sgn n one anguage has no equvaent n another anguage (memed,
thuyu =the borrowed words from Indonesan). Therefore, t s nterestng
to nd out the resut on how the borrowed words from |akarta Post can be
categorzed n terms of cross ngustc excazaton.
2% Method
In the study the wrters nvestgate the exstence of the Indonesan
borrowed words found n |akarta Post, and by referrng to the context, the
dscusson ams at ndng out whether the use of such words are
nevtabe or are better expressed n Engsh. The dscusson s conducted
wth reference to the features to cassfy words and the three dherent
perspectves: transaton strateges, borrowng and cross ngustc
excazaton.
3% Data
The data are randomy taken from the Indonesan borrowed words found
n the |akarta Post ssued n |anuary 2012. There are 21 Indonesan
borrowed words used n the anayss, as shown n Tabe 1
Tabe 1
Indonesan Borrowed Words
1. Saak 8. PERPANI 15. Dangdut
2. Sengon 9. Haa 16. Duran
3. Tebang butuh 10. Adek 17. Rambutan
4. Dhukum 11. Untung 18. Gamean
5. Kue ran|ang 12. Seamatan 19. Wayang
6. Kue mangkok 13. Insyaaoh 20. Pesantren
7. Apndo 14. Shara 21. Raskn
4% Data "nal+sis and Discussion4%$% -he "nal+sis of the Indonesian
Borro(ed )ords Based on !eatures
Referrng to the features, the 21 Indonesan borrowed words can be
cassed nto certan features: oca-based concepts, events, phenomena,
oca cutura practces and tradton and oca ora and fauna. Tabe 2
The Casscaton of the Indonesan Borrowed Words n terms of Features:
Loca based
concept
Events,
phenomena
Loca cutura
practces and
tradton
Loca ora and
fauna
19
Kue keran|ang,
Kue mangkok,
Apndo,
PERPANI, Adek,
Raskn
Tebangbutuh Gamean,
Wayang,
Pesantren,
Shara,
Seamatan, Insya
Aah
Saak, Sengon,
Rambutan,
Duran
The words cassed under the headng of oca based concepts n Tabe 2
are those reectng specc Indonesan concepts. The words cassed
under the headng of oca events are those reectng events happenng n
Indonesa. The words cassed under the headng of oca
cutura practces and tradton are those reectng the cutura practces
n Indonesan of whch f ther Engsh equvaents are used, the reader w
be msed ( seamatan s dherent from "party" or pesantren cannot be
smpy transated nto "Isamc boardng house"). Loca ora and fauna are
those whch can ony be found n Indonesa, not n Engsh speakng
countres. Among the 21words found, some of them are consdered
nevtabe, whe others are better expressed n Engsh.
8.2. The Resut of Data Anayss Based on Transaton Strategy Perspectve
Tabe 3
The resut of Borrowed Words n Terms of Transaton Strategy Perspectve
no The words Foregnzaton Domestcaton
1 Saak V -
2 Sengon V -
3 Tebangtubuh V -
4 Dhukum V -
5 Kue keran|ang V -
6 Kue mangkok V -
7 APINDO V -
8 PERPANI V -
9 Haa V -
10 Adek V -
11 Untung V -
12 Seamatan V -
13 Insyaaoh V -
14 Shara V -
15 dangdut V -
20
16 Duran V -
17 Rambutan V -
18 Gamean V -
19 Wayang V -
20 Pesantren V -
21 Raskn V -
tota 21
The resuts of the data anayss show that a the Indonesan borrowed
words are foregnzaton.Ths conrms that the wrter who mght pay a
roe as a transator brng the readers to the oca context by retanng the
SL. Ths s very necessary as n the foowng cases:
1. pesantren; f the wrter uses domestcaton strategy, he or she w
wrte " a regous nsttuton", whch s not approprate because of
the dherent regous context between Indonesan and Engsh, the
readers w have an mage of a semnary or a church when readng"
a regous nsttuton"
2. gamean; f the wrter transates t nto "musca
nstrument/orchestra", the readers w have an mage of trumpet,
von, pano, etc.
3. seamatan; f the wrter transates t nto "party", the readers w
have an mage of western party servng wne, beer, and other
acohoc drnks. That does not convey the regous aspect of the
word
4. dangdut ; f the wrter transates t nto "fok musc", the readers w
have an mage of western fok musc ke bues, |azz, etc.
5. haa ; f the wrter transates t nto "Kosher", the readers w have
an mage of food catered for |ewsh, nstead of that for Musms.
6. wayang; f the wrter transates t nto "shadow puppet", the readers
mght have an mage of Tha or Cambodan shadow puppet nstead
of Indonesan wayang.
However, that does not appy to Indonesan borrowed words such as
dhukum,
whch must not be retaned, and better be domestcated nto "s
/was punshed". Smary, the word untungnya must not be retaned
ether. Instead, the word "fortunatey" or "thank God" s better used.
Tabe 4
approprate Inapproprate
foregnzaton 19 words 2 words
21
8.3. The Resut of Data Anayss Based on Borrowng Process Perspectve
Usng the three types of borrowng process, the resut of the anayss s
presented n the foowng tabe.
Tabe 5
The Resuts of the Anayss of the Borrowed Words n Terms of Borrowng
Process Perspectve
no The borrowed
words
Loan word Loan bend Loan shft
1 Saak V - -
2 Sengon V - -
3 Tebangbutuh - - V
4 Dhukum - - -
5 Kue
keran|ang
V - -
6 Kue mangkuk V - -
7 Apndo V - -
8 PERPANI V - -
9 Haa V - -
10 Adek V - -
11 Untung - - -
12 Seamatan V - -
13 Insya aoh V - -
14 Shara V - -
15 Dangdut V - -
16 Duran V - -
17 Rambutan V - -
18 Gamean V - -
19 Wayang V - -
20 Pesantren V - -
21 Raskn - - V
The summary of the process s presented n the foowng tabe:
22
Tabe 6
Loan words Loan bends Loan shfts Non-oan words
17 words 0 2 words 2 words
The appcaton of the tree types of borrowng process ndcate that among
the 21 borrowed words, 17 of them can be categorzed as oanwords, two
of them are not borrowed words (dhukum and untung) because they must
be expressed n Engsh. Meanwhe there are two words tebangbutuh and
raskn that can be categorzed nto oan shft. Tebangbutuh receves a new
meanng: oggng because of an urgent need of money, as a resut of the
combnaton between tebang (oggng) and butuh (need). Meanwhe,
raskn, whch s teray a short of poor rce, has aso got a new meanng,
.e. rce for the poor.
8.4. The Resuts of Data Anayss Based on Cross Lngustc Lexcazaton Perspectve
Appyng the three categores of cross ngustc excazaton
perspectves, t s found out that among the 21 borrowed words, 19 of
them can be categorzed as ncompatbe cross ngustc excazaton,
whe two of them must be expressed n Engsh as shown n Tabe 7
beow:
Tabe 7
The Resuts of the Anayss of the Borrowed Words n terms of Cross-
ngustc Lexcazaton
no The borrowed
words
Equa
excazaton
Inequa
excazaton
Incompatbe
excazaton
1 Saak - - V
2 Sengon - - V
3 Tebangbutuh - - V
4 Dhukum - - -
5 Kue
keran|ang
- - V
6 Kue mangkuk V - V
7 Apndo - - V
8 PERPANI - - V
9 Haa - - V
10 Adek - - V
11 Untung - - -
12 Seamatan - - V
23
13 Insya aoh - - V
14 Shara - - V
15 Dangdut - - V
16 Duran - - V
17 Rambutan - - V
18 Gamean - - V
19 Wayang - - V
20 Pesantren - - V
21 Raskn - - V
The words cassed under the headng of ncompatbe excazaton (19
words) are theIndonesan words that do not have equvaent n Engsh.For
carty see the tabe beow:
Tabe 8
Equa excazaton Inequa excazaton Compatbe
excazaton
0 0 19 words
The ncompatbe excazaton found n the study happens because of
dherent reasons:
1. The words show natura oca products from Indonesa whch are
grown n Indonesa (
saak, sengon, duran, rambutan).
2. Kue keran|ang and kue mangkok are ocay Indonesan food product
of whch ther use reects ocay made products from Indonesa.
3. The words speccay reect oca phenomena ony found n
Indonesan context.
a.Tebangbutuh reects a speca term of the reason for cuttng trees
before the appropratetme requrement, .e. an urgent need for
money.
b. PERPANI and Apndo are the abbrevatons of assocatons n
Indonesa (see appendx). In the begnnng of the text, the words are
expaned n Engsh n brackets , "the IndonesanArchery
Assocaton" for PERPANI and "the Indonesan Empoyers
Assocaton" for Apndo.
24
However, t s more practca to use the Indonesan abbrevaton n
the dscusson that foows.
c. Haa, Insya Aah and pesantren are words reectng speccay
Isamc practces, whch need to be mantaned to gve an Isamc
feeng and nuance. Among the three words mentoned,haa has
been commony used n Engsh speakng countres, usuay n
the phrase
haa meat.
d. Dangdut reects specc musc n Indonesa whch s formery
popuar especay among the ow and mdde cass socety. The
word does not have equvaent n Engsh because t s a name or an
attrbute of a certan knd of musc n Indonesa, whch cannot be
changed.
e. Raskn s a specc term referrng to one of the programs of
Indonesan government to hep Indonesan poor socety. Mantanng
the Indonesan term raskn w hghght the ocaty of the
phenomenon.
5% Implication to 1anguage -eaching
Accordng to Sngeton (2000), wrtng renforces thnkng and magnng.
In the producton of creatve wrtng, for exampe a short story, a wrter
thnks and magnes a phenomenon before expressng t n wrtng.
Therefore, n a course tranng students to wrte creatvey (creatve
wrtng course), a teacher has to encourage students to gve cear
magnaton of what they want to express n ther wrtng. For exampe, f
the students wrte a short story of whch the settng s Indonesa and
ts phenomena s oca context, they must not hestate to use Indonesan
term f ts exact equvaent cannot be found n Engsh.
$6% onclusion
Indonesan borrowed words represent Indonesans exstence n the word.
Wrtng whch empoys many Indonesan borrowed words sgncanty
contrbutes to the roe of Indonesan n enrchng Engsh varetes. The 21
borrowed words dscussed and anayzed n the study are among them any
other borrowed Indonesan words used ether n |akarta Post, or other
meda. They are smpy meant to rase an awareness of the exstence of
such words, whch gve a chaenge for ngustc researchers to conduct
further nvestgaton.
Summary
25
Engsh s a goba anguage whch everyone or even every country
w use ths anguage. In Indonesa especay East |ava, Engsh s used as
a second anguage because they thnk that usng Engsh n day
conversaton and advertsement makes ther prestge ganed. As we know
that many words n Engsh are not orgnay comng from Engsh tsef,
yet they come from many anguages. The use of Engsh as a second
anguage n many countres whch are not natve appears many knds of
varetes word and one of whch s the adopted oca anguages. For
nstance, laksa from Maay means spcy coconut noode soup dsh and
kimono means the tradtona cothes from |apan. The words that have
been mentoned before have been dscussed based on three dherent
perspectves: (1) transaton strategy; (2) borrowng process; and (3) cross
ngustc excazaton. It s expected that the persstent use of Indonesan
words n Engsh texts w produce Indonesan Engsh varetes.
Indonesan meda have overexposed ther readers wth many Engsh
words; as a resut, a great number of Indonesan words are derved from
Engsh. A comparatve study of the meda has dented a massve
borrowng n 30 years (from 1966to 1996); more than 600 ad|ectves and
more than 500 verbs are derved from Engsh n the 1996specmen,
compared to ony 126 ad|ectves and 39 verbs n the 1966 sampes
(Sneddon, 2003). The Center for Language Deveopment (Badan
Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Bahasa) has ntroduced and promoted
the Indonesan equvaents to avod excessve borrowngs; however,
peope st seem to be more comfortabe usng the borrowed words. We
can st hear many students prefer to say "webste" nstead of aman
mengunduh, and "upoad" nstead of mengunggah (Suwarno, 2011). Ths
paper ams to nd the words that have been used n Engsh meda n
Indonesa, n other words there are certan Indonesan words that have
been used n Engsh such as orang utan, bamboo, 'addy, etc. One of the
meda that uses borrowng words s |akarta Post and one of the wrters n
|akarta Post uses the orgna words from Indonesa for there are no
approprate words to express those certan words. If the wrter forces to
transate nto Engsh, t w msead the readers.
The Data coected from |akarta Post
1. Saak
8. PERPANI 15. Dangdut
2. Sengon
9. Haa 16. Duran
3. Tebang butuh
10. Adek 17. Rambutan
4. Dhukum
11. Untung 18. Gamean
5. Kue ran|ang
12. Seamatan 19.Wayang
6. Kue mangkong
13. Insyaaoh 20. Pesantren
7. Apndo
14. Shara 21.Raskn
26
Anayzng the borrowng words n |akarta Post newspaper based on the
three perspectves:
' Transaton Strategy Perspectve
There are two strateges n transatng text, domestcaton and
foregnzaton (Venut, 1995). In domestcaton, the transator
eaves the reader n peace whe n foregnzaton, the transator s
sendng the reader abroad, to face the SL envronment and cuture
(Venut, 1995)
' Borrowng Words Perspectve
Borrowng s the adopton of words by the users of one anguage
from dherent anguages and ths process has been practced by
Engsh users n the hstory of the deveopment of Engsh
vocabuary. Accordng to Gros|ean (1982), borrowng can be
cassed nto three: oanwords, oan bend sand oan shfts.
Loanword s the type of borrowng n whch a parts are used and
adapted morphoogcay and phonoogcay to the base anguage
(pzza, spaghett). The second one, oan bend a s borrowng n
whch one part s borrowed from another anguage whe the other
part s the base anguage ("gumbaum" s a bend from Engsh
"gum" and Greek "baum" meanng "gum tree"), whe oan shft s
borrowng by takng a word n the base anguage and extendng ts
meanng to produce a new meanng (the Portuguese "humoruse"
whch prevousy meant "caprcous" s shfted nto"humorous").
' Cross Lngustc Lexcazaton Perspectve
Investgatng the borrowed words n |akarta Post can be referred to
cross ngustcs excazaton because the form of the words and
ther meanng exst smutaneousy. In ths context, there are three
knds of crossngustc excazaton (Kadarsman, 2010). The rst s
equa excazaton ( bum =earth,angt =sky),the second s nequa
excazaton (pad, gabah beras, nas= rce), and the thrd s
ncompatbe equvaent n whch the sgn n one anguage has no
equvaent n another anguage (memed, thuyu =the borrowed
words from Indonesan).
Concuson
Indonesan borrowed words represent Indonesans exstence n the
word. Wrtng whch empoys many Indonesan borrowed words
sgncanty contrbutes to the roe of Indonesan n enrchng
Engsh varetes. The 21 borrowed words dscussed and anayzed n
the study are among them any other borrowed Indonesan words
used ether n |akarta Post, or other meda. They are smpy meant
to rase an awareness of the exstence of such words, whch gve a
chaenge for ngustc researchers to conduct further nvestgaton.
Comment
We thnk that the dscusson of ths artce s systematcay because
the wrters serve the expanaton ceary based on the theory. So, we
know how the words change based on the man perspectve tsef.
27
Redupcaton n |avanese
' De(i O*ta+rianti ,.-
' .hell"na Dinda /.
' Ririh 'e$aningt"as
%avanese, a mem!er of the Austronesian language family, is spoken in the entral and
eastern parts of %ava. It is estimated that a!out half the Indonesian population are speakers
of %avanese. %avanese has two levels, i.e. ngoko Glow9 and kromo+
Reduplication is the repetition of a word or phonologial material within a word for
semanti or grammatial purposes. 6ategori8e of redupliation aording to
&oed"osoedarmo, :edhawati, and Laginem ?,/1,@ morphonologial harateristis, that
is2
,. dilingga,
*. dipura,
4. diasana,
-. dilingga sara,
Reduplicated 'ords 'hich deri(e from a +ound root
In %avanese fully redupliated words derived from !ases whih are not used as independent
words are a!undant. (elow are the semanti ategories to whih many of those redupliated
words !elong. It should !e noted that there are a num!er of redupliations with vowel shift.
.1. .maller si0ed animals
undur-undur Ginset whih moves !akward9
.. Bod" parts and accessories
anthing-anthing Gdangling ear ring9
.#. Traditional foods
ondhe-ondhe G!all shaped stiky rie9
Descripti(e 'ord
#he amount of onomatopoeia !ased on redupliation is tremendous. Muh of it is ioni, i.e.
onomatopoeia desri!ing ertain movements as repetitive, irular, time taking, and dilatory.
.1.1. Description of mo(ement
klothak-klothek Gto keep thudding9
.1.. Distri+ution 2o(er space3 time3 etc.4
klethir-klethirGto ?do@ a little !y little rather than all at one.9
28
Plurali0ation
#he most ommon funtion of redupliation in %avanese is to indiate plurality.
Example2
bocah Ghild9 bocah-bocah Ghildren9
,d$ecti(als reduplicated in order to indicate pluralit" of their modifies
ong ,epang, cendhak-cendhak.
&eople %apan short
G%apanese people, their legs are short.9
%ntensification
Ad"etives and adver!s an !e intensified !y redupliation.
esuk Gmorning9 esuk-esuk Gearly in the morning9
,ttenuation
In several ad"etives redupliation funtions to attenuate, making the meaning !lurred or
weaker. #he suffix -an is sometimes added.
biru G!lue9 biru-biruan G!luish9
Repetiti(e
;edupliation of a ver! often means repetition or ontinuation of ation, suh as2
turu Gsleep9 turu-turu Gto keep falling asleep9
%ncompleteness
;edupliation of some ver!s refers to ontinuous, ateli, inomplete ats, or to states.
Example2 pikir Gthink9 pikir-pikir Gtry to think9
.imilarit" and imitation
Full ;edupliation of a ertain o!"et plus the suffix 'an yields a similar o!"et.
ong Gpeople9 ong-ongan Gdoll9
.pecification
3ome redupliation proess yields different meaning from its !ase. (elow are a few examples
of them.
olah Gto prepare9 olah-olah Gto do the ooking9
Position-dependent functions
#he meaning of simple redupliation is sometimes ontext dependent. (eing plaed at the
head of sentene,
/oncession 1
#he sense of Galthough9 an !e expressed !y redupliating the ad"etive that follows the
modified noun.
ong ayu-ayu kok bodho+
G?It9s a shame.@ 3he is !eautiful, !ut stupid.9
/oncession
Many times when redupliation ours sentene'initially, it gives the sense of Geven if92
randha-randha gelem aton seneng karo aku.
GA divoree does not matter as long as sJhe likes me.9
Repro(e
Example illustrates a strutural pattern that expresses a seEuene of ation that the speaker is
not happy a!out2
teka-teka koe kok mangan+
G.o sooner do you get here than the first thing you do is to start eating somethingUU9
Reduplication 'hich cause change of grammatical categor"
&er+al use
/hange of situation
aak G!ody9 aak-aak Gto !ath Euikly only from the waist up9
Pretending and pla"ing 5 Csually a suffix -an should !e added to the redupliation.
6egation 5 #o express omplete negation
6ominal use 5 ;edupliating whih the meaning is related to the original word
6ominal use
;edupliating some ad"etives or ver!s an yield nouns of whih the meaning is related to the
original word.
,d$ecti(e 6oun
ayu G!eautiful9 ayu-ayon-ayu-ayunan Gosmetis9
&er+ 6oun
oleh Gto get9 oleh-oleh Gsouvenir9
.emantic (ariation in dou+lets
3ometimes redupliation with vowel shift has a different onnotation than the orresponding
redupliation without vowel shift. 3emantially these forms tend to express negative feeling,
as in solding or omplaints ?&oed"osoedarmo et al. ,/1,@, although they an !e o!"etive,
too, depending on the intonation.
lunga to go9 lunga-lungo Gto go out very often9
6omment2 &ersonally we thing that redupliation in %avanese language is not efsiient.
>therwise, in English, if we want to state the plural word we "ust add s in the end of the word
to make it have plural meaning.
Prexes n Engsh Word Formaton
Introdution
An English word an !e divided into three parts2 a prefix, a stem, and a suffix. &re' means
Q!efore. A prefix, therefore, is what omes !efore the stem. 6onsider, as an example, the
prefix de' ?meaning QredueQ or QreverseQ@ in a word like demagneti8e ?meaning Qto deprive of
magnetismQ@. A suffix is what is attahed to the end of the stem. 6onsider, as an example, the
suffix 'er ?meaning Qsomeone whoQ@ in programmer ?Qa person who programmesQ@.
3uffixes hange the word from one part of speeh to another. For example, 'ly added to the
ad"etive Euik gives the adver! Euikly. &refixes, on the other hand, usually hange the
meaning of the word. For example, un' hanges a word to the negative. unmagneti8a!le
means Qnot apa!le of !eing magneti8edQ.
Let us now onsider some prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they hange the meanings
of English words.
English &refixes
,. Meta'
A prefix appearing in loanwords from <reek, with the meanings Lafter,M Lalong with,M
L!eyond,M Lamong,M L!ehind,M and produtive in English. A prefix added to the
name of a su!"et and showing another su!"et that analy8es the original
one !ut at a more a!strat, higher level2 metaphilosophy. metalinguistics+
Meta' an !e prefixed to nouns and ad"etives. Meta' is not used with ver!s, that is we
annot say I metathink all the time.
*. Anti' and &ro'
(oth of these prefixes are plaed at the !eginning of a word to modify or hange the
meaning. #he prefix anti' have the sense of !eing against or in opposition to some
person, thing, group, or ideology. For example, if you are anti'homework, that means
that you are opposed to shools giving homework assignments. #he prefix &ro' is the
opposit of prefix Anti', it used to form ad"etives that have the general sense
Lfavoring or supportingM something. For Example2 pro'hoie, pro'Amerian, pro'
ommunist.
In addition, if you put these prefixes twie in the !igining of the word, the meaning
will !e different, examples 2 anti'anti'government G!eing opposed to !eing anti'
government9, pro'pro'eduation G!eing in favor of !eing pro'eduation9.
4. 6ounter'
Has meaning with against or in opposition to is ounter', whih an !e prefixed to
nouns and ver!s, as in ounterweight, ounterrevolution, ounterattak. 6ounter' and
Anti' are not the same, they ontrast in purpose. 6ounter' refers to an ation or event
in response to another ation or event, whereas anti' is typially used in order to
prevent some ation. For example the differene !etween ounterdemonstration and
antidemonstration.
-. &refix of Euantity
As a prefix, miro' attahed to noun and the meaning is very small as found in
miro!us and miro!ology. Maro' the antonym of miro', meaning Glarge9 or
Gelongated9. #han the prefix super is also !elong to prefix of Euantity !eause it has
meaning exessive, some examples are superintelligent, superset, superstruture.
0. #emporal prefixes
#here are three temporal prefixes that always followed with nouns and ad"etives and
an !e interpreted as referring to periods of time. #he first one is pre' G!efore9 e.g 2
prewar, preshool, and pre vitorian. In addition, pre' also an use as a ver! and the
meaning is to do somthing earlier, e.g 2 pre!oard or preregister. #he next prefix is
post' Gafter9 for examples postwar, post'<othi, postnatal. #he last is ante' G!efore9
this prefix is really rare use, !ut there are some nouns and ad"etives that use it, as in
ante!ellum, antewar, antediluvian.
6onlusion
English has so many prefixes suh as meta', pro', anti', ounter', et, whih makes English
language itself !eome riher. In our opinion, we should have a good omprehension of it in
order to prevent any misunderstanding !eause sometimes the use of prefixes reates suh
am!iguities. After read and o!tain a deep understanding of this artile, we agree that this
artile is very lear and inreasing our omprehension of English prefixes. (ut in some parts,
this artile is still onfusing !eause it is not straightforward.
Dew Kartka Had and Marne Mega Provtas
"Isnt that 0antabulous? How Smarty Motvates Intentona
Morphoogca Bends n Engsh"
By: Stefan TH. Gres
I. Denton
Bendng s the ntentona conage a new word by fusng parts of
at east two source words. Usuay, at east the fore part of the 1
st
source word (sw1) s combned wth the hnd part of the 2
nd

source word (sw2) and there s phonemc or graphemc overap of
the source words. (As n fantabuous)
II. Crtera
1. The two source words do not overap n the resutng bend
Exampes:
br(eakfast) x ()unch = brunch
brocco() x (cau)ower = broccoower
cam(era) x (re)corder = camcorder
edu(caton) x (enter)tanment = edutanment
stag(naton) x (n)aton = stagaton
2. Invoves two overappng etters
Exampes:
mot(or) x (h)ote = mote
foo x (ph)osopher = fooosopher
auster(e) x stern = austern
nform(aton) x (com)merca = nformeca
3. The rst or second source words are entrey present n the
bend
gas x acoho = gasoho
III. Researchers Hypotheses
1. Lehrer
"the more matera from the target word that s present, the
easer the bend s to dentfy" contrary to the fact that
many bends are rather short and runnng the rsk of
damagng the recognzabty of the source words (e.g. brunch,
bt, and ampng)
2. Kaunsto
"dea bends then woud naturay be ones where the endng
of the rst source word and the begnnng of the second one
overap, resutng n a way no deeton at a. And the shorter
source words shoud contrbute reatvey more matera to
bends then the onger ones." ts probematc because the
hypothess was ony based on 101 bends and t ddnt
consder the dherent ways to anayze the amount of matera
contrbuted.
IV. Bend Structure
1. Pay wth the smarty of the source words to each other
a. Phonemc and Orthographc Smarty
To measure the smarty, we use .i!e 1oe2!ient
measurng the smarty of two words by dvdng the
number of bgrams (of etters) that two words share by the
number of ther bgrams (range from 1 (dentty) to 0
(dssmarty))
Exampe:
Chunne Channe x Tunne
Channe = ch, ha, an, nn, ne, e }
The two words share the 6
underned bgrams out of 11
Tunne = tu, un, nn, ne, e }
b. Phonoogca Smarty
The syabc engths or/and the stress patterns
2. The Smarty of the Source Words to the Bends
a. Phonemc and Orthographc Smarty
- Hgh vaue smarty of graphemes
Exampe:
Chunne 7 graphemes
6 of whch are contrbuted by 7-etter of channe
5 of whch are contrbuted by 5-etter of tunne
- Lower vaue smarty of graphemes
Exampe:
Brunch 6 graphemes
2 of whch are contrbuted by the 9-etter of breakfast
4 of whch are contrbuted by the 5-etter of unch
b. Phonoogca Smarty
The syabc engths and the stress patterns of the source
words of bends
The Anayss of Cppng
by Dan Novta and Nken Wdastuty
Introduction
Cppng, whch s aso known as truncaton or shortenng, s one
form of word formaton. Ths shortened word can be found n both forma
and nforma anguage, yet ony some of them are requred n forma
wrtng. One exampe s "3urger" that comes from 4amburger makes ts
way nto forma wrtng nowadays. There are aso some cpped words
whch are more common than the orgn words. 5emo, s cpped form of
5emorandum that many peope may not even know ts orgns or even
5oving 6i!ture whch s more famous as 5ovie. Because of cppng
phenomena tsef has aready become common thng n Engsh, n ths
paper we w dscuss deeper whether or not cppngs study can be
formazed or become word formaton devce.
-heoretical bac&ground# )hat is clipping7
Cppng s a process of word formaton by shortenng word wthout
changng the meanng or part of speech. Ths word formaton s not ony
restrcted to a snge exstng word but can aso appy to a whoe phrase,
as exampe s mob, whch s cpped from mobile vulgus or /oo, for
/oologi!al garden.
The cpped forms are not ony nouns, but aso ad|ectves, verbs,
adverbs, prepostons, nter|ectons and con|unctons whch are more
rarey be found. The nterestng case s when the ad|ectva cpped forms
are often converted nto nouns, whch conrms the supremacy of nouns as
cpped forms, bise#ual turn nto ony bi, and traditional that becomes
trad.
-he !ormation of lipping
1. Back-cppng (apocopaton or apocope) s cppng the na part, of
the end of the word.
a. Binocuars >> Bnos
b. Microphone >> Mke
c. .rofessona >> Pro
d. G+mnasum >> Gym
e. "dvertsement >> Ad
2. Fore-cppng (apheress) s cppng of the nta part, of the
begnnng of the word.
a. Afro >> Fro
b. Ceuloid >> Lod
c. Necktie >> Te
d. Teephone >> Phone
e. Omnbus >> Bus
3. Syncope s cppng both the nta and the na parts of the word.
a. Pa8amas >> |am
b. Head-shrin&er >> Shrnk
c. Refrigerator >> Frdge
d. Infuenza >> Fu
e. Advantage >> Van
Once a cpped form has become excazed, t can adopt a the propertes
of the fu form. For nstance, gyms, frdge, and phone !an be 'lurali/ed by
addng (s. Whe the semantc functon of cppng n Engsh sometmes
are opaque n some words. For exampe, van (<< caravan); miss (<<
mstress); gi'sy (<< Egyptan); gin (<< Geneva); 'ants (<< pantaoons);
'iano (<< panoforte); !ello (<< voonceo) and etc.
-he Semantic 9ole of lipping
Wonderng what the roe of cppng s, cppng usuay provdes
synonymous words from the base but the dherent stye eve (not the
dherent meanng) aows both to exst. Cppng whch appears as a mxed
forms abbrevated from arger words, however, share a common functon.
As for exampe s 7ab for laboratory. Some cppngs nd the way nto
arger speaker communtes, as ad for advertisement* In addton, the
truncaton s aso sgna of the famarty of the speaker wth the entty
s/he s referrng to. Thus, there s no strct semantc tendency, grammar,
and even syntactc stud have more to say n cppng.
Is clipping a (ord:formation device7
Some ngusts consder cppng as a "margna" word-formaton
process, as t does not generate ots of new words. Yet, we have to admt
that n some cases, the fu form woud be abnorma or mpossbe n the
same poston: gym shoes (<< ??gymnasum shoes); porn star (<<??
pornography star)
As far as s known, there s no way to predct how much of a word
w be cpped oh n cppng, nor even whch end of the word w be
cpped oh. Nether s t possbe to say that any gven syabe w
dentey be retaned n cppng. Some exampes from Engsh are gven
beow:
bnoc(uar)s
(de)tec(tve)
sc(ence) (cton)
Snce the parts that are deeted n cppng are not ceary morphs n
any sense, t s not necessary the case that cppng s a part of
morphoogy, athough t s a way of formng new exemes.
The man probem s that what s dropped s rarey a morpheme per
se, |ust ke n cases of backformatons.
A phenomenon can be observed for lab (<< aboratory):
laboratory
1605, "budng set apart for scentc experments," from
M.L. aboratorum "a pace for abor or work," from L. aboratus,
pp. of aborare "to work" (see abor). Shortened form ab rst
attested 1895.
http://etymonne.com
In compounded structures such as N
2
N
1
, N
1
s the head-word, .e. the man
word, the word wth the man semantc oad n the compound, and
therefore the word whch needs to be kept, as exemped by the
exampes provded by Tourner:
case (<< sutcase);
bus (<< omnbus);
pane (<< aeropane)
roach (<< cockroach), etc.
Yet, ths rue s not aways vad, as shown by the foowng exampe:
the base exeme !hemothera'y s often cpped nto !hemo. Ths word s
known as a neo:classical compound composed of a pseudo:lexeme
(chemo, from Greek) and of a head:(ord (therapy). Yet, t s the head-
word therapy that s dropped.
If some ngusts re|ect cppng as part of morphoogy, therefore
re|ectng ts roe as a word formaton devce, others deem that ts study s
cosey nked to both morphoogy and phonoogy.
onse;uences and phonological reali,ations of clipping
The creaton of cppngs s not that arbtrary but s constraned by
phonoogca restrctons havng to do wth sze and syabe structure
(syabc consttuents).
As the cpped form s morphoogcay shorter than the base
exeme, t s very often reduced to a monos+llabic or a dis+llabic word,
as noted by Stockwe & Mnkova |2003: 10| who wrte that ths "creaton
by shortenng" often resuts n a monosyabc word:
quz (<< nqustve);
phone (<< teephone);
u (<< nuenza), etc.
The ony three- and four-syabe forms found are cppngs from
compounds:
agtprop (<< agtatona propaganda);
dg cabes (<< dgta cabe), etc.,
whch expans the "onger" cpped forms.
A quck survey shows that out of the 55 cpped forms, 31 are neo-
cassca compounds made up of Greek-orgn quas exemes: bo (<< bo
+ ogy); homo (<< homo + sexua); chemo (<< chemo + therapy); ntro
(<< ntro + ducton), etc. The tendency s therefore to cp the base
exeme and to keep the rst part of the compound endng n <o>.
nformaton >> nfo
curosty >> curo
brother >> bro
condomnum >> condo
And ths tendency aso expans the emergence of ths <-o> "sumx"
where t was not expected:
combnaton >> comb or combo
esban >> esbo (certany aso by anaogy wth homo, hetero)
Here are some notceabe tendences n cppng:
Stress shft
As cppng conssts n deetng a part of a word, changes n stress
patterns such as stress shfts are bound to occur; the rst stress
change s the oss of secondary stress when there s one n the fu
form:
appcaton >> app
communcaton >> com
Phonemc change (what Bassac |2004: 171| cas "reconguraton
phonoogque"), whch can take on three forms:
oVowe change
ammunton >> ammo
oConsonant change
bcyce >> bke
oConsonant and vowe changes
husband >> hubby
Change n speng
As Bauer |1994: 47| wrtes, cppng can aso ead to changes n
speng, wthout any change n the pronuncaton
Coca-Coa & cocane >> coke
tranquzer >> trank
showbusness >> showbz (*showbus: woud be pronounced ke
bus)
detas >> deets
decous >> desh
sergeant >> sarge
Addton of a "sumx"
As mentoned above, n a sgncant number of cases, cppng s
accompaned by sumxaton (or pseudo-sumxaton), generay wth the
addton of the <-e> sumx: f vegetabes can be cpped nto veg, t
can aso be cpped nto vegges, etc.
Ths phenomenon studed by Tourner |1985| s caed "sufxation
<a=ective>: foke << fok snger; undes << undercothes".
Truncated names and cppngs are used to express famarty, whereas
dmnutves are used to express famarty as we as a (usuay) postve
omment
The thngs we got from ths artce are more nformaton about
cppng n Engsh and how cppng deas wth Engsh morphoogy and
phonoogy. Even though we found some dmcutes n understandng the
artce, we nay found the way to understand ths matter.
" 9?SS 1I@GAIS-I S-ADB ?! 9EDA.1I"-I?@
3hanthi .adara"an
8niversity o" 9ri/ona
I@-9?DA-I?@
Redupcaton s a morphoogca process n whch the root, stem of a word
or a part of t s repeated.
9EDA.1I"-I?@ "@D 9E.E-I-I?@S
Redupcaton s a word formaton process n whch some part of a base (a
segment, syabe, morpheme) s repeated, ether to the eft, or to the
rght of the word or, occasonay, wthn the mdde of the. In the the
Engsh Language, where repetton s used to sgnfy a more "expressve"
tone or guratve speech whch s aso often, but not excusvey, conc n
meanng e.g. they were ama/ed at this big, big voi!e !oming out o" this
tiny girl*
Tabe 1. Lexca Leve
English
Infectional :9epetition

ExpressiveC fgurative speech
Knock -knock Tny, tny tnypace
Derivational: 9eduplication
Expressive/ fgurative speech
widdle& waddle 'enguin song :iggy waggy dog
9eduplications and -riplications
Phonoogcay, redupcaton s descrbed as redupcated segments
(sequences of consonants/vowes) or redupcated 'rosodi! units (syabes
or morass). In Engsh, trpcaton s more of an excepton, but t does
exst. For exampe n ti! ta! toe, win&win&win and you-you-you.
!ull and .artial 9eduplication
0ull redu'li!ation nvoves the exact repetton of a sound or word. In
Engsh ths woud nvove puttng together a sound or morpheme to brng
forth an entrey new grammatca functon or semantc feature whe fu
redupcaton woud be used to provde emphass.
Are you eavng-eavng now?
I.e. are you reay eavng (for good) or merey steppng out for a mnute?
6artial redu'li!ation nvoves redupcaton of ony a part of a word (e.g.
!hit-!hat& ;i'- ;o'). Parta redupcaton nvoves consonant abaut or
vowe aternaton (e.g. / -/ as n ri' ra' and /-o/ as n 'ing 'ong). There
are three types of parta redupcatons namey vowe aternatons, onset
aternatons and rhymng words. The rst beng stuatons n whch the
components of the redupcaton exst wth ndependent meanngs but
combne to form a dherent concept or meanng (e.g. shi'-sha'e& ti' to').
Tabe 2. Parta Redupcaton - Vowe Aternaton
English
vowel alternation
a. cht chat
b. crss cross
c. see saw
Onset aternatons occur when there s a consonant (C) change n h-1< or
1-w< aternaton such as n handy dandy, bow wow and mumbo jumbo.
Often, the root word woud have a meanng whe the redupcated woud
ack any expct meanng.
Tabe 3. Parta Redupcaton- Onset Aternaton
English
a. handy dandy
b. hury bury
c. bow wow
d. teeny weeney
As for rhymes wth dmnutve sumxes, the Engsh words tend to ack
ndependent meanngs but take on a new meanng when combned (e.g.
wishy-washy& hoity-toity). These words are often found n nursery rhymes
and chdrens story books.
Tabe 4. Parta Redupcatons - Rhymng Words
Engsh
rhyme
diminutive sufx
a. booge wooge
b. ovey dovey
Echoic expression
Echosm s a dstnctve form of expresson whch ncudes repetton of
words for aesthetc or expressve ehect. Echosm ncudes prmary
onomatopoea and secondary onomatopoea.
Tabe 5. Imtaton Of Natura Sounds
Engsh
chug chug (ocomotve)
dng dong (doorbe)
gobbe gobbe
Tabe 6. Natura Correspondence Between Sound And Sense
Engsh
head over hees
kt and kaboode
kth and kn
far and square
9EDA.1I"-I?@ "- -DE SB@-"-I"1 1EEE1
The functons of redupcaton can be consdered to be both rhetorca as
we as cohesve.
Tabe 7. Categores Of Redupcaton
Engsh
Exact cop+
a. tartar
b. dodo
c. od, od
d. hot, hot, hot
9eiteration
e. tsy btsy
f. ntwt
9eferring Expression
g. here and there
h. ths and that
parallelism
. ook and ook
|. draw and draw
?@1ASI?@
The use of redupcaton for expressve and aesthetc ehect n Engsh s
more extensve than prevousy thought possbe and new studes are
constanty comng up wth nstances that show ts usage to be much more
wdespread than orgnay beeved.
#o !egin with, the genitives, aording to 6am!ridge Advaned Learner9s $itionary,
are the form of a noun, pronoun, et. in the grammar of some languages, whih shows that
the noun, pronoun, et. has or owns something. :hen talking a!out genitives, it is inevita!le
to leave the apostrophe !ehind !eause it funtions to show the differene !etween the
genitive sentenes and non'genitive sentene.
The Apostrophe
by Purdue OWL
#he apostrophe has three uses2
#o form possessives of nouns
#o show the omission of letters
#o indiate ertain plurals of lowerase letters
#o see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an Pof the...P
phrase. For example2
the !oyQs hat H the hat of the !oy
three daysQ "ourney H "ourney of three days
If the noun after PofP is a !uilding, an o!"et, or a piee of furniture, then no apostrophe is
neededU
room of the hotel H hotel room
door of the ar H ar door
leg of the ta!le H ta!le leg
Apostrophes are also used in ontrations. #he apostrophe shows this omission. 6ontrations
are ommon in spea*ing and in informal 'riting. Here are some examples2
don7t 8 do not
could7(e8 could ha(e 26OT 9could of9:4
7;! 8 1<;!
Furthermore, apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in loweraseA here the
rule appears to !e more typographial than grammatial, e.g.
three =acintosh >?s 8 three of the =acintosh model >?
#here are three <-s urrently used in the writing lassroom.
man" @s 8 man" ampersands
#hat printed page has too many Vs on it.
the 1<;!s 8 the "ears in decade from 1<;! to 1<;<
#he ,/)+s were a time of great soial unrest.
#he Q)+s were a time of great soial unrest.
However, in an applied use of the genitives in pu!li plaes, there are ases violating the
rules of how the genitives should !e used appropriately. An artile !elow showases the
a!use of the genitives !y separating, or even omitting the apostrophe leading to pu!li outry.
THE ISSUE
Theres a Oueston Mark Hangng Over the Apostrophes Future
Its Practcay Aganst the Law to Use the Mark n a Paces Name; Sorry,
Pkes Peak
By
Barry Newman
May 15, 2013 10:30 p.m. ET
TAUR=,63 6.B.S#he $omesti .ames 6ommittee of the C.3. (oard on <eographi
.ames doesnQt like apostrophes. =isitors to Harpers Ferry or &ikes &eak might not reali8e it,
!ut anyone aspiring to name a ridge or a swamp after a loal hero will soon find out.
In this Adirondak town, pop. ,,*,/, a move is on to put a mountain on the map in honor of
%ames 6ameron, who settled here in ,554. #here is some dispute as to whih mountain, and
whether to all it %immyQs &eak, %immieQs &eak or %amesQ &eak. (ut there is no opposition to
the apostropheSexept from the government.
P:ithout it, %immys looks plural, not possessive,P Evelyn :ood, #hurmanQs town supervisor,
said one morning upstairs in the #own Hall. 3he is 40 years old and has a ollege degree in
English. #he $omesti .ames 6ommittee, iting her P%immyQs &eakP proposal in a letter,
added PWsiXP after eah P%immyQs.P
3aid Ms. :ood, P#heyQre their QWsisXQ not ours.P
For puntuation stiklers, this offiial apostrophe aversion is a sad omment on a useful mark
in serious trou!le. Apostrophes arenQt welome on the :e! ?M$onaldQs is mdonalds.om@.
(anks and druggists ignore them ?(arlays, :algreens@. And they sow signage haos
?EmployeeQs >nlyA Happy (osses $ayA (lueQs (and@.
P#his adds to illiteray,P says &ersis <ranger, founder of the Adirondak Mountain :ritersQ
;etreat, whih meets here in #hurman every %uly.
Among other English speakers, plae'name apostrophes are all over the map2 (ushmans
Yloof in 3outh Afria and 6amp!ellQs (ay in 6anada. In England, Mid $evonQs ounil voted
this year to expunge apostrophes from street signs. It !aked down after an outry from the
,postrophe Protection .ociet".
#he C.3., in fat, is the only ountry with an apostrophe'eradiation poliy. #he program took
off when &resident (en"amin Harrison set up the (oard on <eographi .ames in ,1/+. (y
one !oard estimate, it has sru!!ed *0+,+++ apostrophes from federal maps. #he states
mostlyS!ut not alwaysS!ow to its wishes.
An apostrophe, the argument goes, implies private ownership of a pu!li plae. :hen names
appear on maps, Pthey hange from words having speifi ditionary meaning to fixed la!els
used to refer to geographi entities,P the names ommittee explains in its statement of
P&riniples, &oliies and &roedures.P
Irish names ?>QFallon, Ill.@ and Frenh ones ?6oeur dQAlene, Idaho@ arenQt possessives and get
!y. :hile administrative names an endure ?&rine <eorgeQs 6ounty, Md.@, the ommittee has
granted only five possessive apostrophes in ,,4 years2 MarthaQs =ineyard, Mass.A IkeQs &oint,
..%.A %ohn EQs &ond, ;.I.A 6arlos ElmerQs %oshua =iew, Ari8.A andSin *++*S6larkQs
Mountain, >re.
:hat the names ommittee didnQt do in !anning the apostrophe was to !an the PsP that
follows it. 3o you anQt tell if &ikes &eak was named for a &ike or a &ikes. Here in .ew Nork,
the same applies to Howes 6ave, 6oeymans Hollow, :atkins <len and Nonkers.
#he no'apostrophe rule has !een reaffirmed five times, yet puntuationists fight on. At a *++/
meeting with plae namers from the states, the names ommittee was flayed for its
Pisolationist staneP toward Pthe perpetually punished apostrophe.P
P#he apostrophe has a funtion,P says #homas <asEue, an English professor who spent years
on 3outh $akotaQs <eographi .ames Authority. PIt an imply things other than possession,P
he says. P:e talk a!out a winterQs day. #he day doesnQt !elong to winter.P
As &rof. <asEue sees it, map makers should pri8e loally used apostrophes as mainstays of
history. P&lae names are the auto!iography of a nation,P he says.
#ell that to #heodore ;oosevelt. In ,/+), he ordered the standardi8ation of geographi names
for federal use. For the sake of onsisteny, there was no going !ak. %ennifer ;unyon, one of
the name ommitteeQs three staffers, says2 P:e donQt de!ate the apostrophe.P
#he ommittee gets no flak from A.%. 3artin, who wants a streth of Florida oastline named
P=eterans Island.P PItQs the way to do it on the :e!,P he says. .or did Mar Maria o!"et
when denied an apostrophe for P&atriotQs &eak,P a nu!!le he owns in Maine. PIt was a
referene to a lot of people,P Mr. Maria says, adding, PIQve lost trak of grammar, I guess.P
In #hurman, the apostrophe is showing more gumption. &eople here long identified a peak
with the old settler, %ames 6ameron, and spelled its name with an apostrophe. Net it never got
onto a map.
In *+,+, 3usan %ennings, )*, a shoolteaher and 6ameron desendant, applied to have a
mountain she an see from her porh named P%immyQs &eak.P #he names ommittee nixed the
apostrophe. Ms. %ennings didnQt argue.
PNou donQt pronoune apostrophes,P she said, looking aross the Hudson ;iver at the
mountain one day. P3o it makes perfet sense.P
(ut when the name hit the news, Lillie 6ameron was shoked. 3he is 1* years old and a
6ameron lan mem!er. 3he says the government not only forgot the apostropheSit named
the wrong mountain.
Cpstairs in the #own Hall with Ms. :ood, #hurmanQs supervisor, Ms. 6ameron opened a
handwritten !ook, dated ,/+). #he title page read2 P;oster of the %amesQ &eak Mountain
6lu!.P #he next page was headed, P%immieQs &eak Mountain 6lu! ;esolutions.P A map
indiated that the peak referred to is one mountain to the south.
In Marh, after Ms. 6ameronQs formal protest, the names ommittee voted to onsider
deleting P%immys &eakP from its latest digital maps. As a puntuation'neutral su!stitute, it has
in mind a name no!ody here seems to reogni8e2 :illard Mountain.
#he peak that the mountain lu! alled %immieQs ?or %amesQ@ somehow has another offiial
name2 (ald Mountain. ;est assured that the $omesti .ames 6ommittee has no intention of
hanging it now.
PIQd still like it alled %immyQs,P said Ms. 6ameron, agreeing with Ms. :ood on spelling it
that way. PIQd like it on the map.P
P(ut as long as itQs not on the map,P Ms. :ood told her, Phere in #hurman we an still all it
%immyQs &eakSwith the apostrophe.P
THE COMMENT
#his feature does give the readers a new way of thinking in interpreting the misused
apostrophe. :hile many people nowadays find that the term of apostrophe always refers to
the genitive, the reent fat shows it is possi!ly different in some ways. Likewise, this feature
provides the distintiveness as well as variant manners towards the usage of apostrophe in
daily life. However, some people pro!a!ly onsider the issue overly ontroversial while
others raise their voie against the apostrophe a!use. #he opposition who omes up with this
newly'invented idea suppose it to evolve due to the fast hanging of human9s life.
References
.ewman, (. ?*+,4, May ,0@. #here9s a Zuestion Mark Hanging >ver the Apostrophe9s
Future. !he %all /treet *ournal, ;etrieved from
http2JJonline.ws".omJnewsJartilesJ3(,+++,-*-,*51154*-*--4+-051-5,*0*/5--01
4+1
>:L, &. ?*+,4, Fe!ruary **@. #he Apostrophe. 0nline %riting 1ab Purdue 2niversity,
;etrieved from https2JJowl.english.purdue.eduJowlJresoureJ)*,J+,J
The Roe of Morphoogy n the Process of
Language Acquston and Learnng
SUMMARY.
1. Introducton
a. Language s not statc, compete, but a dynamc and
deveopng phenomenon.
b. Important Goa : The determnaton of the rank of morphoogy
n the grammar of a partcuar anguage and n unversa
grammar.
c. Word formaton started to attract the attenton of ngust.
d. Morphoogy s consdered an autonomous component
e. Have a forma characterstcs and prncpes of ther own
f. Lngust, psychoogst and teachers are nterested n
morphoogy
g. Because they expect t to be a good means to nd out more
about the strateges use n order to ncrease ther exca
capacty
h. Words are expressng the speakers thoughts
2. Productvty
a. It s obvous, then, that morphoogy must account for the
morphoogca competence of the speakers. It must be a
mrror of the ntutons they have on the formaton,
nterpretaton and recognton of the exca unts of ther
anguage. It expans why a natve Engsh speaker knows that
uns'eakable s a word of hs anguage but ables'eakun s not
b. Morphoogy must determne the boundares of morphoogca
reguarty n a anguage; n order to do that t must make a
dstncton between possbe and non possbe constructons.
c. the productvty of word formaton rues s one of the most
controversa topcs n morphoogy. They do not queston the
productvty of some rues but word formaton n genera (see
Chomsky Remarks 184-215). In ngustcs we say that a
process s productve when t s used synchroncay to make
up new ngustc unts, and not productve when t does not
permt that.
d. The recursve process carred out to ts mts may produce
grammatca structures but they are unacceptabe. The natve
speaker, on the other hand, w never formwords ke those
spontaneousy, because ntutvey he knows the mts whch
constran ther acceptabty.
e. Word formaton rues aow the combnaton, n a xed order,
of words and amxes
and amxes and words to form new derved and compound
exca unts.
1. (prex - (w)) - Derved word: ina!!urate& reo'en
2. ((w) - sumx) - Derved word: industrial& wordless
3. ((w) - (w)) -* Compound word: heada!he& appe tree
the three rues are not very usefu. Ther generatve
capacty s too extensve, and many of the generated
words are unacceptabe to natve speakers, therefore,
a seres of condtons and constrants are necessary
whch restrct ther generatng capacty. It seems,
then, that for a morphoogca rue to be usefu t must
contan the foowng nformaton, for exampe:
((w)x amx)x - (w)x
(fa) (fp) (fy)
whch can be paraphrased n the foowng way: a rue
of word formaton whch adds an amx of the category
X wth the syntactc-semantc features p to a word or
root W of category X wth the syntactc-semantc
features a generates a new exca unt W of category
X wth the syntactc-semantc features y*
f. The most productve Engsh deverba compounds are those
produced on a derved word as the determnatum and a
prmtve one as the determnant; the determnatum s aways
the theme or patent of the determnant, whch s deverba;
ther semantc content s that of actvty or a |ob:
bookkee'ing& brainwashing& bull,ghdng& dressmaking or that
of an agent or a person who practses that |ob or actvty:
bookee'er& brainhunter& bookseller& goalkee'er*
g. In Engsh the sumx -ery s added to some ames of goods to
ndcate the shops
where they are sod. It s added to jewels to form jewelery a
shop of |ewes, to s'i!es to form s'i!ery& a spces shop, etc.,
and foowng ths pattern the speaker may form=milkery& a
mk shop, but ths s bocked by dairy a ong exstng word n
the anguage. Among the agent ames whch ndcate the
persons who do a |ob or a professon there exst n Engsh
'lay - 'layer& dan!e - dan!er& ski - skier& and foowng the
same pattern the speaker may form steal - =stealer& but ths s
bocked by thie"*
3. Morphoogy and the Learnng of Added Language
a. To earn an added anguage means to acqure some
knowedge of the anguage system , and one of the anguage
system s morphoogca rues whch aows the earner to
express hmsef wth the greatest uency possbe.
b. Somethng very mportant for the added anguage teacher s
the contrbuton of the earner's natve anguage to the
earnng of the added anguage
c. In the added anguage earnng, the morphoogca structures
of the rst anguage nuence the natves n earnng of the
target anguage .
Ths artce expaned how the roe of morphoogy n the practca way of
earnng and acquston. It expan n very deta matter and qute
straghtforward anayss. A very great of basc concept aso provded n
ths artce. However, st there s a pont of weakness. Ths artce
provded a Spansh anguage as an ob|ect of anayss, we thnk t s not
enough |ust put one ob|ect regardng the Engsh tsef comes from severa
anguages.
Semantc Change n Word Formaton
Meaning ould hange as well as from hanging. In Morphology, words have a
network of relationships with their meanings. #he alteration of words, furthermore, ours
due to the freEuently used words and the intention of the speakers whih is not the same eah
time. #here are distintive types of the hange. #he most neutral way of hange without
defining the type of the hange is semanti shift.
.emantic Differentiation
#he original meaning in semanti shift is not availa!le anymore or only used in
opaEue ompounds. Meanwhile, semanti differentiation refers to the proess of whih two
meanings arise from one single original word. In English, there is a onsidera!le flutuation
!etween past and past partiiple ontext ending the last onsonant for the weak ver!s2 either a
voied J'dJ or a voieless J'tJ.
Process
He spoiled his daughters
#he tim!er !urned for hours
Result
A spoilt !rat
(urnt tim!er
Pol"semous 'ords2 #hese are words whih have a !asi and related figurative meaning. It
ours in a phrase of whih the metaphor use is lear. Moreover, as the time goes !y, the
seondary use a word might replae the primary use of the word.
Et"molog" and the le)icon2 #he development of different meanings for words
automatially raises Euestion of whether there is an original meaning.
Coss of le)ical transparenc"2 If in the ourse of its development a word or part of a
word !eomes opaEue to a later generation then its meaning may !e re'interpreted in an
inorret way.
=eans for the E)tending -ord .toc*
#his partiular topi aims to gain words for the new phenomena, onepts, et. in the
soiety
Utili0ation of nati(e resources2 this primarily refers to the twin proesses of onepts
and derivation.
Coan translation3 calDues2 there were ommon in >ld English !ut have !een
reessive.
Borro'ing 'ords from a further language2 this is a very ommon proess whih is
attested for all periods of the history of English or any other language for that matter.
#here are two !asis reasons for !orrowing words, whih are the neessity for a
foreign word, to fill a gap to speak and the relative prestige ?soial standing@ of the
speakers using the donor language.
T"pes of .emantic /hange in -ord Formation
#here are many method used in word formation. In addition to new words !eing formed,
words an hange their meaning. #he simplest type of semanti hange in words formation is
shift. Alliterations in meaning an !e lassified in several types.
,. 3emanti Expansion ?Inrease the range of meaning overtime@
*. 3emanti ;estrition ?#his is the opposite to semanti expansion, derease the range
of meaning over time@
4. 3emanti $eterioration ?$isapproval in the meaning of word, in other words the
meaning will !eome worse@
-. 3emanti Amelioration ?An improvement in the meaning of word@
0. 3hift in Markedness ?#he marked element !eomes unmarked and vie versa@
). ;ise of Metaphorial Csage ?A very ommon semanti development is for literal
expressions to aEuire figurative usages@
5. ;eanalysis ?#he Latin morpheme min- Glittle9 is seen in minor and minus !ut the
words minimum and miniature led to the analysis of mini- as the morpheme meaning
Gsmall9 whih has !eome general in English ?and <erman@ as a !orrowed morpheme,
f. minibar, minicomputer, miniskirt@
1. #runation ?An element is deleted without su!stitution. $evelopments in word
formation often show this with some elements understood !ut not expressed@
/. Meaning Loss #hrough Homophony ?#wo words whih !eome homophonous !ut at
last only one meaning that still survive@
The notion of E'ord-fieldF
Even from the !riefest of surveys of semanti hange, it is o!vious that if any words
in a group of semantially related words shifts, then the others are immediately effeted and
may well reat !y filling the semanti Gspae9 vaated !y the item whih made the move. In
onlusion, semanti hanges in one word of a language are often aompanied !y semanti
hanges in another word. 3emanti hange does not our with words in isolation. #he
groups of items whih are affeted !y a shift are alled a ord-field. It is a olletion of items
with related senses and denotations.
From what have stated a!ove, generali8ations an !e made that !ad meaning replae
good meaning and meanings tend to !e su!"etive.
/omment
In !rief, this artile makes us reali8e how language hanges eah time. As time goes
!y, language develops following the soiety we are in. :e annot deny every single hange in
our soiety, espeially meanings !ehind words. 6onseEuently, taking notie to the
development of English words is one salient point we need to do as the student of English
$epartment.
ENGLISH BACK-FORMATION IN THE 20th AND THE EARLY 21st CENTURIES
By : Nadda Stakov (Pzen)
1. Denton
a. Back-formaton (aso caed back-dervaton, retrograde
dervaton or deamxaton, hereafter referred to as BF) s
descrbed n many sources as, e.g. "the conng of a new word
by takng an exstng word and formng from t a
morphoogcay more eementary word."
b. It s usuay a matter of deetng an amx (Huddeston, Puum,
2003, 1637).
c. The most frequent outcome of BF n Engsh s verbs.
2. Types ( Pennanens Research )
He dstngushes sx categores accordng to the part of speech of
the source word and the resutng word. The casscaton s very cear
and has become the methodoogca bass of the present study for
presentng the anayss of the 20th century matera.
a. A verb s back-formed from what s beeved to be or reay s
an agent noun (nomen agents) or an nstrument noun.
bab+:sit < baby-stter, 1947
hot:dog < hot-dogger, 1963, surng sang
bu= F buher, 1962
b. A verb s back-formed from a rea or supposed acton noun
(nomen actons), usuay denotng the abstract for the verb
destruct < destructon, 1958, chey US
access < accesson, 1962
hitch-hi&e < htch-hkng, 1923
c. A verb s back-formed from an ad|ectva word whch s taken
to be a dervatve from the verb, e.g. present or past
partcpe.
norm < normed, 1959, mathematcs
computeri,e < computerzed, 1960
tax:pa+ < tax-pad, 1918
d. A substantve s back-formed from an ad|ectve taken to be a
dervatve from t.
fash < ashy, 1989
paramedic < paramedca, 1970
spi&e < spky, 1902
e. An ad|ectve s back-formed from an abstract substantve,
adverb or another ad|ectve, whose basc word t s taken to
be.
logistic < ogstcs, 1934
aerobatic < aerobatcs, 1918
biodiverse < bodversty, 2011
f. A "prmary" substantve s back-formed from what s taken to
be ts dervatve.
aerobat < aerobatcs, 1929
morph < morpheme, 1947
trun& < trunkng, 1968
3. BF n the 20
th
and eary 21
st
centures
The research presented here s meant as a contnuaton of
Pennanens cassca work; ts man ob|ectve s to compete what hs
study coud not: the anayss of matera from the perod partay
covered by hm (from the begnnng of the 20
th
century to the eary
1960s), and especay the perod unt today. It eads nto 3
addtona types.
a. Prex back-formaton
sorb < absorb & adsorb, 1909, physca chemstry
plore < expore, 1989
b. Inectona back-formaton
bicep < bceps, 1939
megafop < megaops, 1976, comput
c. Ad|ectve from agent noun
carburetted < carburettor, 1972, chemstry
do:good < do-gooder, 1965-70, US, dsparagng
4. Concuson
The ma|or ndngs of the present research can be summarzed as
foows: the most productve process wthn BF remans the
formaton of verbs from acton nouns; formaton of verbs from agent
nouns has decreased sgncanty; BF of verbs from ad|ectves has
amost dsappeared; ad|ectves can be seen as a mnor source of
back-formed nouns, probaby decreasng n productvty; the other
types of BF form very sma shares n the whoe sampe; there s an
ncrease n the BF of compounds, the hghest share beng
represented by compound verbs formed from acton nouns; the
sumx -ing has become the most frequent sumx subtracted n the
process of BF; the resutng BFs are stystcay dverse, wth
unmarked tems prevang; there s a consderabe porton of
technca terms and earned words; there s a sght quanttatve
ncrease n regonay marked words - these are many
Amercansms; prex BFs, whch generay represent a mnor cass,
contnue to be formed; the type descrbed as nectona BFs
appears to be n contnung decne; ad|ectves formed from agent
nouns are a new type that mght contnue n occurrence.
To concude the present research, t has conrmed that BF can be
consdered an anaysabe and productve word-formaton process, whch
has an ndsputabe potenta for generatng new words n the future.
A Morphoogca Anayss of Engsh Compound Words
%ntroduction
In English, words, partiularly ad"etives and nouns, are om!ined into ompound
strutures in a variety of ways. And one they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose
over time. A ompound word is !uilt of two ?or more@ independent words, and has ?at least in
their original form@ a meaning that involves those of their omponents union of two or more
words to onvey a unit idea. <enerally, one of the words is the head of the ompound and the
others its modifiers. Like derived forms, ompounds are independent lexemes in their own
right, and as suh Euikly take on speiali8ed meanings that are not transparently derived
from those of their parts.
T"pes of /ompound
6ompound words divided into three types2 hyphenated, written open ?as separate words@, or
written solid ?losed@.
1. , h"phenated compound5
A hyphenated ompound also alled a unit modifier is simply a om!ination of
words "oined !y a hyphen or hyphens. #he hyphen is a mark of puntuation that
not only unites !ut separates the omponent wordsA thus, it aids understanding
and reada!ility and ensures orret pronuniation. :ords are hyphenated
mainly to express the idea of a unit and to avoid am!iguity.
Example 2
quick-acting baking poder 34t acts quick3ly55
fast-falling sno 34t falls fast5
snappy-looking suit 34t looks snappy5
light-stepping horse 34t steps lightly5
odd-seeming sentence 34t seems odd5
. ,n open compound5
An open ompound is a om!ination of words so losely assoiated that they
onvey the idea of a single onept !ut are spelled as unonneted words.
Examples2
lan tennis
canyon head
player piano
#. , solid 2closed4 compound5
A solid ?losed@ ompound om!ines two or more short words into one and
appear as one.
Examples2
6reakdon
7ouseife
Playground
Basic Rules of /ompound -ords
1. -ord pairs can form different meanings 'hen 'ritten as solid compound.
anyay ?regardless@
any ay ?in any manner or way@
blue bird ?any !ird olored !lue@
bluebird ?a !ird of the genus /ilalia@
high light ?an elevated light@
highlight ?as a noun means the most outstanding part@
highlight ?as a verb means to give special emphasis or bring attention to@
under ay ?as an adverb means in motion, in process@
underay ?as an ad*ective means occurring, performed, or used hile
traveling or in motion@
. .ome 'ord that are 'ritten as solid or h"phenated compound 'ords ma" not gi(e the
same meaning if the" are not connected.
areaide freshater policymaker
bottomfishing icebreaking shoreline
donhole onshore
#. /ertain compound 'ords are 'ritten separatel"3 +ut 'ritten using h"phen 'hen used
as ad$ecti(e +efore noun.
deep sea ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++deep-sea animals
deep ater +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++deep-ater technology
food eb+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++food-eb dependencies
dark green++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++dark-green cars
?. -hen "ou are a+out to ma*e a compound 'ord consists of (er+ and prepositions or
ad(er+3 'rite them as t'o 'ords. Ao'e(er 'hen "ou used them as ad$ecti(es and
nouns3 'rite them as one 'ord 'ithout h"phen.
verb noun or adjective
break up +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++breakup
build up+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++buildup
run off +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++runoff
shut don+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++shutdon
shut in +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++shut-in
Prefi)3 .uffi) and /om+ining Forms
,. Csually ompound words that onsists prefix and suffix or om!ining forms are
printed solid ?without spae or hyphen@. However, hyphen an !e used to avoid
dou!ling vowels and tripling onsonants. A hyphen is also used to "oin a prefix or
om!ining form to a apitali8ed word.
cooperation preexisting pre-8eogene
postlease presale prelease
hull-less shell-like un-American
micro-organism ultra-atomic
recreation 3leisure5, re-creation 3create again5
recover 3return to normal5, re-cover 3cover again5
*. A prefix that stands alone !ut as a representative of a ompound word must !e
written using hyphen.
over' and underused
micro' and maroeonomis
#he pre' and postsale ativities were doumented.
#he pre' and postlease sale reports were ompleted
Unit =odifiers
6ompound modifiers are seEuenes of modifiers of a noun that funtion as a single unit. It
onsists of two or more words ?ad"etives, adver!s, gerunds, or nouns@ of whih the left'hand
word modifies the right'hand one.
1. Use the h"phen to $oin t'o or more 'ords in a unit modifier +efore a noun.
large-scale pro*ect ++++++++++++++++++++++++++the pro*ect is large scale
bluish-green sea++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++the sea as bluish green
9-inch-diameter pipe +++++++++++++++++++++++a pipe 9 inches in diameter
. -hen the meaning is clear or 'hen a compound is 'ell esta+lished or 'idel" *no'n3
'e can omit the h"phen.
bohead hale study natural gas company
grey hale migration oil and gas lease sale activities
high school student royalty bidding system
land use program :iocene age strata
#. Do not use h"phens 'ith unit modifiers 'hen the first element is a comparati(e or
superlati(e.
better drained soil larger sized grains
higher level decision loer income group
6umerical /ompound
A unit modifier ontaining a numeral or spelled'out num!er is usually hyphenated.
;<-kilometer-long canal
9-square-mile section
=>-minute test
;-to-= slope
=<,>?<- to ==,;;<-foot intervals
to-thirds
9-@-inch pipe
= 9-@-inch pipe
= =-;-inch pipe
;-ft hole
.ingle Cetter /ompound
Cse a hyphen to "oin a single apital letter to a noun or partiiple.
4-beam A-ray
2-boat !-square
/ompass Direction
6ompass diretion that onsists two points are written as a solid ompound words.
northeast
southestetc
/O==E6T5
#his artile overs what is the meaning of ompound, the examples of ompound
words, also rules and types of ompound words. Hene, !y reading this artile we an
understand what a ompound word is and how to write it or how to distinguish them.
However we still find a lak that is the writer didn9t provide the history of the ompound
word, how it is formed in the early era and how it is developed until now. Also the writer
didn9t provide lear reasons toward eah rules of writing ompound words.
Engsh Morphoogy
-s: The atest sang sumx
@afsah GahraH utari @urha+ati
Sang -s s avaabe n at east some Canadan, Amercan, and
Brtsh daects of Engsh
In Urban Dctonary, whch has been onne snce 1999, most of the
words wth sang -s have been added between 2003 and 2005
2006 (Da L for Loser, Ls Harrson), and aters n a short story n a
2008 ssue of Asan-Amercan magazne Hyphen
#otally #otes
However Howevs
&ro!a!ly &ro!s
Favorite Faves
&erfet &erfs
>!viously >!vs
:hatever :hatevs
Fa!ulous Fa!s
;eal ;eals
May!e Ma!esJ May!s
LaterJ see you later laters
Morphological anal+sis
$% lipping
When cppng occurs wth sang -s, the word s often reduced to the
rst cosed syabe, as n totes and perfs.
Obvs s an nterestng exampe, snce t ends n a consonant custer,
consstng of the coda of the rst syabe and the onset of the
foowng syabe.
Sang -s coud possby be a form of embeshed cppng.
However, the fact that some words wth sang -s do not undergo
cppng, such as for reas and aters
'% "dverb Is
The OED ncudes another -s (sumx )
Orgnay a gentve sumx for Od Engsh nouns
Athough many sang -s words are adverbs, t s unkey that the
new sumx s derved from ths oder adverb-markng one
As seen n Tabe, sang -s can attach to a wde varety of word
casses
The sumx seems east commony attached to nouns
-s aways attaches to a cosed syabe
Sang -s, when combned wth cppng, coud potentay be used
for convenence
Many of the ad|ectves wth sang -s are used as a verb compement
rather than a noun moder
Asage Distribution
Athough present n spoken Engsh, sang -s seems to be even
more prevaent n wrtten anguage, partcuary n casua onne
wrtng and textng.
The -s s occasonay speed wth <z> n some nstances.
for exampe, the m tte Boyz n the Hood (1991).
onclusion
Sang -s s often accompaned by a cppng process, and s reated
or smar to other sumxaton processes n Engsh
sang words derved from cppng, to whch sang -s s cosey ted
Herarchca Morphoogca Structure and Ambguty
1. =orphological ,nal"sis
a. Aierarchical morphos"ntactic anal"sis
It deals with the property of the affix whih word lass it may om!ine with, and
what the resulting word lass is.
3=5 'ity 2 Aff, W
.
Ad" [[[ X
#he suffix Bity om!ines only with an ad"etive, and the result is always a
noun2 W
Ad"
legalX I WityX \ W
.
legalityX.
3;5 -able
B
C Aff, D
Ad*
B EEE F
#he suffix Ba!le om!ines with a ver!, and the result is always an ad"etive.
W
=
readX I Wa!leX \ W
Ad"
reada!leX
395 -able
8
C Aff, D
Ad*
8 EEE F
#he suffix Ba!le om!ines with a noun, and the result is always an ad"etive.
W
.
lokX I Wa!leX \ W
Ad"
loka!leX
3@5 'ify 2 Aff, W
=
. [[[ X
#he suffix Bify om!ines only with a noun, and the result is always a ver!.
W
.
lassX I WifyX \ W
=
lassifyX
3>5 re' 2 Aff, W
=
[[[ = X
#he prefix re' om!ines only with a ver!, and the result is always a ver!.
WreX I W
=
sendX \ W
=
resendX
3?5 un
Ad*
- C Aff, D
Ad*
EEE Ad* F
#he prefix un' om!ines with an ad"etive, and the result is always an
ad"etive.
WunX I W
Ad"
happy

X \ W
Ad"
unhappyX
3G5 un
B
- C Aff, D
B
EEE B F
#he prefix un' om!ines with a ver!, and the result is always a ver!.
WunX I W
=
doX \ W
=
undoX
+. =orphosemantic anal"sis
It deals with the strutural meaning of words.
?,@ &refix re'
re' only om!ines with ver!s that imply a result, and that this result may not
!e Lfinite, fixed or permanentM. =er!s like yan or push do not imply result'
states, and therefore there is no ]reyan or ]repush. 3imilarly, there is no
]reeat the apple, !eause the result'state annot !e o!tained again.
. ,m+iguit"
- #he am!iguity of un'^'a!le
a. #he two prefixes un'
?,@ Cn
Ad"
' has the su! ategori8ation frame W
Ad"
[[[ Ad" X and a negative
meaning. For example, untrue, unclean, unclear+ #heir meanings are
o!tained !y negation of the !ase ad"etive, i.e2 not true, not lean, not
omforta!le.
?*@ Cn
=
' has the su! ategori8ation frame W
=
[[[ = X and a reversative
meaning. For example, unlock, unload, unfollo+ Cn
=
' implies that it only
om!ines with ver!s denoting an event that yields a result whih is not
permanent.

!. #he two suffixes Ba!le
3=5 Ba!le
.
has the su!ategori8ation frame W
Ad"
. [[[ X and means something
like Lthe thing in Euestion is full of .M. For example, fashionable,
comfortable, reasonable+
3;5 'a!le
=
has the su!ategori8ation frame W
Ad"
= [[[ X and means something
like Lit is possi!le to = the thing in EuestionM. For example, readable,
acceptable, admirable+ #he semantis of 'a!le
=
thus reEuires that the
ver! with whih it om!ines must have an agent and a patient.
. #he am!iguity
a@ Cnloka!le
Ad"
2 WunX I W
Ad"
loka!leX
Loka!le means Lan !e lokedM. It om!ines with prefix Bun resulting
meaning Lannot !e lokedM.
!@ Cnloka!le
Ad"
2 W
=
unlokX I Wa!leX
Cnlok means Lause the door to !e in state not fastenedM. #hen it
om!ines with suffix Ba!le resulting meaning Lan !e unlokedM
#. Unam+iguous 'ords on un-G-a+le
a. #he ver! denotes an event whih is not reversi!le
#he event denoted !y the ver! prefixed !y un
=
must yield a result'state whih
is reversi!le and not permanent. #his is not the ase for e.g. read or drink,
where a !ook an not !e unread one it has !een read.
!. #he ver! does not denote and event whih implies a result state
It is atually not possi!le Lto ununderstand someoneM, Lto unlike someoneM or
Lto un!elieve somethingM, and it is onseEuently predited that
ununderstanda!le, unlikea!le, and un!elievea!le are not am!iguous. #hey
an not have the meaning Lthat may !e !rought into the state of not !eing
understoodJlikedJ!elievedM, !ut only the meaning Lthat may not !e !rought
into the state of !eing likedJ!elievedJunderstoodM.
. #he same un' annot apply twie
If un
Ad"
were to apply twie, one of them would B so to speak B anel out the
other, and this is presuma!ly why this is not possi!le. For example,
ununhappy, ununloka!le.
?. Cac* of am+iguit" in other multimorphemic 'ords
Most multimorphemi words in English do not show an am!iguity like the one
found in unloka!le'words. For instane, relassify and reloada!le are !oth
unam!iguous and have only one morphologial struture eah. #hus, re'lassify
and reload'a!le are possi!le, !ut relass'ify and re'loada!le are not.
#he paper !y 6arl =ikner a!ove is very hallenging. It makes us think
systematially. (efore understanding a!out the am!iguity, we have to understand
the onept of morphologial analysis and its orrelation with syntax and
semantis. It is very helpful for us to learn more a!out morphologial am!iguity.
On the ."nchronic Rele(ance of Bac*-Formation
>ne of word formation proess is !ak'formation or !ak derivation whih has
reeived little attention in the orresponding literature. (ak'formation is a proess alled
analogy to derive new word !ut in a rather !akwards manner. (ak'formation in English is
surrounded !y onsidera!le unertainty and there is still a great amount of indeision with its
interpretation. #he writer thinks that this phenomenon !eause of an unertainty and also
!eause its inreasing signifiane as a means of voa!ulary extension that !ak'formation
deserves more attention than it has so far attrated studies on word'formation.
1. Bac*-formation (ie'ed reanal"sis
(ak'formation is treated most freEuently as the reanalysis or metanalysisof
morphologially not or only partially analy8a!le nouns and ad"etives. #here are
ways or pattern for some word whih an !e derived as !ak'formation2
a. (y removing their presumed or atual suffixes
Babysitter
(N)
Babysit
(V)
Editor
(N)
Edit
(V)
!. Aronoff9s !ak' formation reanalysis
;eanalysis an also !e oneived of as undoing previous derivation
Transcription
(N)
Transcribe
(V)
instead of Transcript
(V)
Self-destruction
(N)
Self-destroy
(V)
instead of Self-destruct
(V)
. .agano has o!served that with respet to a great num!er of irregular instanes
of !ak'formation the undoing of a !ak'formation rule is irrelevant either
!eause of the non'existene of suh rule.
eevis!
(N)
eeve
(V)
?-is! is no longer produtive as a ver!al suffix@
"rivolous
(N)
"rivol
(V)
?-ous does not add to ver! !ases@
e#asus
(N)
e#ase
(V)
?-us is not a derivational suffix@
. Bac*-formation (ie'ed as con(ersion plus clipping
.agano9s interpretation of !ak'formation, namely that it annot !e desri!ed as
the reversed appliation of a word'formation rule and that it is anti'ioni an !e
eliminated !y onsidering it as "oint appliation of two word'formation
proess2onversion and lipping. .agano argues that !ak'formation parallels
onversion in that it also laks in ioniity.
$lean
(N)
$lean
(V)
Bicycle
(N)
Bicycle
(V)
.agano also laims that in the proess of !ak'formation onversion is
aompanied !y lipping. #his segment, as was presented a!ove, is often not a
derivational morpheme of English. 3uh as Pegase
3B5
from Pegasus
385
, sine ?'us@
is not a derivational suffix, it is not unexpeted, sine unpredita!ility of the
deleted material is one of the !asi harateristi of lipping.
#hese features of lipping are present in onversion'!ak'formation dou!lets like
(uther
?=@ \
!uth
?=@
Csh
?=@
\ usher
?=@
(elow, the interpretation of !ak'formation as onversion plus lipping
#. Bac*-formation5 a diachronic or a s"nchronic processH
Marhand ?,/)/@ has !een proofing that !ak'formation is diahroni proess. As
the example,peddle
?=@
is !ak'formation from peddler
?.@
, !y deleting Ber is only
interesting historially.
Yiparsky ?,/1*@ also argues that the fats that beg
?=@
, mix
?=@
, and in*ure
?=@
are !ak'
formation from beggar
?.@
, mixt
?A@
3mixed5
?A@
, and in*ury
?.@
.
In other hand, the writer ?Martsa3andor@ insists that there is room for the
synhroni interpretation of !ak'formation espeially as far as the inreasing
num!er of ompound ver!s derived from syntheti ompound nouns and
ad"etives is onerned.
Here are some demonstrated examples whih assumed synhroni potential
appears to aount for emergene of suh ?potential@ instanes of !ak'formation
that ?for the time !eing@ may !e re"eted !y most speakers of English.
a% Mr. Alivi"eh, who has !een ta&i-drivin# for ,5 years, always maintained his
innoene and also reported the matter to the polie >m!usdsman.
b% #he front row Wof a heaterX is not a good plae to people-watc!
c% #he Amerian people an reality-test for themselves
d% W#his eletroni ditionaryX spell-correct 14,+++ words.
#he synhroni potential is traea!le not only in forming ompound ver!s, !ut also in
forming from derived noun and ad"etive, !ut derived noun and ad"etive here are
having little !it different meaning of the derivation.
a+
(urglar
?.@
\ !urgle
?=@
6urgle
3B5
means to enter the !uilding !y fore
6urglar
385
is a person who enters a !uilding espeially !y fore in order to steal,
sine semantially it is not derived from annot !e desri!ed as Gone who !urgle9
b+
$nthusiasm
385
\ $nthuse
3B5
$nthuse
3B5
means to show or speak with great exitement, admiration or interest,
$nthusiasm
385
is astron feeling or exitement, admiration or interest, semantially
annot !e desri!ed as Gthe at of feeling9
!his article explained about process of back-formation+ Although a great mount of
ords that came from back-formation is diachronic process, but, as it has been pointed out,
recent publications allo for synchronic relevance+ 7oever, there are some eakness
points+ /uch as lack of understandable irregular process and the existence of ne ord in
dictionary, it blocked us to interpret the process of back format+
Base J conversion J
clipping
|Author|
N
||author|
N
|
V

|auth|
V
|Babystter|
N
||babystter|
N
|
V

|babyst|
V
_*+,-