Van de Ven, Explaining Development and Change 1995

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Explaining development and change in organizations

Van de Ven, Andrew H; Poole, Marshall Scott
Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Review; Jul 1995; 20, 3; ABI/INFORM Global
pg. 510
e Academy of Management Review
1995, Vol. 20, No.3, 510-540.
EXPLAINING DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
IN ORGANIZATIONS
ANDREW H. VAN DE VEN
University of Minnesota
MARSHALL SCOTT POOLE
Texas A&:M University
This article introduces four basic theories that may serve as building
blocks for explaining processes of change in organizations: life cycle.
teleology. dialectics. and evolution. These four theories represent dif-
ferent sequences of change events that are driven by different con-
ceptual motors and operate at different organizational levels. This
article identifies the circumstances when each theory applies and
proposes how interplay among the theories produces a wide variety of
more complex theories of change and development in organizational
life.
Explaining how and why organizations change has been a central
and enduring quest of scholars in management and many other disci-
plines. The processes or sequences of events that unfold in these
changes-such as transitions in individuals' jobs and careers. group for-
mation and development. and organizational innovation, growth, reorga-
nization, and decline-have been very difficult to explain, let alone man-
age. To understand how organizations change, management scholars
have borrowed many concepts, metaphors, and theories from other dis-
ciplines, ranging from child development to evolutionary biology. These
concepts include punctuated equilibrium, stages of growth, processes of
decay and death, population ecology, functional models of change and
development. cmd chaos theory. This variation has created a theoretical
pluralism that has uncovered novel ways to explain some organizational
change and developmental processes. However, the diversity of theories
and concepts borrowed from different disciplines often encourages com-
partmentalization of perspectives that do not enrich each other and pro-
duce isolated lines of research (Gioia & Pitre, 1990). As Poggie (1965: 284)
said, "A way of seeing is a way of not seeing."
It is the interplay between different perspectives that helps one gain
We appreciate useful comments on earlier drafts of this paper from Joseph Galask-
iewicz, David Knoke, Brian Pentland, Douglas Polley, David Rarick, Richard Scott, anony-
mous AMR reviewers, as well as many other colleagues from presentations of this paper at
the University of Minnesota, Stanford University, and the Texas Conference on Organiza
tions in 1994.
510
e Academy of Management Review
1995, Vol. 20, No.3, 510-540.
EXPLAINING DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
IN ORGANIZATIONS
ANDREW H. VAN DE VEN
University of Minnesota
MARSHALL SCOTT POOLE
Texas A&:M University
This article introduces four basic theories that may serve as building
blocks for explaining processes of change in organizations: life cycle.
teleology. dialectics. and evolution. These four theories represent dif-
ferent sequences of change events that are driven by different con-
ceptual motors and operate at different organizational levels. This
article identifies the circumstances when each theory applies and
proposes how interplay among the theories produces a wide variety of
more complex theories of change and development in organizational
life.
Explaining how and why organizations change has been a central
and enduring quest of scholars in management and many other disci-
plines. The processes or sequences of events that unfold in these
changes-such as transitions in individuals' jobs and careers. group for-
mation and development. and organizational innovation, growth, reorga-
nization, and decline-have been very difficult to explain, let alone man-
age. To understand how organizations change, management scholars
have borrowed many concepts, metaphors, and theories from other dis-
ciplines, ranging from child development to evolutionary biology. These
concepts include punctuated equilibrium, stages of growth, processes of
decay and death, population ecology, functional models of change and
development. cmd chaos theory. This variation has created a theoretical
pluralism that has uncovered novel ways to explain some organizational
change and developmental processes. However, the diversity of theories
and concepts borrowed from different disciplines often encourages com-
partmentalization of perspectives that do not enrich each other and pro-
duce isolated lines of research (Gioia & Pitre, 1990). As Poggie (1965: 284)
said, "A way of seeing is a way of not seeing."
It is the interplay between different perspectives that helps one gain
We appreciate useful comments on earlier drafts of this paper from Joseph Galask-
iewicz, David Knoke, Brian Pentland, Douglas Polley, David Rarick, Richard Scott, anony-
mous AMR reviewers, as well as many other colleagues from presentations of this paper at
the University of Minnesota, Stanford University, and the Texas Conference on Organiza
tions in 1994.
510
1995 Van de Ven and Poole 511
a more comprehensive understanding of organizational life. because any
one theoretical perspective invariably offers only a partial account of a
complex phenomenon. Moreover. the juxtaposition of different theoretical
perspectives brings into focus contrasting worldviews of social change
and development. Working out the relationships between such seemingly
divergent views provides opportunities to develop new theory that has
stronger and broader explanatory power than the initial perspectives.
Some integration is thus desirable. but it must preserve the distinc-
tiveness of alternative theories of organizational change and develop-
ment. We contend that such integration is possible if different perspec-
tives are viewed as providing alternative pictures of the same
organizational processes without nullifying each other. This can be
achieved by identifying the viewpoints from which each theory applies
and the circumstances when these theories are interrelated. This ap-
proach preserves the authenticity of distinct theories. and at the same
time advances theory bUilding. because it highlights circumstances when
interplays among the theories may provide stronger and broader explan-
atory power of organizational change and development processes (Van de
Ven & Poole. 1988; Poole & Van de Ven. 1989).
We apply this approach in three parts of this article. On the basis of
an interdisciplinary literature review. Part I introduces four basic types of
process theories that explain how and why change unfolds in social or
biological entities: life-cycle. teleological. dialectical. and evolutionary
theories. These four types represent fundamentally different event se-
quences and generative mechanisms-we will call them motors-to ex-
plain how and why changes unfold. Part II arranges these four ideal-type
process theories into a typology by distinguishing the level and mode of
change to which each theory applies. Part III considers how the typology
is useful for understanding a variety of specific theories of change pro-
cesses in organizations. We contend that all specific theories of organi-
zational change and development can be built from one or more of the four
basic types. Although some theories can be reduced to one of the motors.
most are predicated on the interplay of two or more motors. We consider
a scheme of 16 logical explanations of organizational change and devel-
opment based on various combinations of the four motors and some ex-
emplars.
We believe this framework is useful in several ways. First. it is a step
toward more parsimonious explanations of organizational change and
development. It uncovers similarities in seemingly different theories of
change or development and highlights the "differences that make a dif-
ference" in explanations. The four motors serve as theoretical "primi-
tives" facilitating the integration of related explanations. Second. the
framework serves normative functions. The four basic theories provide
useful standards to evaluate the form. completeness. and tightness of
specific developmental theories. Third. this framework promotes new
theories by identifying possible explanations of organizational change
and development that do not yet exist in the literature. Fourth. the frame-
a more comprehensive understanding of organizational life. because any
one theoretical perspective invariably offers only a partial account of a
complex phenomenon. Moreover. the juxtaposition of different theoretical
perspectives brings into focus contrasting worldviews of social change
and development. Working out the relationships between such seemingly
divergent views provides opportunities to develop new theory that has
stronger and broader explanatory power than the initial perspectives.
Some integration is thus desirable. but it must preserve the distinc-
tiveness of alternative theories of organizational change and develop-
ment. We contend that such integration is possible if different perspec-
tives are viewed as providing alternative pictures of the same
organizational processes without nullifying each other. This can be
achieved by identifying the viewpoints from which each theory applies
and the circumstances when these theories are interrelated. This ap-
proach preserves the authenticity of distinct theories. and at the same
time advances theory bUilding. because it highlights circumstances when
interplays among the theories may provide stronger and broader explan-
atory power of organizational change and development processes (Van de
Ven & Poole. 1988; Poole & Van de Ven. 1989).
We apply this approach in three parts of this article. On the basis of
an interdisciplinary literature review. Part I introduces four basic types of
process theories that explain how and why change unfolds in social or
biological entities: life-cycle. teleological. dialectical. and evolutionary
theories. These four types represent fundamentally different event se-
quences and generative mechanisms-we will call them motors-to ex-
plain how and why changes unfold. Part II arranges these four ideal-type
process theories into a typology by distinguishing the level and mode of
change to which each theory applies. Part III considers how the typology
is useful for understanding a variety of specific theories of change pro-
cesses in organizations. We contend that all specific theories of organi-
zational change and development can be built from one or more of the four
basic types. Although some theories can be reduced to one of the motors.
most are predicated on the interplay of two or more motors. We consider
a scheme of 16 logical explanations of organizational change and devel-
opment based on various combinations of the four motors and some ex-
emplars.
We believe this framework is useful in several ways. First. it is a step
toward more parsimonious explanations of organizational change and
development. It uncovers similarities in seemingly different theories of
change or development and highlights the "differences that make a dif-
ference" in explanations. The four motors serve as theoretical "primi-
tives" facilitating the integration of related explanations. Second. the
framework serves normative functions. The four basic theories provide
useful standards to evaluate the form. completeness. and tightness of
specific developmental theories. Third. this framework promotes new
theories by identifying possible explanations of organizational change
and development that do not yet exist in the literature. Fourth. the frame-
512 Academy of Management Review July
work supports inductive research by identifying characteristics of the four
motors and the conditions under which they are likely to operate. Rather
than working from preconceived change theories. we can test the exis-
tence of the primitive motors in order to see which fits the complex phe-
nomenon being examined. This testing helps to prevent the self-fulfilling
prophecies that may occur when a researcher expects a certain number of
stages of development or a certain process; it is too easy to find evidence
in complex processes for whatever one expects and therefore to ignore
other motors (Poole. 1981).
Throughout this article. we refer to process as the progression (Le .
the order and sequence) of events in an organizational entity's existence
over time.
1
Change, one type of event. is an empirical observation of
difference in form. quality. or state over time in an organizational entity.
The entity may be an individual's job. a work group. an organizational
strategy. a program. a product. or the overall organization. Development
is a change process (Le .. a progression of change events that unfold dur-
ing the duration of an entity's existence-from the initiation or onset of
the entity to its end or termination). Finally. we refer to a process theory
as an explanation of how and why an organizational entity changes and
develops. This explanation should identify the generative mechanisms
that cause observed events to happen and the particular circumstances or
contingencies behind these causal mechanisms (Harre & Madden. 1975;
Tsoukas. 1989).
We have chosen abstract and general definitions because we wish to
open the field to a wide range of theories. Also. we wish to avoid the
common assumption that all development represents progress from a
lower. simpler state to a higher. more complex one. This is one possible
path development may follow. but it is not the only one. Organizational
development can also follow a regressive path. as in the case of organi-
zational decline (Kimberly & Miles. 1980). or a pathological path. as in
Merton's (1968) vicious cycle of bureaucracy.
I. FOUR IDEAL-TYPE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
We conducted an interdisciplinary literature review to identify alter-
native theories used to explain processes of change in the social. biolog-
ical. and physical sciences.
2
We found about 20 different process theories
I Our developmental view of process should not be confused with two other uses of
process in the management literature. Here. process refers to either (1) the underlying logic
that explains a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables in a
variance theory or (2) a category of concepts of organizational actions (e.g . rates of com-
munications. work flows. decision-making techniques. or methods for strategy making).
These concepts or mechanisms may be at work to explain an organizational result. but they
do not describe how these variables or mechanisms unfold or change over time.
2 This review was assisted by a computerized literature search across disciplines us-
ing change and development as keywords. To our surprise. more than I million articles
have been published on the subject in the disciplines of psychology. sociology. education.
work supports inductive research by identifying characteristics of the four
motors and the conditions under which they are likely to operate. Rather
than working from preconceived change theories. we can test the exis-
tence of the primitive motors in order to see which fits the complex phe-
nomenon being examined. This testing helps to prevent the self-fulfilling
prophecies that may occur when a researcher expects a certain number of
stages of development or a certain process; it is too easy to find evidence
in complex processes for whatever one expects and therefore to ignore
other motors (Poole. 1981).
Throughout this article. we refer to process as the progression (Le .
the order and sequence) of events in an organizational entity's existence
over time.
1
Change, one type of event. is an empirical observation of
difference in form. quality. or state over time in an organizational entity.
The entity may be an individual's job. a work group. an organizational
strategy. a program. a product. or the overall organization. Development
is a change process (Le .. a progression of change events that unfold dur-
ing the duration of an entity's existence-from the initiation or onset of
the entity to its end or termination). Finally. we refer to a process theory
as an explanation of how and why an organizational entity changes and
develops. This explanation should identify the generative mechanisms
that cause observed events to happen and the particular circumstances or
contingencies behind these causal mechanisms (Harre & Madden. 1975;
Tsoukas. 1989).
We have chosen abstract and general definitions because we wish to
open the field to a wide range of theories. Also. we wish to avoid the
common assumption that all development represents progress from a
lower. simpler state to a higher. more complex one. This is one possible
path development may follow. but it is not the only one. Organizational
development can also follow a regressive path. as in the case of organi-
zational decline (Kimberly & Miles. 1980). or a pathological path. as in
Merton's (1968) vicious cycle of bureaucracy.
I. FOUR IDEAL-TYPE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
We conducted an interdisciplinary literature review to identify alter-
native theories used to explain processes of change in the social. biolog-
ical. and physical sciences.
2
We found about 20 different process theories
I Our developmental view of process should not be confused with two other uses of
process in the management literature. Here. process refers to either (1) the underlying logic
that explains a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables in a
variance theory or (2) a category of concepts of organizational actions (e.g . rates of com-
munications. work flows. decision-making techniques. or methods for strategy making).
These concepts or mechanisms may be at work to explain an organizational result. but they
do not describe how these variables or mechanisms unfold or change over time.
2 This review was assisted by a computerized literature search across disciplines us-
ing change and development as keywords. To our surprise. more than I million articles
have been published on the subject in the disciplines of psychology. sociology. education.
that vary in substance or terminology across disciplines. By inductively
examining the substarice and intellectual heritage of these theories. we
found that most of them could be grouped into four basic schools of
thought. Each of these four schools has a rich and long-standing intellec-
tual tradition. although various disciplines use different terminologies.
We will refer to them as life-cycle. teleology. dialectics. and evolution
theories. Table 1 outlines the four types of process theories in terms of
their members. pioneering scholars. event progressions. generative
mechanisms. and conditions under which they are likely to operate.
These theories provide fundamentally different accounts of the sequence
of events that unfold to explain the process of change in an organizational
entity.
This section describes the four process theories in their pure ideal-
type forms. As discussed in Part III. scholars often combine elements of
these ideal types to explain observed processes of change in specific
areas or contexts. However. in such cases it is very easy for the concep-
tual basis of specific theories to become obscure. As Kaplan (1964)
warned. borrowing concepts from different theories without understand-
ing the theoretical "roots" of these concepts can produce confounded ex-
planations.
Life-Cycle Theory
Many management scholars have adopted the metaphor of organic
growth as a heuristic device to explain development in an organizational
entity from its initiation to its termination. Witness. for example. often-
used references to the life cycle of organizations. products. and ventures.
as well as stages in the development of individual careers. groups. and
organizations: startup births. adolescent growth. maturity. and decline or
death. Life-cycle theories include developmentalism (Nisbet. 1970). bio-
genesis (Featherman. 1986). ontogenesis (Baltes. Dittman-Kohli. & Dixon.
1986). and a number of stage theories of child development (Piaget. 1975).
human development (Levinson. 1978). moral development (Kohlberg.
1969). organizational development (Kimberly & Miles. 1980). group deci-
sion-making stages (Bales & Strodtbeck. 1951). and new venture develop-
ment (Burgelman & Sayles. 1986).3 Next to teleology. life cycle is perhaps
business, and economics, as well as biology, medicine, meteorology, and geography. Of
course, not all these articles addressed theories of change or development; the vast majority
focused on other substantive issues and dealt with change processes in a cursory fashion.
To cope with this prolific literature, we reviewed about 200,000 titles and perused about 2,000
abstracts, which led us to carefully read about 200 articles that were useful in identifying
about 20 different process theories of development or change.
3 The classification of management and organization literature into the life-cycle and
other ideal types of theories in this article is very loose and done for illustrative purposes.
Because little attention has been given to underlying theories of change processes in the
management and organization literature, it is difficult to know what specific theories of
change the authors of cited works had in mind.
that vary in substance or terminology across disciplines. By inductively
examining the substarice and intellectual heritage of these theories. we
found that most of them could be grouped into four basic schools of
thought. Each of these four schools has a rich and long-standing intellec-
tual tradition. although various disciplines use different terminologies.
We will refer to them as life-cycle. teleology. dialectics. and evolution
theories. Table 1 outlines the four types of process theories in terms of
their members. pioneering scholars. event progressions. generative
mechanisms. and conditions under which they are likely to operate.
These theories provide fundamentally different accounts of the sequence
of events that unfold to explain the process of change in an organizational
entity.
This section describes the four process theories in their pure ideal-
type forms. As discussed in Part III. scholars often combine elements of
these ideal types to explain observed processes of change in specific
areas or contexts. However. in such cases it is very easy for the concep-
tual basis of specific theories to become obscure. As Kaplan (1964)
warned. borrowing concepts from different theories without understand-
ing the theoretical "roots" of these concepts can produce confounded ex-
planations.
Life-Cycle Theory
Many management scholars have adopted the metaphor of organic
growth as a heuristic device to explain development in an organizational
entity from its initiation to its termination. Witness. for example. often-
used references to the life cycle of organizations. products. and ventures.
as well as stages in the development of individual careers. groups. and
organizations: startup births. adolescent growth. maturity. and decline or
death. Life-cycle theories include developmentalism (Nisbet. 1970). bio-
genesis (Featherman. 1986). ontogenesis (Baltes. Dittman-Kohli. & Dixon.
1986). and a number of stage theories of child development (Piaget. 1975).
human development (Levinson. 1978). moral development (Kohlberg.
1969). organizational development (Kimberly & Miles. 1980). group deci-
sion-making stages (Bales & Strodtbeck. 1951). and new venture develop-
ment (Burgelman & Sayles. 1986).3 Next to teleology. life cycle is perhaps
business, and economics, as well as biology, medicine, meteorology, and geography. Of
course, not all these articles addressed theories of change or development; the vast majority
focused on other substantive issues and dealt with change processes in a cursory fashion.
To cope with this prolific literature, we reviewed about 200,000 titles and perused about 2,000
abstracts, which led us to carefully read about 200 articles that were useful in identifying
about 20 different process theories of development or change.
3 The classification of management and organization literature into the life-cycle and
other ideal types of theories in this article is very loose and done for illustrative purposes.
Because little attention has been given to underlying theories of change processes in the
management and organization literature, it is difficult to know what specific theories of
change the authors of cited works had in mind.
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TABLE I
Families of Ideal-Type Theories of Social Change
Family Life Cycle Evolution Dialectic Teleology
Members Developmentalism Darwinian evolution Conflict theory Goal setting. planning
Ontogenesis Mendelian genetics Dialectical materialism Functionalism
Metamorphosis Saltationism Pluralism Social construction
Stage & cyclical models Punctuated equilibrium Collective action Symbolic interaction
Pioneers Comte (1798-1857) Lamarck (1744-1829) Hegel (1770-1831) Mead (1863-1931)
0
Spencer (1820-1903) Darwin (1809-1882) Marx (1818-1883) VVeber(1864-1920)
Q
Il.
Piaget (1896-1980) Mendel (1822-1884) Freud (1856-1939) Simon (1916-)
C1)
i3
Gould & Eldridge (1977) "<
a.
Key Metaphor Organic growth Competitive survival Opposition. conflict Purposeful cooperation
:s:

Q
Logic Imminent program Natural selection among Contradictory forces Envisioned end state
<Q
C1)
Prefigured sequence competitors in a Thesis. antithesis. Social construction
i3
C1)
Compliant adaptation population synthesis Equifinality
::t
::c
C1)
Event Progression Linear & irreversible Recurrent. cumulative. & Recurrent. discontinuous Recurrent. discontinuous ~
sequence of prescribed probabilistic sequence sequence of sequence of
C1)
~
stages in unfolding of of variation. selection. confrontation. conflict. goal setting.
immanent potentials & retention events and synthesis between implementation. and
present at the contradictory values or adaptation of means to
beginning events reach desired end state
Generating Force Prefigured program/rule Population scarcity Conflict & confrontation Goal enactment
regulated by nature. Competition between opposing consensus on means
logic. or institutions Commensalism forces. interests. or cooperation/symbiosis
classes
':
'<
en
.....
~
TABLE I
Families of Ideal-Type Theories of Social Change
Family Life Cycle Evolution Dialectic Teleology
Members Developmentalism Darwinian evolution Conflict theory Goal setting. planning
Ontogenesis Mendelian genetics Dialectical materialism Functionalism
Metamorphosis Saltationism Pluralism Social construction
Stage & cyclical models Punctuated equilibrium Collective action Symbolic interaction
Pioneers Comte (1798-1857) Lamarck (1744-1829) Hegel (1770-1831) Mead (1863-1931)
0
Spencer (1820-1903) Darwin (1809-1882) Marx (1818-1883) VVeber(1864-1920)
Q
Il.
Piaget (1896-1980) Mendel (1822-1884) Freud (1856-1939) Simon (1916-)
C1)
i3
Gould & Eldridge (1977) "<
a.
Key Metaphor Organic growth Competitive survival Opposition. conflict Purposeful cooperation
:s:

Q
Logic Imminent program Natural selection among Contradictory forces Envisioned end state
<Q
C1)
Prefigured sequence competitors in a Thesis. antithesis. Social construction
i3
C1)
Compliant adaptation population synthesis Equifinality
::t
::c
C1)
Event Progression Linear & irreversible Recurrent. cumulative. & Recurrent. discontinuous Recurrent. discontinuous ~
sequence of prescribed probabilistic sequence sequence of sequence of
C1)
~
stages in unfolding of of variation. selection. confrontation. conflict. goal setting.
immanent potentials & retention events and synthesis between implementation. and
present at the contradictory values or adaptation of means to
beginning events reach desired end state
Generating Force Prefigured program/rule Population scarcity Conflict & confrontation Goal enactment
regulated by nature. Competition between opposing consensus on means
logic. or institutions Commensalism forces. interests. or cooperation/symbiosis
classes
':
'<
the most common explanation of development in the management liter-
ature.
According to life-cycle theory. change is imminent: that is. the devel-
oping entity has within it an underlying form. logic. program. or code that
regulates the process of change and moves the entity from a given point
of departure toward a subsequent end that is prefigured in the present
state. Thus. the form that lies latent. premature. or homogeneous in the
embryo or primitive state becomes progressively more realized. mature.
and differentiated. External environmental events and processes can in-
fluence how the entity expresses itself, but they are always mediated by
the immanent logic. rules. or programs that govern the entity's develop-
ment (Van de Ven & Poole. 1988: 37).
The typical progression of change events in a life-cycle model is a
unitary sequence (it follows a single sequence of stages or phases). which
is cumulative (characteristics acquired in earlier stages are retained in
later stages) and conjunctive (the stages are related such that they derive
from a common underlying process). There is such a progression because
the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a specific
historical sequence of events. Each of these events contributes a piece to
the final product. and they must occur in a prescribed order. because each
piece sets the stage for the next. Each stage of development is seen as a
necessary precursor of succeeding stages.
Life-cycle theory parallels the approach of the gross anatomist in
biology. who observes a sequence of developing fetuses. concluding that
each successive stage evolved from the previous one. Hence. Nisbet (1970)
claimed that organizational development is driven by some genetic code
or prefigured program within the developing entity. Flavell (1982) ex-
panded Nisbet's interpretation by discussing a number of historically
driven processes of cognitive development. in which each stage logically
presupposes the next, such as when the development of manipulative
skills precedes writing. There is no reason to suppose organizational
systems could not have such processes as well.
Life-cycle theories of organizational entities often explain develop-
ment in terms of institutional rules or programs that require developmen-
tal activities to progress in a prescribed sequence. For example. the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration regulates a sequence of steps that all firms
must follow to develop and commercialize a new drug or biomedical prod-
uct. Other life-cycle theories rely on logical or natural sequences in the
development of organizational entities. For example. Rogers (1983) pos-
ited five stages of innovation: need recognition. research on problem.
development of idea into useful form. commercialization. and diffusion
and adoption. The order among these stages is necessitated both by logic
and by the natural order of Western business practices.
Teleological Theory
Another school of thought explains development by relying on tele-
ology. or the philosophical doctrine that purpose or goal is the final cause
the most common explanation of development in the management liter-
ature.
According to life-cycle theory. change is imminent: that is. the devel-
oping entity has within it an underlying form. logic. program. or code that
regulates the process of change and moves the entity from a given point
of departure toward a subsequent end that is prefigured in the present
state. Thus. the form that lies latent. premature. or homogeneous in the
embryo or primitive state becomes progressively more realized. mature.
and differentiated. External environmental events and processes can in-
fluence how the entity expresses itself, but they are always mediated by
the immanent logic. rules. or programs that govern the entity's develop-
ment (Van de Ven & Poole. 1988: 37).
The typical progression of change events in a life-cycle model is a
unitary sequence (it follows a single sequence of stages or phases). which
is cumulative (characteristics acquired in earlier stages are retained in
later stages) and conjunctive (the stages are related such that they derive
from a common underlying process). There is such a progression because
the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a specific
historical sequence of events. Each of these events contributes a piece to
the final product. and they must occur in a prescribed order. because each
piece sets the stage for the next. Each stage of development is seen as a
necessary precursor of succeeding stages.
Life-cycle theory parallels the approach of the gross anatomist in
biology. who observes a sequence of developing fetuses. concluding that
each successive stage evolved from the previous one. Hence. Nisbet (1970)
claimed that organizational development is driven by some genetic code
or prefigured program within the developing entity. Flavell (1982) ex-
panded Nisbet's interpretation by discussing a number of historically
driven processes of cognitive development. in which each stage logically
presupposes the next, such as when the development of manipulative
skills precedes writing. There is no reason to suppose organizational
systems could not have such processes as well.
Life-cycle theories of organizational entities often explain develop-
ment in terms of institutional rules or programs that require developmen-
tal activities to progress in a prescribed sequence. For example. the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration regulates a sequence of steps that all firms
must follow to develop and commercialize a new drug or biomedical prod-
uct. Other life-cycle theories rely on logical or natural sequences in the
development of organizational entities. For example. Rogers (1983) pos-
ited five stages of innovation: need recognition. research on problem.
development of idea into useful form. commercialization. and diffusion
and adoption. The order among these stages is necessitated both by logic
and by the natural order of Western business practices.
Teleological Theory
Another school of thought explains development by relying on tele-
ology. or the philosophical doctrine that purpose or goal is the final cause
for guiding movement of an entity. This approach underlies many orga-
nizational theories of change. including functionalism (Merton. 1968). de-
cision making (March & Simon. 1958). epigenesis (Etzioni. 1963). volunta-
rism (Parsons. 1951). social construction (Berger & Luckmann. 1966).
adaptive learning (March & Olsen. 1976). and most models of strategic
planning and goal setting (Chakravarthy & Lorange. 1991).
According to teleology. development of an organizational entity pro-
ceeds toward a goal or an end state. It is assumed that the entity is
purposeful and adaptive; by itself or in interaction with others. the entity
constructs an envisioned end state. takes action to reach it. and mon-
itors the progress. Thus. proponents of this theory view development as a
repetitive sequence of goal formulation. implementation. evaluation. and
modification of goals based on what was learned or intended by the
entity. The theory can operate for an individual or for a group of individ-
uals or organizations who are sufficiently like-minded to act as a single
collective entity. Teleology inherently affords creativity because the en-
tity. consisting of an individual or group. has the freedom to enact what-
ever goals it likes.
Unlike life-cycle theory. teleology does not prescribe a necessary se-
quence of events or specify which trajectory development of the organi-
zational entity will follow. However. this theory implies a standard for
judging change: development is something that moves the entity toward
its final state. Some teleological models incorporate the systems theory
assumption of equifinality (i.e .. there are several equally effective ways
to achieve a goal). In this theory. there is no prefigured rule. logically
necessary direction. or set sequence of stages in a teleological process.
Instead. proponents of this theory focus on the prerequisites for attaining
the goal or end state: the functions that must be fulfilled. the accomplish-
ments that must be achieved. or the components that must be built or
obtained for the end state to be realized. These prerequisites can be used
to assess if an entity is developing; that is. it is growing more complex or
more integrated. or it is filling a necessary set of functions. We are able
to make this assessment because teleological theory posits an envisioned
end state for an entity. and we are able to observe movement toward the
end state vis-a-vis this standard.
Although teleology stresses the purposiveness of the actor or unit as
the motor for change. it also recognizes limits on action. The organiza-
tion's environment and resources constrain what it can accomplish. Some
of these constraints are embodied in prerequisites defined by institutions
and other actors in the entity's environment. Individuals do not override
natural laws or environmental constraints. but they make use of such
laws or constraints to accomplish their purposes (Commons. 1950; Gib-
son. 1988).
Once an entity attains its goal. this does not mean it stays in perma-
nent equilibrium. Goals are socially reconstructed and enacted based on
past actions (Weick. 1979). Influences in the external environment or
within the entity itself may create instabilities that push it toward a new
for guiding movement of an entity. This approach underlies many orga-
nizational theories of change. including functionalism (Merton. 1968). de-
cision making (March & Simon. 1958). epigenesis (Etzioni. 1963). volunta-
rism (Parsons. 1951). social construction (Berger & Luckmann. 1966).
adaptive learning (March & Olsen. 1976). and most models of strategic
planning and goal setting (Chakravarthy & Lorange. 1991).
According to teleology. development of an organizational entity pro-
ceeds toward a goal or an end state. It is assumed that the entity is
purposeful and adaptive; by itself or in interaction with others. the entity
constructs an envisioned end state. takes action to reach it. and mon-
itors the progress. Thus. proponents of this theory view development as a
repetitive sequence of goal formulation. implementation. evaluation. and
modification of goals based on what was learned or intended by the
entity. The theory can operate for an individual or for a group of individ-
uals or organizations who are sufficiently like-minded to act as a single
collective entity. Teleology inherently affords creativity because the en-
tity. consisting of an individual or group. has the freedom to enact what-
ever goals it likes.
Unlike life-cycle theory. teleology does not prescribe a necessary se-
quence of events or specify which trajectory development of the organi-
zational entity will follow. However. this theory implies a standard for
judging change: development is something that moves the entity toward
its final state. Some teleological models incorporate the systems theory
assumption of equifinality (i.e .. there are several equally effective ways
to achieve a goal). In this theory. there is no prefigured rule. logically
necessary direction. or set sequence of stages in a teleological process.
Instead. proponents of this theory focus on the prerequisites for attaining
the goal or end state: the functions that must be fulfilled. the accomplish-
ments that must be achieved. or the components that must be built or
obtained for the end state to be realized. These prerequisites can be used
to assess if an entity is developing; that is. it is growing more complex or
more integrated. or it is filling a necessary set of functions. We are able
to make this assessment because teleological theory posits an envisioned
end state for an entity. and we are able to observe movement toward the
end state vis-a-vis this standard.
Although teleology stresses the purposiveness of the actor or unit as
the motor for change. it also recognizes limits on action. The organiza-
tion's environment and resources constrain what it can accomplish. Some
of these constraints are embodied in prerequisites defined by institutions
and other actors in the entity's environment. Individuals do not override
natural laws or environmental constraints. but they make use of such
laws or constraints to accomplish their purposes (Commons. 1950; Gib-
son. 1988).
Once an entity attains its goal. this does not mean it stays in perma-
nent equilibrium. Goals are socially reconstructed and enacted based on
past actions (Weick. 1979). Influences in the external environment or
within the entity itself may create instabilities that push it toward a new
developmental path. Theories that rely on a teleological process cannot
specify what trajectory development of an organizational entity will fol-
low. Proponents of such theories can at best list a set of possible paths
and then rely on norms of decision rationality or action rationality (Brun-
sson. 1982) to prescribe certain paths.
Dialectical Theory
A third school. dialectical theory, begins with the Hegelian assum p-
tion that the organizational entity exists in a pluralistic world of colliding
events, forces. or contradictory values that compete with each other for
domination and control. These oppositions may be internal to an organi-
zational entity because it may have several conflicting goals or interest
groups competing for priority. Also, oppositions may be external to the
organizational entity as it pursues directions that collide with the direc-
tion of other organizations. In any case. a dialectical theory requires two
or more distinct entities that embody these oppositions to confront and
engage one another in conflict.
In a dialectical process theory. stability and change are explained by
reference to the balance of power between opposing entities. Struggles
and accommodations that maintain the status quo between oppositions
produce stability. Change occurs when these opposing values. forces. or
events gain sufficient power to confront and engage the status quo. The
relative power of an antithesis may mobilize an organizational entity to a
sufficient degree to challenge the current thesis or state of affairs and set
the stage for producing a synthesis. So. for example. an entity subscrib-
ing to a thesis (A) may be challenged by an opposing entity with an
antithesis (Not-A). and the resolution of the conflict produces a synthesis
(which is Not Not-A). Over time. this synthesis can become the new thesis
as the dialectical process continues. By its very nature. the synthesis is a
novel construction that departs from both the thesis and antithesis.
However. there is no assurance that dialectical conflicts produce cre-
ative syntheses. Sometimes an opposition group mobilizes sufficient
power to simply overthrow and replace the status quo. Thus. also, many
organizations persist by maintaining sufficient power to suppress and
prevent the mobilization of opposition groups. In the bargaining and con-
flict management literature. the desired creative synthesis is one that
represents a win-win solution. whereas either the maintenance of the
thesis or its replacement with an antithesis is often treated as a win-lose
outcome of a conflict engagement (Neal & Northcraft. 1991). In terms of
organizational change, maintenance of the status quo represents stabil-
ity. but its replacement with either the antithesis or the synthesis repre-
sents a change. for the better or worse.
Evolutionary Theory
Although evolution is sometimes equated with change. we use evo-
lution in a more restrictive sense to focus on cumulative changes in struc-
developmental path. Theories that rely on a teleological process cannot
specify what trajectory development of an organizational entity will fol-
low. Proponents of such theories can at best list a set of possible paths
and then rely on norms of decision rationality or action rationality (Brun-
sson. 1982) to prescribe certain paths.
Dialectical Theory
A third school. dialectical theory, begins with the Hegelian assum p-
tion that the organizational entity exists in a pluralistic world of colliding
events, forces. or contradictory values that compete with each other for
domination and control. These oppositions may be internal to an organi-
zational entity because it may have several conflicting goals or interest
groups competing for priority. Also, oppositions may be external to the
organizational entity as it pursues directions that collide with the direc-
tion of other organizations. In any case. a dialectical theory requires two
or more distinct entities that embody these oppositions to confront and
engage one another in conflict.
In a dialectical process theory. stability and change are explained by
reference to the balance of power between opposing entities. Struggles
and accommodations that maintain the status quo between oppositions
produce stability. Change occurs when these opposing values. forces. or
events gain sufficient power to confront and engage the status quo. The
relative power of an antithesis may mobilize an organizational entity to a
sufficient degree to challenge the current thesis or state of affairs and set
the stage for producing a synthesis. So. for example. an entity subscrib-
ing to a thesis (A) may be challenged by an opposing entity with an
antithesis (Not-A). and the resolution of the conflict produces a synthesis
(which is Not Not-A). Over time. this synthesis can become the new thesis
as the dialectical process continues. By its very nature. the synthesis is a
novel construction that departs from both the thesis and antithesis.
However. there is no assurance that dialectical conflicts produce cre-
ative syntheses. Sometimes an opposition group mobilizes sufficient
power to simply overthrow and replace the status quo. Thus. also, many
organizations persist by maintaining sufficient power to suppress and
prevent the mobilization of opposition groups. In the bargaining and con-
flict management literature. the desired creative synthesis is one that
represents a win-win solution. whereas either the maintenance of the
thesis or its replacement with an antithesis is often treated as a win-lose
outcome of a conflict engagement (Neal & Northcraft. 1991). In terms of
organizational change, maintenance of the status quo represents stabil-
ity. but its replacement with either the antithesis or the synthesis repre-
sents a change. for the better or worse.
Evolutionary Theory
Although evolution is sometimes equated with change. we use evo-
lution in a more restrictive sense to focus on cumulative changes in struc-
tural forms of populations of organizational entities across communities.
industries. or society at large (Aldrich. 1979; Campbell. 1969; Hannan &
Freeman. 1977).
4
As in biological evolution. change proceeds through a
continuous cycle of variation. selection. and retention. Variations. the
creations of novel forms of organizations. are often viewed to emerge by
blind or random chance; they just happen (Aldrich. 1979; Campbell. 1969).
Selection of organization occurs principally through the competition for
scarce resources. and the environment selects entities that best fit the
resource base of an environmental niche (Hannan & Freeman. 1977). Re-
tention involves forces (including inertia and persistence) that perpetuate
and maintain certain organizational forms. Retention serves to counteract
the self-reinforcing loop between variations and selection. Weick (1979)
and Pfeffer (1982) noted that variations stimulated the selection of new
organizational forms. but retention maintained previous forms and prac-
tices. Thus. evolution explains change as a recurrent. cumulative. and
probabilistic progression of variation. selection. and retention of organi-
zational entities. This motor is prescribed in the sense that one can spec-
ify the actuarial probabilities of the changing demographic characteris-
tics of the population of entities inhabiting a niche. Although one cannot
predict which entity will survive or fail. the overall population persists
and evolves through time. according to the specified population dynam-
ics.
In organization and management applications. evolutionary theory
often depicts global changes in organizational populations (e.g .. Carroll
& Hannan. 1989). although Burgelman (1991) and Singh and Lumsden
(1990) adopted the evolutionary model to explain strategy making within
organizations. and Weick (1979) and Gersick (1991) applied parts of evo-
lutionary theory at a microlevel to explain the social-psychological pro-
cesses of organizing. Whatever the organizational level. an evolutionary
model can be used to focus on processes of variation. selection. and
retention among numerous organizational entities.
Alternative theories of organizational evolution can be distinguished
in terms of how traits are inherited. the rate of change. and the unit of
4 There are many different theories of evolution. Some scholars (e.g .. March. 1994) have
taken a very broad view (evolution equals our definition of development. or the dynamic
sequence of changes over time). We take a more restrictive meaning and focus on adoptions
of biological evolutionary theories. This restriction avoids historical confusions between
early sociological evolutionism and biological evolutionism. Sztompka (1993) pointed out
that early sociologists (e.g .. Comte & Spencer) adopted the metaphor of organic growth {but
not Darwinian or biological ideas} to examine the life span of society from its rudimentary
state toward ever-increasingly more differentiated and "higher" levels. (This early socio-
logical evolutionism is closer to a life-cycle theory than it is to biological evolutionary
theory.) Some absurd extremes were drawn with this theory. and Nisbet (1970) and others
attacked it; thus. most contemporary social scientists have adopted the biological evolu-
tionary theories of Darwin. Lamarck. Gould. and Mendel. We focus only on biological evo-
lution and distinguish its contemporary versions in the organizational and management
literature.
tural forms of populations of organizational entities across communities.
industries. or society at large (Aldrich. 1979; Campbell. 1969; Hannan &
Freeman. 1977).
4
As in biological evolution. change proceeds through a
continuous cycle of variation. selection. and retention. Variations. the
creations of novel forms of organizations. are often viewed to emerge by
blind or random chance; they just happen (Aldrich. 1979; Campbell. 1969).
Selection of organization occurs principally through the competition for
scarce resources. and the environment selects entities that best fit the
resource base of an environmental niche (Hannan & Freeman. 1977). Re-
tention involves forces (including inertia and persistence) that perpetuate
and maintain certain organizational forms. Retention serves to counteract
the self-reinforcing loop between variations and selection. Weick (1979)
and Pfeffer (1982) noted that variations stimulated the selection of new
organizational forms. but retention maintained previous forms and prac-
tices. Thus. evolution explains change as a recurrent. cumulative. and
probabilistic progression of variation. selection. and retention of organi-
zational entities. This motor is prescribed in the sense that one can spec-
ify the actuarial probabilities of the changing demographic characteris-
tics of the population of entities inhabiting a niche. Although one cannot
predict which entity will survive or fail. the overall population persists
and evolves through time. according to the specified population dynam-
ics.
In organization and management applications. evolutionary theory
often depicts global changes in organizational populations (e.g .. Carroll
& Hannan. 1989). although Burgelman (1991) and Singh and Lumsden
(1990) adopted the evolutionary model to explain strategy making within
organizations. and Weick (1979) and Gersick (1991) applied parts of evo-
lutionary theory at a microlevel to explain the social-psychological pro-
cesses of organizing. Whatever the organizational level. an evolutionary
model can be used to focus on processes of variation. selection. and
retention among numerous organizational entities.
Alternative theories of organizational evolution can be distinguished
in terms of how traits are inherited. the rate of change. and the unit of
4 There are many different theories of evolution. Some scholars (e.g .. March. 1994) have
taken a very broad view (evolution equals our definition of development. or the dynamic
sequence of changes over time). We take a more restrictive meaning and focus on adoptions
of biological evolutionary theories. This restriction avoids historical confusions between
early sociological evolutionism and biological evolutionism. Sztompka (1993) pointed out
that early sociologists (e.g .. Comte & Spencer) adopted the metaphor of organic growth {but
not Darwinian or biological ideas} to examine the life span of society from its rudimentary
state toward ever-increasingly more differentiated and "higher" levels. (This early socio-
logical evolutionism is closer to a life-cycle theory than it is to biological evolutionary
theory.) Some absurd extremes were drawn with this theory. and Nisbet (1970) and others
attacked it; thus. most contemporary social scientists have adopted the biological evolu-
tionary theories of Darwin. Lamarck. Gould. and Mendel. We focus only on biological evo-
lution and distinguish its contemporary versions in the organizational and management
literature.
analysis. Organizational scholars who adopt Darwinian evolution (e.g ..
Hannan &: Freeman. 1977. 1989; McKelvey. 1982) argue that traits are in-
herited through intergenerational processes. whereas those who follow
Lamarck (e.g .. Boyd &: Richerson. 1985; Burgelman. 1991; Singh &: Lums-
den. 1990; Weick. 1979) argue that traits are acquired within a generation
through learning and imitation. A Lamarckian view on the acquisition of
traits appears more appropriate than strict Darwinism for organization
and management applications. As McKelvey (1982) pointed out. strict Dar-
winists have developed no adequate solutions to operationally identify
an organizational generation.
Darwinian theorists emphasize a continuous and gradual process of
evolution. In The Origin of Species, Darwin (1936: 361) wrote. "as natural
selection acts solely by accumulating slight. successive. favourable vari-
ations. it can produce no great or sudden modifications; it can act only by
short and slow steps." Other evolutionists posit a saltation theory of evo-
lution. such as punctuated equilibrium (Arnold &: Fristrup. 1982; Gould &:
Eldridge. 1977). Whether change proceeds at gradual versus saltation
rates is an empirical matter. Thus. the rate of change does not fundamen-
tally alter the theory of evolution (as it has been adopted by organization
and management scholars).
The paleontologist Gould (1989) argued that another basic distinction
between Darwinian evolution and his punctuated equilibrium theory is
hierarchical level. Astley (1985) and Baum and Singh (1994) made this
distinction. but Tushman and Romanelli (1985) did not. Gould (1989)
pointed out that classical Darwinism locates the sorting of evolutionary
change at a single level of objects. This sorting is natural selection op-
erating through the differential births and deaths of organisms. as exem-
plified in many studies on organizational birth and death rates by popu-
lation ecologists. (See reviews in Carroll and Hannan. 1989. and Hannan
and Freeman. 1989.) Gould's punctuated equilibrium model adds a hier-
archical dimension to evolutionary theory by distinguishing this sorting
(the growth or decline of organisms of a given species through differential
birth and death rates) from speciation (the process by which new species
or a subgenus is formed). "Speciation is a property of populations [adap-
tation is a property of organisms within a population]. ... while extinc-
tion [a sorting process] is often a simple concatenation of deaths among
organisms" (Gould. 1989: 122).
II. A TYPOLOGY OF CHANGE PROCESS THEORIES
Life-cycle. teleology. dialecticaL and evolutionary theories provide
four internally consistent accounts of change processes in organizational
entities. Where and when do these theories apply to explain development
in organizational entities? To address this question. it is useful to em-
phasize four distinguishing characteristics in the preceding discussion of
the four theories. In each theory: (a) process is viewed as a different cycle
analysis. Organizational scholars who adopt Darwinian evolution (e.g ..
Hannan &: Freeman. 1977. 1989; McKelvey. 1982) argue that traits are in-
herited through intergenerational processes. whereas those who follow
Lamarck (e.g .. Boyd &: Richerson. 1985; Burgelman. 1991; Singh &: Lums-
den. 1990; Weick. 1979) argue that traits are acquired within a generation
through learning and imitation. A Lamarckian view on the acquisition of
traits appears more appropriate than strict Darwinism for organization
and management applications. As McKelvey (1982) pointed out. strict Dar-
winists have developed no adequate solutions to operationally identify
an organizational generation.
Darwinian theorists emphasize a continuous and gradual process of
evolution. In The Origin of Species, Darwin (1936: 361) wrote. "as natural
selection acts solely by accumulating slight. successive. favourable vari-
ations. it can produce no great or sudden modifications; it can act only by
short and slow steps." Other evolutionists posit a saltation theory of evo-
lution. such as punctuated equilibrium (Arnold &: Fristrup. 1982; Gould &:
Eldridge. 1977). Whether change proceeds at gradual versus saltation
rates is an empirical matter. Thus. the rate of change does not fundamen-
tally alter the theory of evolution (as it has been adopted by organization
and management scholars).
The paleontologist Gould (1989) argued that another basic distinction
between Darwinian evolution and his punctuated equilibrium theory is
hierarchical level. Astley (1985) and Baum and Singh (1994) made this
distinction. but Tushman and Romanelli (1985) did not. Gould (1989)
pointed out that classical Darwinism locates the sorting of evolutionary
change at a single level of objects. This sorting is natural selection op-
erating through the differential births and deaths of organisms. as exem-
plified in many studies on organizational birth and death rates by popu-
lation ecologists. (See reviews in Carroll and Hannan. 1989. and Hannan
and Freeman. 1989.) Gould's punctuated equilibrium model adds a hier-
archical dimension to evolutionary theory by distinguishing this sorting
(the growth or decline of organisms of a given species through differential
birth and death rates) from speciation (the process by which new species
or a subgenus is formed). "Speciation is a property of populations [adap-
tation is a property of organisms within a population]. ... while extinc-
tion [a sorting process] is often a simple concatenation of deaths among
organisms" (Gould. 1989: 122).
II. A TYPOLOGY OF CHANGE PROCESS THEORIES
Life-cycle. teleology. dialecticaL and evolutionary theories provide
four internally consistent accounts of change processes in organizational
entities. Where and when do these theories apply to explain development
in organizational entities? To address this question. it is useful to em-
phasize four distinguishing characteristics in the preceding discussion of
the four theories. In each theory: (a) process is viewed as a different cycle
Figure I
Process Theories of Organizational Development and Change
a
EVOLUTION DIALECTIC
Variation Retention

I
Multiple
Entities
t I
Thesis -------.
Conflict Synthesis
Antithesis
Unit of
Change
Single
Entity
Populaton scarcity
Environmental selection
Competition
LIFE CYCLE
Stage 4 (Terminate)
Stage 3

Stage I
(Harvest)

(Start-up)
Stage 2
(Grow)
Immanent program
Regulation
Compliant adaptation
Pluralism (Diversity)
Confrontation
Conflict
TELEOLOGY
Dissatisfaction
Implement
Searchl
Goals
Interact
SetlEnvision
Goals
Purposeful enactment
Social construction
Consensus
Prescribed Mode of Change Constructive
Arrows on lines represent likely sequences among events. not causation between events.
of change events, (b) which is governed by a different "motor" or gener-
ating mechanism that (c) operates on a different unit of analysis and (d)
represents a different mode of change. Figure I provides a metatheoret-
ical scheme for illustrating and distinguishing the four ideal-type theo-
ries in terms of these four characteristics. We will now discuss these
distinguishing characteristics.
Cycles and Motors of Change
As the cells of Figure I illustrate, in each theory the process of de-
velopment is viewed as unfolding in a fundamentally different progres-
sion of change events and is governed by a different motor.
1. A life-cycle model depicts the process of change in an entity as pro-
gressing through a necessary sequence of stages. An institutional,
natural, or logical program prescribes the specific contents of these
stages.
2. A teleological model views development as a cycle of goal formula-
tion. implementation. evaluation, and modification of goals based on
what was learned by the entity. This sequence emerges through the
purposeful social construction among individuals within the entity.
3. In dialectical models of development. conflicts emerge between
Figure I
Process Theories of Organizational Development and Change
a
EVOLUTION DIALECTIC
Variation Retention

I
Multiple
Entities
t I
Thesis -------.
Conflict Synthesis
Antithesis
Unit of
Change
Single
Entity
Populaton scarcity
Environmental selection
Competition
LIFE CYCLE
Stage 4 (Terminate)
Stage 3

Stage I
(Harvest)

(Start-up)
Stage 2
(Grow)
Immanent program
Regulation
Compliant adaptation
Pluralism (Diversity)
Confrontation
Conflict
TELEOLOGY
Dissatisfaction
Implement
Searchl
Goals
Interact
SetlEnvision
Goals
Purposeful enactment
Social construction
Consensus
Prescribed Mode of Change Constructive
Arrows on lines represent likely sequences among events. not causation between events.
of change events, (b) which is governed by a different "motor" or gener-
ating mechanism that (c) operates on a different unit of analysis and (d)
represents a different mode of change. Figure I provides a metatheoret-
ical scheme for illustrating and distinguishing the four ideal-type theo-
ries in terms of these four characteristics. We will now discuss these
distinguishing characteristics.
Cycles and Motors of Change
As the cells of Figure I illustrate, in each theory the process of de-
velopment is viewed as unfolding in a fundamentally different progres-
sion of change events and is governed by a different motor.
1. A life-cycle model depicts the process of change in an entity as pro-
gressing through a necessary sequence of stages. An institutional,
natural, or logical program prescribes the specific contents of these
stages.
2. A teleological model views development as a cycle of goal formula-
tion. implementation. evaluation, and modification of goals based on
what was learned by the entity. This sequence emerges through the
purposeful social construction among individuals within the entity.
3. In dialectical models of development. conflicts emerge between
1995 Van de Ven and Poole
entities espousing opposing thesis and antithesis that collide to pro-
duce a synthesis, which in time becomes the thesis for the next cycle
of a dialectical progression. Confrontation and conflict between op-
posing entities generate this dialectical cycle.
4. An evolutionary model of development consists of a repetitive se-
quence of variation, selection, and retention events among entities in
a designated population. Competition for scarce environmental re-
sources between entities inhabiting a population generates this evo-
lutionary cycle.
521
Figure I shows two analytical dimensions that are useful for classi-
fying these developmental progressions in the four ideal-type process
theories: the unit and mode of change.
Unit of Change
Change and developmental processes go on at many organizational
levels, including the individual. group, organization, population, and
even larger communities of organizations. This nesting of entities into
larger organizational entities creates a hierarchical system of levels. Fig-
ure I collapses this nested hierarchy of levels into whether the change in
question focuses on the development of a single organizational entity or
on the interactions between two or more entities. This classification high-
lights two different angles for studying change at any given organiza-
tionallevel: (a) the internal development of a single organizational entity
by examining its historical processes of change, adaptation, and repli-
cation, and (b) the relationships between numerous entities to understand
ecological processes of competition, cooperation, conflict, and other
forms of interaction. A similar classification was used by Baum and Singh
(1994) in their dual hierarchy framework. It distinguished between inter-
actions among organizational entities in an ecological hierarchy and ad-
aptation and replication processes within the genealogical history of an
entity.
Evolutionary and dialectical theories operate on multiple entities.
Evolutionary forces are defined in terms of the impact they have on pop-
ulations and have no meaning at the level of the individual entity. Dia-
lectical theories require at least two entities to fill the roles of thesis and
antithesis. Even if researchers conceptualize the dialectic as occurring
within a single person or organization, as does Riegel's (1975) dialectical
theory of child development. the motor focuses on the interaction between
two entities: the child and his or her environment. The explanatory model
is thus dropped a level. and entities are distinguished within the child's
mind and the world. Notwithstanding level. the explanation must distin-
guish at least two (and in Riegel's case four) entities that engage in the
dialectic.
Conversely, life-cycle and teleological theories operate on a single
entity. Life-cycle theory explains development as a function of potentials
immanent within the entity. Although environment and other entities may
shape how this immanence is manifested, they are strictly secondary.
1995 Van de Ven and Poole
entities espousing opposing thesis and antithesis that collide to pro-
duce a synthesis, which in time becomes the thesis for the next cycle
of a dialectical progression. Confrontation and conflict between op-
posing entities generate this dialectical cycle.
4. An evolutionary model of development consists of a repetitive se-
quence of variation, selection, and retention events among entities in
a designated population. Competition for scarce environmental re-
sources between entities inhabiting a population generates this evo-
lutionary cycle.
521
Figure I shows two analytical dimensions that are useful for classi-
fying these developmental progressions in the four ideal-type process
theories: the unit and mode of change.
Unit of Change
Change and developmental processes go on at many organizational
levels, including the individual. group, organization, population, and
even larger communities of organizations. This nesting of entities into
larger organizational entities creates a hierarchical system of levels. Fig-
ure I collapses this nested hierarchy of levels into whether the change in
question focuses on the development of a single organizational entity or
on the interactions between two or more entities. This classification high-
lights two different angles for studying change at any given organiza-
tionallevel: (a) the internal development of a single organizational entity
by examining its historical processes of change, adaptation, and repli-
cation, and (b) the relationships between numerous entities to understand
ecological processes of competition, cooperation, conflict, and other
forms of interaction. A similar classification was used by Baum and Singh
(1994) in their dual hierarchy framework. It distinguished between inter-
actions among organizational entities in an ecological hierarchy and ad-
aptation and replication processes within the genealogical history of an
entity.
Evolutionary and dialectical theories operate on multiple entities.
Evolutionary forces are defined in terms of the impact they have on pop-
ulations and have no meaning at the level of the individual entity. Dia-
lectical theories require at least two entities to fill the roles of thesis and
antithesis. Even if researchers conceptualize the dialectic as occurring
within a single person or organization, as does Riegel's (1975) dialectical
theory of child development. the motor focuses on the interaction between
two entities: the child and his or her environment. The explanatory model
is thus dropped a level. and entities are distinguished within the child's
mind and the world. Notwithstanding level. the explanation must distin-
guish at least two (and in Riegel's case four) entities that engage in the
dialectic.
Conversely, life-cycle and teleological theories operate on a single
entity. Life-cycle theory explains development as a function of potentials
immanent within the entity. Although environment and other entities may
shape how this immanence is manifested, they are strictly secondary.
The real push to development comes from within the single. whole de-
veloping entity. Teleological theories. too. require only a single entity's
goals to explain development. A teleological theory can operate among
many members of an organization when there is sufficient consensus
among the members to permit them to act as a single organizational
entity. Similar to life-cycle theory. interactions between entities may in-
fluence the course of development. but this is subsidiary to the teleolog-
ical motor that drives individual entities to enact an envisioned end state.
Thus. as long as the entity undergoing change has a discrete identity.
one can decompose the entity within a nested organizational hierarchy to
examine its members or one can aggregate the entity into its larger sys-
tem without losing any of the theory's explanatory power. However. if
researchers decide to examine processes of change between several dis-
tinct organizational entities. they move to either a dialectical or evolu-
tionary theory. because they must specify laws. rules. or processes by
which the entities interact.
Mode of Change
The four motors also can be distinguished in terms of whether the
sequence of change events is prescribed a priori by either deterministic or
probabilistiC laws. or whether the progression is constructed and
emerges as the change process unfolds. A prescribed mode of change
channels the development of entities in a prespecified direction. typically
of maintaining and incrementally adapting their forms in a stable. pre-
dictable way. A constructive mode of change generates unprecedented.
novel forms that. in retrospect. often are discontinuous and unpredictable
departures from the past. A prescribed mode evokes a sequence of
change events in accord with a preestablished program or action routine.
A constructive mode. in contrast. produces new action routines that may
(or may not) create an original (re)formulation of the entity. Life-cycle and
evolutionary theories operate in a prescribed modality. while teleological
and dialectical theories operate in a constructive modality.
A prescribed mode tends to create what Watzlawick. Weakland. and
Fisch (1974) termed first-order change, or change within an existing
framework that produces variations on a theme. The processes that pro-
duce these variations are prescribed and predictable because they are
patterned on the previous state. Over the longer term, small changes may
cumulate to produce a larger change in degree or quality of the entity. The
uncertainty experienced by people undergoing such changes is relatively
low. because they typically perceive sufficient continuity to anticipate
and discern the direction of change. From his biological frame of refer-
ence, DeRosnay (1970) viewed prescribed motors as concerned with onto-
genesis. involving the reproduction of entities similar to the original line.
Life-cycle and evolutionary theories incorporate a prescribed mode of
change. During the life cycle. the immanent form is realized by steps. and
although some steps may seem like a radical morphogenic change. there
The real push to development comes from within the single. whole de-
veloping entity. Teleological theories. too. require only a single entity's
goals to explain development. A teleological theory can operate among
many members of an organization when there is sufficient consensus
among the members to permit them to act as a single organizational
entity. Similar to life-cycle theory. interactions between entities may in-
fluence the course of development. but this is subsidiary to the teleolog-
ical motor that drives individual entities to enact an envisioned end state.
Thus. as long as the entity undergoing change has a discrete identity.
one can decompose the entity within a nested organizational hierarchy to
examine its members or one can aggregate the entity into its larger sys-
tem without losing any of the theory's explanatory power. However. if
researchers decide to examine processes of change between several dis-
tinct organizational entities. they move to either a dialectical or evolu-
tionary theory. because they must specify laws. rules. or processes by
which the entities interact.
Mode of Change
The four motors also can be distinguished in terms of whether the
sequence of change events is prescribed a priori by either deterministic or
probabilistiC laws. or whether the progression is constructed and
emerges as the change process unfolds. A prescribed mode of change
channels the development of entities in a prespecified direction. typically
of maintaining and incrementally adapting their forms in a stable. pre-
dictable way. A constructive mode of change generates unprecedented.
novel forms that. in retrospect. often are discontinuous and unpredictable
departures from the past. A prescribed mode evokes a sequence of
change events in accord with a preestablished program or action routine.
A constructive mode. in contrast. produces new action routines that may
(or may not) create an original (re)formulation of the entity. Life-cycle and
evolutionary theories operate in a prescribed modality. while teleological
and dialectical theories operate in a constructive modality.
A prescribed mode tends to create what Watzlawick. Weakland. and
Fisch (1974) termed first-order change, or change within an existing
framework that produces variations on a theme. The processes that pro-
duce these variations are prescribed and predictable because they are
patterned on the previous state. Over the longer term, small changes may
cumulate to produce a larger change in degree or quality of the entity. The
uncertainty experienced by people undergoing such changes is relatively
low. because they typically perceive sufficient continuity to anticipate
and discern the direction of change. From his biological frame of refer-
ence, DeRosnay (1970) viewed prescribed motors as concerned with onto-
genesis. involving the reproduction of entities similar to the original line.
Life-cycle and evolutionary theories incorporate a prescribed mode of
change. During the life cycle. the immanent form is realized by steps. and
although some steps may seem like a radical morphogenic change. there
is an underlying continuity due to the immanent form, logic, program, or
code that drives development. Due to its immanent motor, very seldom do
frame-breaking changes or mutations arise in life-cycle models. Evolu-
tionary accounts rely on the statistical cumulation of small individual
events to gradually change the nature of the larger population. Although
a person tends to think of mutations as sudden, dramatic changes, in
actuality the evolutionary system operates according to prescribed rules
that determine whether the mutation "takes" and change occurs. The
apparent exception to this statement, punctuated equilibrium, actually
conforms to a prescribed mode of change on closer examination. In the
punctuated equilibrium model of biological evolution, posited by Gould
and Eldridge (1977), species emergence at the microlevel is sudden, but
the diffusion of species that ultimately alters the characteristics of pop-
ulations occurs through many individual events spread over quite long
periods of time (on the order of millions of years) (Gould, 1989). The ap-
plication of punctuated equilibrium models to organizational change by
Tushman and Romanelli (1985) departs from this account and, as we will
discuss in Section III, is actually a mixture of two of the theory types we
have defined (see also, Poole & Van de Ven, 1989).
A constructive mode tends to generate what Watzlawick and col-
leagues (1974) termed second-order change, which is a break with the past
basic assumptions or framework. The process is emergent as new goals
are enacted. It can produce highly novel features; the outcome is unpre-
dictable because it is discontinuous with the past. Those undergoing such
changes may experience a high degree of uncertainty and a need to make
sense of the changes. From a biological perspective, DeRosnay (1970)
characterized a constructive mode of change as a phylogenetic process,
which leads to the generation of originals and the emergence of new
species.
Teleological and dialectical motors incorporate a constructive mode
of development. By their very nature, teleological processes seek to di-
verge from the current order: A process that has as its goal to preserve the
status quo would be a theory of statics, not dynamics. Because goals can
be changed at the will of the entity and because the prerequisites may be
attained in many ways, teleological theories project a situation that is in
prinCiple unpredictable and may result in discontinuity (Von Wright,
1971). As a result, a teleological motor projects fundamental and novel
changes in the entity.
However. there is an apparent problem: Many theories that draw on
teleology also explicate gradual processes by which the goals are real-
ized. For example. Chakravarthy and Lorange (1991) described corporate
strategic planning as a stagewise. incremental process. Such gradual
accounts of goal implementation actually combine two of the ideal types.
teleological theory and life-cycle theory. to form a composite model. In
Section III. a number of such composites are discussed. In its pure form.
however. the twin features of intentionality and the ability to change
is an underlying continuity due to the immanent form, logic, program, or
code that drives development. Due to its immanent motor, very seldom do
frame-breaking changes or mutations arise in life-cycle models. Evolu-
tionary accounts rely on the statistical cumulation of small individual
events to gradually change the nature of the larger population. Although
a person tends to think of mutations as sudden, dramatic changes, in
actuality the evolutionary system operates according to prescribed rules
that determine whether the mutation "takes" and change occurs. The
apparent exception to this statement, punctuated equilibrium, actually
conforms to a prescribed mode of change on closer examination. In the
punctuated equilibrium model of biological evolution, posited by Gould
and Eldridge (1977), species emergence at the microlevel is sudden, but
the diffusion of species that ultimately alters the characteristics of pop-
ulations occurs through many individual events spread over quite long
periods of time (on the order of millions of years) (Gould, 1989). The ap-
plication of punctuated equilibrium models to organizational change by
Tushman and Romanelli (1985) departs from this account and, as we will
discuss in Section III, is actually a mixture of two of the theory types we
have defined (see also, Poole & Van de Ven, 1989).
A constructive mode tends to generate what Watzlawick and col-
leagues (1974) termed second-order change, which is a break with the past
basic assumptions or framework. The process is emergent as new goals
are enacted. It can produce highly novel features; the outcome is unpre-
dictable because it is discontinuous with the past. Those undergoing such
changes may experience a high degree of uncertainty and a need to make
sense of the changes. From a biological perspective, DeRosnay (1970)
characterized a constructive mode of change as a phylogenetic process,
which leads to the generation of originals and the emergence of new
species.
Teleological and dialectical motors incorporate a constructive mode
of development. By their very nature, teleological processes seek to di-
verge from the current order: A process that has as its goal to preserve the
status quo would be a theory of statics, not dynamics. Because goals can
be changed at the will of the entity and because the prerequisites may be
attained in many ways, teleological theories project a situation that is in
prinCiple unpredictable and may result in discontinuity (Von Wright,
1971). As a result, a teleological motor projects fundamental and novel
changes in the entity.
However. there is an apparent problem: Many theories that draw on
teleology also explicate gradual processes by which the goals are real-
ized. For example. Chakravarthy and Lorange (1991) described corporate
strategic planning as a stagewise. incremental process. Such gradual
accounts of goal implementation actually combine two of the ideal types.
teleological theory and life-cycle theory. to form a composite model. In
Section III. a number of such composites are discussed. In its pure form.
however. the twin features of intentionality and the ability to change
goals at will make teleological theories inherently emergent and cre-
ative.
Dialectical theory also incorporates a constructive mode of change.
The sequence by which the thesis and antithesis confront and engage
each other in a conflict struggle is highly uncertain; events leading to
confrontation of opposites and resolutions may occur intermittently over
the course of development. The result is a synthesis that breaks the cur-
rent frame and represents second-order change. It produces a revolution-
ary change. resulting in a new entity that is an original rather than the
reproduction of some prior state or entity.
Summary
The two dimensions of unit and mode of change classify the four
theories in terms of their action and process. They differ from other di-
mensions often used to classify theories of organizational change, such
as incremental versus radical change (e.g .. Tushman and Romanelli,
1985). continuous versus discontinuous change (e.g .. Meyer. Goes. &
Brooks. 1993). first-order versus second-order change (Meyer et aI.,
1993). and competence-enhancing versus competence-destroying change
(Abernathy & Clark. 1985). These dimensions classify organizational
changes by their consequences or outcomes. rather than by their starting
or process conditions. One advantage of the typology is that it is possible
to identify the motor(s) of a change process before it has concluded.
Antecedent and outcome dimensions of change processes may be
related in an actuarial or statistical sense. but not in a causal manner.
Statistically one should expect the vast majority of incremental. continu-
ous and competence-enhancing changes to follow the operations of a
prescribed mode. just as radical. discontinuous, and competence-
destroying changes should follow from a constructive mode. These tem-
poral relationships may not be causal. For example. the infrequent sta-
tistical occurrence of a discontinuous and radical mutation may be
caused by a glitch in the operation of a prescribed life-cycle motor of
change. So also. the scale up of a teleological motor designed to create a
fundamental strategic reorientation of a company may fizzle, resulting
only in incremental change.
Situating the four ideal motors of change and development on the two
dimensions accentuates their differences and enables researchers to de-
scribe them in their pure forms. Each of the four motors depends on a
different set of conditions. which are depicted in Table 2. Determining
whether these conditions are satisfied enables researchers to make an
initial judgment concerning whether a given type of motor explains de-
velopment in a particular situation.
However. as our examples illustrate. theories of organizational
change and development seldom include the ideal types in their pure
forms. To understand how the ideal types figure in theoretical "practice"
goals at will make teleological theories inherently emergent and cre-
ative.
Dialectical theory also incorporates a constructive mode of change.
The sequence by which the thesis and antithesis confront and engage
each other in a conflict struggle is highly uncertain; events leading to
confrontation of opposites and resolutions may occur intermittently over
the course of development. The result is a synthesis that breaks the cur-
rent frame and represents second-order change. It produces a revolution-
ary change. resulting in a new entity that is an original rather than the
reproduction of some prior state or entity.
Summary
The two dimensions of unit and mode of change classify the four
theories in terms of their action and process. They differ from other di-
mensions often used to classify theories of organizational change, such
as incremental versus radical change (e.g .. Tushman and Romanelli,
1985). continuous versus discontinuous change (e.g .. Meyer. Goes. &
Brooks. 1993). first-order versus second-order change (Meyer et aI.,
1993). and competence-enhancing versus competence-destroying change
(Abernathy & Clark. 1985). These dimensions classify organizational
changes by their consequences or outcomes. rather than by their starting
or process conditions. One advantage of the typology is that it is possible
to identify the motor(s) of a change process before it has concluded.
Antecedent and outcome dimensions of change processes may be
related in an actuarial or statistical sense. but not in a causal manner.
Statistically one should expect the vast majority of incremental. continu-
ous and competence-enhancing changes to follow the operations of a
prescribed mode. just as radical. discontinuous, and competence-
destroying changes should follow from a constructive mode. These tem-
poral relationships may not be causal. For example. the infrequent sta-
tistical occurrence of a discontinuous and radical mutation may be
caused by a glitch in the operation of a prescribed life-cycle motor of
change. So also. the scale up of a teleological motor designed to create a
fundamental strategic reorientation of a company may fizzle, resulting
only in incremental change.
Situating the four ideal motors of change and development on the two
dimensions accentuates their differences and enables researchers to de-
scribe them in their pure forms. Each of the four motors depends on a
different set of conditions. which are depicted in Table 2. Determining
whether these conditions are satisfied enables researchers to make an
initial judgment concerning whether a given type of motor explains de-
velopment in a particular situation.
However. as our examples illustrate. theories of organizational
change and development seldom include the ideal types in their pure
forms. To understand how the ideal types figure in theoretical "practice"
TABLE 2
Conditions for Operation of Change Theories
For a Life-Cycle Motor
A singular. discrete entity exists that undergoes change. yet maintains its identity
throughout the process.
The entity passes through stages distinguishable in form or function.
A program. routine. rule. or code exists in nature. social institutions. or logic that
determines the stages of development and governs progression through the stages.
For a Teleological Motor
An individual or group exists that acts as a singular. discrete entity. which engages
in reflexively monitored action to socially construct and cognitively share a common
end state or goal.
The entity may envision its end state of development before or after actions it may
take. and the goal may be set explicitly or implicitly. However. the process of social
construction or sense making. decision making. and goal setting must be
identifiable.
A set of requirements and constraints exists to attain the goal. and the activities and
developmental transitions undertaken by the entity contribute to meeting these
requirements and constraints.
For a Dialectical Motor
At least two entities exist (each with its own discrete identity) that oppose or
contradict one another.
The opposing entities must confront each other and engage in a conflict or struggle
through some physical or social venue. in which the opposition plays itself out.
The outcome of the conflict must consist either of a new entity that is different from
the previous two. or (in degenerate cases) the defeat of one entity by the other. or a
stalemate among the entities.
For an Evolutionary Motor
A population of entities exists in a commensalistic relationship (Le .. in a physical or
social venue with limited resources each entity needs for its survival).
Identifiable mechanisms exist for variation. selection. and retention of entities in the
population.
Macropopulation characteristics set the parameters for microlevel variation. selection.
and retention mechanisms.
and to appreciate their utility. we will now consider specific theories that
focus on particular types of organizational changes. For the sake of clar-
ity. we will refer to the ideal-type theories as motors of change and re-
serve the term theory for the complex. specific theories that have been
developed by various researchers.
III. THEORIES OF COMPLEX DEVELOPMENT AND
CHANGE PROCESSES
Specific Theories as Composites of the Ideal Types
Most specific theories of organizational change and development are
more complicated than the ideal types. This is so for two reasons. First.
TABLE 2
Conditions for Operation of Change Theories
For a Life-Cycle Motor
A singular. discrete entity exists that undergoes change. yet maintains its identity
throughout the process.
The entity passes through stages distinguishable in form or function.
A program. routine. rule. or code exists in nature. social institutions. or logic that
determines the stages of development and governs progression through the stages.
For a Teleological Motor
An individual or group exists that acts as a singular. discrete entity. which engages
in reflexively monitored action to socially construct and cognitively share a common
end state or goal.
The entity may envision its end state of development before or after actions it may
take. and the goal may be set explicitly or implicitly. However. the process of social
construction or sense making. decision making. and goal setting must be
identifiable.
A set of requirements and constraints exists to attain the goal. and the activities and
developmental transitions undertaken by the entity contribute to meeting these
requirements and constraints.
For a Dialectical Motor
At least two entities exist (each with its own discrete identity) that oppose or
contradict one another.
The opposing entities must confront each other and engage in a conflict or struggle
through some physical or social venue. in which the opposition plays itself out.
The outcome of the conflict must consist either of a new entity that is different from
the previous two. or (in degenerate cases) the defeat of one entity by the other. or a
stalemate among the entities.
For an Evolutionary Motor
A population of entities exists in a commensalistic relationship (Le .. in a physical or
social venue with limited resources each entity needs for its survival).
Identifiable mechanisms exist for variation. selection. and retention of entities in the
population.
Macropopulation characteristics set the parameters for microlevel variation. selection.
and retention mechanisms.
and to appreciate their utility. we will now consider specific theories that
focus on particular types of organizational changes. For the sake of clar-
ity. we will refer to the ideal-type theories as motors of change and re-
serve the term theory for the complex. specific theories that have been
developed by various researchers.
III. THEORIES OF COMPLEX DEVELOPMENT AND
CHANGE PROCESSES
Specific Theories as Composites of the Ideal Types
Most specific theories of organizational change and development are
more complicated than the ideal types. This is so for two reasons. First.
526 Academy 01 Management Review July
because the organizational context of development and change extends
over space and time in any specific case, it is possible for more than one
motor to come into play. Organizational development and change are
influenced by diverse units and actors, both inside and outside the orga-
nization. The spacial dispersion of units and actors means that different
influences may be acting simultaneously on different parts of the orga-
nization, each imparting its own particular momentum to the develop-
mental process. In some cases, more than one change motor may influ-
ence development and change. Development and change also take time
to occur. As time passes, there is opportunity for different motors to come
into play, especially given the dispersion of influences. The resulting
observed process is multilayered and complex. Attempts to explain this
process with a single motor run the risk of oversimplification and selec-
tive attention to one aspect of the change process at the expense of others.
A study of the development of a new organizational entity engaged in
the development of a biomedical innovation, the cochlear implant, by
Van de Ven and Garud (1993) illustrated this complexity. This innovation
was shaped by change processes occurring on numerous fronts. A teleo-
logical process seemed to explain the course of development of the im-
plant in the firm's R&D lab. In a different sphere, the action of top man-
agers in purposefully selecting and funding it was also consistent with a
teleological model. but the decision premises and timing of managerial
interventions moved at a different pace than efforts of the development
team. At a certain point in its development, the product had to be ap-
proved by the FDA, which required a sequence of proposals, clinical
trials, and regulatory reviews and approvals. This prescribed sequence,
which embodied a life-cycle motor, came into play later than the teleo-
logical motors, but it was so important that the other two centers of
change had to rearrange their efforts to meet its requirements. A fourth
influence operated at the larger field of researchers and clinicians con-
cerned with hearing health: The firm's pioneering implant design was
initially supported by the field, but evidence mounted that led most re-
searchers and clinicians to switch allegiance to a competing firm's de-
sign. The complex interplay of these different motors, which operated in
different times and places, created a complicated developmental se-
quence that was difficult to understand, until these diverse influences
were sorted out.
A second reason for the complexity of specific organizational change
and development theories is the inherent incompleteness of any single
motor. Each motor pictured in Figure I has one or more components whose
values are determined exogenously to the model. For example, in the
evolutionary model. it is assumed that variations arise randomly, but the
process that gives rise to variation remains unspecified. In the dialectical
model, the origin of the antithesis is obscure, as is the source of dissat-
isfaction in the teleological model, and the processes that trigger start-up
and termination in the life-cycle model. Other motors can be used to
526 Academy 01 Management Review July
because the organizational context of development and change extends
over space and time in any specific case, it is possible for more than one
motor to come into play. Organizational development and change are
influenced by diverse units and actors, both inside and outside the orga-
nization. The spacial dispersion of units and actors means that different
influences may be acting simultaneously on different parts of the orga-
nization, each imparting its own particular momentum to the develop-
mental process. In some cases, more than one change motor may influ-
ence development and change. Development and change also take time
to occur. As time passes, there is opportunity for different motors to come
into play, especially given the dispersion of influences. The resulting
observed process is multilayered and complex. Attempts to explain this
process with a single motor run the risk of oversimplification and selec-
tive attention to one aspect of the change process at the expense of others.
A study of the development of a new organizational entity engaged in
the development of a biomedical innovation, the cochlear implant, by
Van de Ven and Garud (1993) illustrated this complexity. This innovation
was shaped by change processes occurring on numerous fronts. A teleo-
logical process seemed to explain the course of development of the im-
plant in the firm's R&D lab. In a different sphere, the action of top man-
agers in purposefully selecting and funding it was also consistent with a
teleological model. but the decision premises and timing of managerial
interventions moved at a different pace than efforts of the development
team. At a certain point in its development, the product had to be ap-
proved by the FDA, which required a sequence of proposals, clinical
trials, and regulatory reviews and approvals. This prescribed sequence,
which embodied a life-cycle motor, came into play later than the teleo-
logical motors, but it was so important that the other two centers of
change had to rearrange their efforts to meet its requirements. A fourth
influence operated at the larger field of researchers and clinicians con-
cerned with hearing health: The firm's pioneering implant design was
initially supported by the field, but evidence mounted that led most re-
searchers and clinicians to switch allegiance to a competing firm's de-
sign. The complex interplay of these different motors, which operated in
different times and places, created a complicated developmental se-
quence that was difficult to understand, until these diverse influences
were sorted out.
A second reason for the complexity of specific organizational change
and development theories is the inherent incompleteness of any single
motor. Each motor pictured in Figure I has one or more components whose
values are determined exogenously to the model. For example, in the
evolutionary model. it is assumed that variations arise randomly, but the
process that gives rise to variation remains unspecified. In the dialectical
model, the origin of the antithesis is obscure, as is the source of dissat-
isfaction in the teleological model, and the processes that trigger start-up
and termination in the life-cycle model. Other motors can be used to
account for the origin of these events. For instance, the selection process
in the evolutionary model can be used to account for termination in the
life cycle; the implementation step in the teleological cycle can trigger the
start-up event in the life cycle and the antithesis in the dialectic. The
synthesis in the dialectic could be the source of variation in the evolu-
tionary cycle. There are many other possible interrelations. In short,
events from other models are useful to remedy the incompleteness of any
single model of change.
We will argue that most specific theories of organizational develop-
ment and change are actually composites of two or more ideal-type mo-
tors. This decomposition of complex theories into simpler ones has sev-
eral precedents. In cognitive science, Newell (1973) and Simon (1979),
among others, have argued that complex behavior can be generated by
the interplay of a few simple motors. In organization science, March (1981)
and Masuch (1985) have shown that a few substitutions of one simple
change sequence by another equally simple process can create exceed-
ingly complicated and intractable action cycles. Poole (1983, 1985; Poole &
Roth, 1989) found empirically that seemingly complex patterns of behav-
ior in group decision making result from the interplay of life-cycle and
teleological motors. Common among these approaches is the identifica-
tion of simple motors, whose interplay creates a complex phenomenon.
An Array of Composite Theories of Development and Change
Each ideal type theory describes a generative mechanism or motor of
change. Combinations of these motors create, in effect, hybrid change
theories. The simplest form of combination is to determine which of the
generating mechanisms underlying the four ideal types are evident or in
operation in a given applied theory of organizational change in the liter-
ature. By specifying the presence (operation) or absence (nonoperation) of
the four motors in a given situation, an array of 16 logically possible
explanations of organizational change and development becomes appar-
ent. This array, shown in Table 3, is analogous to examining the simple
main and interaction effects of each of the four motors on alternative
applied theories in the management literature.
The first four alternatives represent the main effects of the generating
mechanisms underlying our four ideal-type theories: the immanent pro-
gram of life-cycle theory, purposeful enactment of teleological theory,
conflict and synthesis of dialectical theory, and competitive selection of
evolutionary theory. These "single-motor theories" apply to cases when
only one of the four change motors is in operation.
The next 12 alternatives represent interaction effects of the interde-
pendent operation of two or more of the four generative mechanisms.
Alternatives 5 through 10 are called dual-motor theories because they
represent cases when only two of the four change motors are in operation
in a given organizational change process. Alternatives 11 through 14 rep-
account for the origin of these events. For instance, the selection process
in the evolutionary model can be used to account for termination in the
life cycle; the implementation step in the teleological cycle can trigger the
start-up event in the life cycle and the antithesis in the dialectic. The
synthesis in the dialectic could be the source of variation in the evolu-
tionary cycle. There are many other possible interrelations. In short,
events from other models are useful to remedy the incompleteness of any
single model of change.
We will argue that most specific theories of organizational develop-
ment and change are actually composites of two or more ideal-type mo-
tors. This decomposition of complex theories into simpler ones has sev-
eral precedents. In cognitive science, Newell (1973) and Simon (1979),
among others, have argued that complex behavior can be generated by
the interplay of a few simple motors. In organization science, March (1981)
and Masuch (1985) have shown that a few substitutions of one simple
change sequence by another equally simple process can create exceed-
ingly complicated and intractable action cycles. Poole (1983, 1985; Poole &
Roth, 1989) found empirically that seemingly complex patterns of behav-
ior in group decision making result from the interplay of life-cycle and
teleological motors. Common among these approaches is the identifica-
tion of simple motors, whose interplay creates a complex phenomenon.
An Array of Composite Theories of Development and Change
Each ideal type theory describes a generative mechanism or motor of
change. Combinations of these motors create, in effect, hybrid change
theories. The simplest form of combination is to determine which of the
generating mechanisms underlying the four ideal types are evident or in
operation in a given applied theory of organizational change in the liter-
ature. By specifying the presence (operation) or absence (nonoperation) of
the four motors in a given situation, an array of 16 logically possible
explanations of organizational change and development becomes appar-
ent. This array, shown in Table 3, is analogous to examining the simple
main and interaction effects of each of the four motors on alternative
applied theories in the management literature.
The first four alternatives represent the main effects of the generating
mechanisms underlying our four ideal-type theories: the immanent pro-
gram of life-cycle theory, purposeful enactment of teleological theory,
conflict and synthesis of dialectical theory, and competitive selection of
evolutionary theory. These "single-motor theories" apply to cases when
only one of the four change motors is in operation.
The next 12 alternatives represent interaction effects of the interde-
pendent operation of two or more of the four generative mechanisms.
Alternatives 5 through 10 are called dual-motor theories because they
represent cases when only two of the four change motors are in operation
in a given organizational change process. Alternatives 11 through 14 rep-
TABLE 3
Logically Possible Theories of Organizational Change
and Development
Interplays Among Generating Mechanisms
Prescribed Constructive COlllltructive Prescribed
Motor Motor Motor Motor
Within Within Between Between
Entity Entity Entities Entities
Immanent Purposeful Conflict & Competitive
Program Enactment Synthesis Selection
Single-Motor Theories
1. Life cycle (Cameron &
Whetten. 1983) Yes No No No
2. Teleology (March & Simon.
1958) No Yes No No
3. Dialectics (Benson. 1977) No No Yes No
4. Evolution (Hannan &
Freeman. 1977) No No No Yes
Dual-Motor Theories
5. Design hierarchy theory
(Clark. 1985) Yes Yes No No
6. Group conflict (Coser. 1958;
Simmel. 1908) No Yes Yes No
7. Community ecology (Astley.
1985) No No Yes Y ..
8. Adaptation-selection
models (Aldrich. 1979) Yes No No Yes
9. Org. growth &: crisis stages
(Greiner. 1972) Yes No Yes No
10. Org. punctuated
equilibrium (Tushman &
Romanelli. 1985) No Yes No Yes
Tri-Motor Theoriea
II. Partisan mutual adjustment
(Lindblom. 1965) Yes Yes Ye. No
12. ? No Yea Yes Yes
13. ? Yea No Yes Ye.
14. Social psychology of
organizing (Weick. 1979) Yes Yes No Yes
Quad-Motor Theories
15. ? Human development
progressions (Riegel.
19'76) Yes Yes Yes Yes
16. ? Garbage can (Cohen.
March. & Olsen. 1972) No No No No
resent four logically possible tri-motor theories, when three of the four
change motors operate interdependently. Alternative 15 is a quad-motor
theory, which represents the most complex situation when all four gen-
erating mechanisms operate interdependently in a given situation. Fi-
nally, alternative 16 represents the null set, when no motor is operating.
The left column of Table 3 lists exemplary theories for some of the
TABLE 3
Logically Possible Theories of Organizational Change
and Development
Interplays Among Generating Mechanisms
Prescribed Constructive COlllltructive Prescribed
Motor Motor Motor Motor
Within Within Between Between
Entity Entity Entities Entities
Immanent Purposeful Conflict & Competitive
Program Enactment Synthesis Selection
Single-Motor Theories
1. Life cycle (Cameron &
Whetten. 1983) Yes No No No
2. Teleology (March & Simon.
1958) No Yes No No
3. Dialectics (Benson. 1977) No No Yes No
4. Evolution (Hannan &
Freeman. 1977) No No No Yes
Dual-Motor Theories
5. Design hierarchy theory
(Clark. 1985) Yes Yes No No
6. Group conflict (Coser. 1958;
Simmel. 1908) No Yes Yes No
7. Community ecology (Astley.
1985) No No Yes Y ..
8. Adaptation-selection
models (Aldrich. 1979) Yes No No Yes
9. Org. growth &: crisis stages
(Greiner. 1972) Yes No Yes No
10. Org. punctuated
equilibrium (Tushman &
Romanelli. 1985) No Yes No Yes
Tri-Motor Theoriea
II. Partisan mutual adjustment
(Lindblom. 1965) Yes Yes Ye. No
12. ? No Yea Yes Yes
13. ? Yea No Yes Ye.
14. Social psychology of
organizing (Weick. 1979) Yes Yes No Yes
Quad-Motor Theories
15. ? Human development
progressions (Riegel.
19'76) Yes Yes Yes Yes
16. ? Garbage can (Cohen.
March. & Olsen. 1972) No No No No
resent four logically possible tri-motor theories, when three of the four
change motors operate interdependently. Alternative 15 is a quad-motor
theory, which represents the most complex situation when all four gen-
erating mechanisms operate interdependently in a given situation. Fi-
nally, alternative 16 represents the null set, when no motor is operating.
The left column of Table 3 lists exemplary theories for some of the
1995 Van de Yen and Poole 529
16 logically possible conditions in which an organizational change or
developmental process may unfold. The rows with a "1" are conditions
where we could not find an exemplary theory in the literature. and they
represent opportunities for new theory building. Admittedly. the authors
of these exemplary theories or models may not agree with our classifica-
tion. because they did not have our framework in mind when they devel-
oped their theories. However. we contend that the framework provides a
useful new way to understand and discriminate between alternative theo-
ries of organizational change and development in the literature. Specifi-
cally. we propose that what distinguishes these alternative theories is
their incorporation of different combinations of the four motors of change.
Space limitations prevent us from providing a systematic discussion
of theories representing each of the 16 logically possible combinations of
the four motors of change. Instead. we present several examples of how
complex theories can be constructed from the interplay of a few simple
motors of change.
Row 5: Interaction of life-cycle and teleological motors. Clark (1985).
building on the work of Utterback and Abernathy (1975). developed a
theory of the gradual evolution of technologies. Abernathy and Utterback
had proposed that the evolution of technological production proceeded
from an early. "fluid" state to one that is highly "specific" and rigid.
Product innovations predominate early in this evolution. but once the
nature of the product is determined. process innovations increase and
will dominate until rigidity extinguishes innovation. The rise and fall of
product innovations is succeeded by the rise and fall of process innova-
tions because of the logic of the production. which pushes firms to try to
optimize and standardize first the nature of a successful product. and.
once the product is set, the procedures for producing it. The result is
increasing rigidity throughout the life of the product.
To explain how changes in technologies come about. Clark discussed
the interaction between designers and customers. which establishes
functional prerequisites for the product. This teleological process is in
interplay with another life-cycle motor. the technical design hierarchy.
Clark (1985: 241) argued that all technical design is hierarchical. because
"there are choices in the development of a design that create precedents
and are logically prior to other choices. These precedents create con-
straints that give rise to further search for alternative designs." Once an
organization takes a certain technical path, this forecloses other paths
and opens up a hierarchy of subproblems. Interaction between designers
and customers influences progression through a hierarchy; the natural
direction of movement is down the hierarchy until the technical agenda is
fulfilled. but customer demands may encourage designers either to move
back up the hierarchy and pursue other paths. or to jump to a different
aspect of the design problem. Hence, Clark's (1985) theory provides for the
interplay of teleological and life-cycle motors nested within the overall
life-cycle progression from product to process emphases.
1995 Van de Yen and Poole 529
16 logically possible conditions in which an organizational change or
developmental process may unfold. The rows with a "1" are conditions
where we could not find an exemplary theory in the literature. and they
represent opportunities for new theory building. Admittedly. the authors
of these exemplary theories or models may not agree with our classifica-
tion. because they did not have our framework in mind when they devel-
oped their theories. However. we contend that the framework provides a
useful new way to understand and discriminate between alternative theo-
ries of organizational change and development in the literature. Specifi-
cally. we propose that what distinguishes these alternative theories is
their incorporation of different combinations of the four motors of change.
Space limitations prevent us from providing a systematic discussion
of theories representing each of the 16 logically possible combinations of
the four motors of change. Instead. we present several examples of how
complex theories can be constructed from the interplay of a few simple
motors of change.
Row 5: Interaction of life-cycle and teleological motors. Clark (1985).
building on the work of Utterback and Abernathy (1975). developed a
theory of the gradual evolution of technologies. Abernathy and Utterback
had proposed that the evolution of technological production proceeded
from an early. "fluid" state to one that is highly "specific" and rigid.
Product innovations predominate early in this evolution. but once the
nature of the product is determined. process innovations increase and
will dominate until rigidity extinguishes innovation. The rise and fall of
product innovations is succeeded by the rise and fall of process innova-
tions because of the logic of the production. which pushes firms to try to
optimize and standardize first the nature of a successful product. and.
once the product is set, the procedures for producing it. The result is
increasing rigidity throughout the life of the product.
To explain how changes in technologies come about. Clark discussed
the interaction between designers and customers. which establishes
functional prerequisites for the product. This teleological process is in
interplay with another life-cycle motor. the technical design hierarchy.
Clark (1985: 241) argued that all technical design is hierarchical. because
"there are choices in the development of a design that create precedents
and are logically prior to other choices. These precedents create con-
straints that give rise to further search for alternative designs." Once an
organization takes a certain technical path, this forecloses other paths
and opens up a hierarchy of subproblems. Interaction between designers
and customers influences progression through a hierarchy; the natural
direction of movement is down the hierarchy until the technical agenda is
fulfilled. but customer demands may encourage designers either to move
back up the hierarchy and pursue other paths. or to jump to a different
aspect of the design problem. Hence, Clark's (1985) theory provides for the
interplay of teleological and life-cycle motors nested within the overall
life-cycle progression from product to process emphases.
Row 9: Interaction of life-cycle and dialectical motors. In one of the
earliest models of organizational development. Greiner (1972) proposed
five stages to the life cycle of organizational growth through creativity.
direction. delegation. coordination. and collaboration. Each of these
stages culminates in a different dialectical crisis (of leadership. auton-
omy. control. red tape. and ?). which propels the organization into the
next stage of growth. Thus. the model is grounded in temporal interac-
tions between life-cycle and dialectical theories of change. In the main.
the model is rooted in a life-cycle theory of change. in which "historical
forces [organization age. size. growth rate. and stages of evolution and
revolution] shape the future growth of organizations" (Greiner. 1972: 166).
Greiner used dialectical theory to explain "as a company progresses
through developmental phases. each evolutionary period creates its own
revolution" (1972: 166). Reflecting on his model. Greiner observed that
[m]y model is a reasonably explicit attempt to combine unitary
life cycle with dialectical theories-but not teleological. For
me. life cycle explains the "form" of the unitary stages, while
the dialectics explain the underlying dynamics of movement.
For example, I put the "crises" in the model because I could
not find data showing the stages as naturally and automati-
cally evolving one after the other. Thus, it is not a model
where a future life or end state is assured .... My reason for
saying it is not teleological is that there is no envisioned end
state that pulls the process-for me it is the current dynamics
within the organization that are driving it forward-
convergence around the thesis of each stage and then running
into resistance (antithesis) and requiring reorientation for the
conflict to be resolved. The model in fact has no ending and
concludes with a question mark .... I also think it is the di-
alectics that added the power struggle reality and made the
article so successful in managerial reaction. (Greiner. quoted
in Van de Ven, 1992: 184)
Row 10: Interaction of teleological and evolutionary motors. Tush-
man and Romanelli's (1985) punctuated equilibrium model of organiza-
tional metamorphosis can be viewed as a product of alternating cycles in
the operation of an evolutionary motor of change at a population level of
analysis for relatively long convergent periods. punctuated by relatively
short and infrequent operations of a teleological motor of change by top
managers at the organizational level. During the convergence period. an
evolutionary process of competitive selection works to elaborate the struc-
tures. systems. controls. and resources of organizations toward increased
environmental coalignment. Reorientations represent periods of discon-
tinuous change where an organization's strategies. power. structure. and
systems are fundamentally transformed by and realigned toward the pur-
posive actions of executive leaders (Tushman & Romanelli. 1985: 173).
In the punctuated equilibrium model. the authors use time as the
avenue for incorporating both evolutionary and teleological motors in a
Row 9: Interaction of life-cycle and dialectical motors. In one of the
earliest models of organizational development. Greiner (1972) proposed
five stages to the life cycle of organizational growth through creativity.
direction. delegation. coordination. and collaboration. Each of these
stages culminates in a different dialectical crisis (of leadership. auton-
omy. control. red tape. and ?). which propels the organization into the
next stage of growth. Thus. the model is grounded in temporal interac-
tions between life-cycle and dialectical theories of change. In the main.
the model is rooted in a life-cycle theory of change. in which "historical
forces [organization age. size. growth rate. and stages of evolution and
revolution] shape the future growth of organizations" (Greiner. 1972: 166).
Greiner used dialectical theory to explain "as a company progresses
through developmental phases. each evolutionary period creates its own
revolution" (1972: 166). Reflecting on his model. Greiner observed that
[m]y model is a reasonably explicit attempt to combine unitary
life cycle with dialectical theories-but not teleological. For
me. life cycle explains the "form" of the unitary stages, while
the dialectics explain the underlying dynamics of movement.
For example, I put the "crises" in the model because I could
not find data showing the stages as naturally and automati-
cally evolving one after the other. Thus, it is not a model
where a future life or end state is assured .... My reason for
saying it is not teleological is that there is no envisioned end
state that pulls the process-for me it is the current dynamics
within the organization that are driving it forward-
convergence around the thesis of each stage and then running
into resistance (antithesis) and requiring reorientation for the
conflict to be resolved. The model in fact has no ending and
concludes with a question mark .... I also think it is the di-
alectics that added the power struggle reality and made the
article so successful in managerial reaction. (Greiner. quoted
in Van de Ven, 1992: 184)
Row 10: Interaction of teleological and evolutionary motors. Tush-
man and Romanelli's (1985) punctuated equilibrium model of organiza-
tional metamorphosis can be viewed as a product of alternating cycles in
the operation of an evolutionary motor of change at a population level of
analysis for relatively long convergent periods. punctuated by relatively
short and infrequent operations of a teleological motor of change by top
managers at the organizational level. During the convergence period. an
evolutionary process of competitive selection works to elaborate the struc-
tures. systems. controls. and resources of organizations toward increased
environmental coalignment. Reorientations represent periods of discon-
tinuous change where an organization's strategies. power. structure. and
systems are fundamentally transformed by and realigned toward the pur-
posive actions of executive leaders (Tushman & Romanelli. 1985: 173).
In the punctuated equilibrium model. the authors use time as the
avenue for incorporating both evolutionary and teleological motors in a
theory of organizational change. Purposeful enactment by top managers
is used to explain the creative process of occasional organizational reori-
entations, whereas prescribed evolutionary processes explain long peri-
ods of organizational convergence with its environment. According to
Tushman and Romanelli (1985), in no instance should one expect to find
both motors of change operating at the same time in a given organization
because they are mutually exclusive. Thus, time provides the vehicle for
incorporating opposing change motors in Tushman and Romanelli's
punctuated equilibrium model of organizational change. Admittedly, the
model does not specify the interplay between the two motors in much
detail. It is unclear what sparks the transition from the convergence to the
transformational period and vice versa.
Row 14: Interaction of life-cycle, teleological. and evolutionary mo-
tors. Weick's (1979) theory of organizing is an ambitious attempt to explain
organizing in dynamic fashion. Weick's well-known model for equivocal-
ity reduction has three stages-enactment, selection, and retention-
which form a life cycle for the organizing process. This cycle repeats
many times during the course of an organizing episode. As behavior cy-
cles are selected and retained, there is considerable room for the initia-
tive and creativity of individuals to influence the process, opening the
way for the influence of a teleological motor. The assumptions of the
teleological motor are reflected in Weick's definition of organizing as the
development of a shared grammar. In addition to the life cycle and tele-
ological motor, there also is an evolutionary process at work. Even though
individual instances of equivocality reduction follow the three stages,
over many repetitions an evolutionary motor operates that selects and
retains certain organizational forms over others. This evolutionary motor,
strongly influenced by Campbell's (1969, 1974) theory of intellectual evo-
lution, shapes the course of organizing over the longer term.
Again, time is a key mediator of different motors in Weick's theory.
The immediate process of organizing is driven through a life-cycle motor
and influenced by a teleological motor of participants' choices of adap-
tations and retentions. However, over the longer run, these short-term
actions contribute to an evolutionary process through which different
practices, structures, and ideas are selected and retained.
Row 15: Interaction of all four motors of change. The most complex
and sophisticated explanation of change and development in Table 3 is
one that incorporates interactions from all four generating mechanisms.
We have found no example of this composite in the organization and
management literature. To illustrate how it might work, we will briefly
discuss Riegel's (1975) theory of human development. Riegel distin-
guished between four progressions of life events, which are analogous to
our four generating mechanisms of organizational change: (a) an inner-
biological progression of life-cycle events such as birth, illness. cell
growth, and death; (b) an individual-personality progression in the psy-
chological development of individuals, in terms of their wishes and du-
theory of organizational change. Purposeful enactment by top managers
is used to explain the creative process of occasional organizational reori-
entations, whereas prescribed evolutionary processes explain long peri-
ods of organizational convergence with its environment. According to
Tushman and Romanelli (1985), in no instance should one expect to find
both motors of change operating at the same time in a given organization
because they are mutually exclusive. Thus, time provides the vehicle for
incorporating opposing change motors in Tushman and Romanelli's
punctuated equilibrium model of organizational change. Admittedly, the
model does not specify the interplay between the two motors in much
detail. It is unclear what sparks the transition from the convergence to the
transformational period and vice versa.
Row 14: Interaction of life-cycle, teleological. and evolutionary mo-
tors. Weick's (1979) theory of organizing is an ambitious attempt to explain
organizing in dynamic fashion. Weick's well-known model for equivocal-
ity reduction has three stages-enactment, selection, and retention-
which form a life cycle for the organizing process. This cycle repeats
many times during the course of an organizing episode. As behavior cy-
cles are selected and retained, there is considerable room for the initia-
tive and creativity of individuals to influence the process, opening the
way for the influence of a teleological motor. The assumptions of the
teleological motor are reflected in Weick's definition of organizing as the
development of a shared grammar. In addition to the life cycle and tele-
ological motor, there also is an evolutionary process at work. Even though
individual instances of equivocality reduction follow the three stages,
over many repetitions an evolutionary motor operates that selects and
retains certain organizational forms over others. This evolutionary motor,
strongly influenced by Campbell's (1969, 1974) theory of intellectual evo-
lution, shapes the course of organizing over the longer term.
Again, time is a key mediator of different motors in Weick's theory.
The immediate process of organizing is driven through a life-cycle motor
and influenced by a teleological motor of participants' choices of adap-
tations and retentions. However, over the longer run, these short-term
actions contribute to an evolutionary process through which different
practices, structures, and ideas are selected and retained.
Row 15: Interaction of all four motors of change. The most complex
and sophisticated explanation of change and development in Table 3 is
one that incorporates interactions from all four generating mechanisms.
We have found no example of this composite in the organization and
management literature. To illustrate how it might work, we will briefly
discuss Riegel's (1975) theory of human development. Riegel distin-
guished between four progressions of life events, which are analogous to
our four generating mechanisms of organizational change: (a) an inner-
biological progression of life-cycle events such as birth, illness. cell
growth, and death; (b) an individual-personality progression in the psy-
chological development of individuals, in terms of their wishes and du-
ties. plans and skills. and needs for belonging and identity; (c) a cultural-
sociological progression of an individual's conformity or deviance with
the culture. language. institutions. and customs of the organizations in
which the individual participates; and (d) an outer-physical progression
of events. such as natural disasters. social demography. or economic
cycles that an individual may encounter. Riegel (1975: 392) pointed out
that events within and between these progressions are not always syn-
chronized. Developmental crises occur whenever two sequences are out
of step. He identified 16 developmental progressions that can be produced
by asynchronies along the four developmental progressions. which can
result in either destructive outcomes or constructive leaps in develop-
ment. Riegel (1975: 385) went on to state.
Once generated, these new developments can transform the
previously contradictory interactions of conflicting events into
a coordinated, synchronized pattern of interactions and
change. As synchrony is reestablished, a form of individual
and social progress is achieved. And yet with each successful
new development. new questions and discrepancies emerge
and. in this process. produce a continuous flux of contradic-
tions and developmental change.
Riegel's theory of human development provides a rich example of what a
theory of organizational development might look like if it focused on the
crises produced by asynchronies in the operation of life-cycle. teleologi-
cal. dialectical. and evolutionary motors of change.
Benefits of the Framework for Theory and Research
The approach outlined in this article contributes to organization the-
ory in at least four respects. First. it offers a parsimonious explanation of
a wide variety of organizational development and change theories. The
four ideal-type motors serve as theoretical primitives. and the complexi-
ties of the developmental process can be analyzed as the interplay among
these primitives. This interplay makes it possible to discern commonali-
ties among a broad range of specific theories that might otherwise be
overlooked. Some review articles. such as Cameron and Whetten's (1983)
discussion of organizational life-cycle models. have attempted to do this
for a limited range of developmental theories. The current framework
extends this projection to the entire breadth of organization development
and change.
Second. the framework also can serve as a heuristic for critique and
reformulation. In an adequate theory. each ideal-type motor should be
represented in its full-fledged form. and the relationships among motors
should be fully specified. The framework encourages scholars to identify
aspects of motors or relationships that are incompletely described in a
given theory. In such cases, it would be necessary to spell out the remain-
der and fill in details. We hope the framework will promote clearer and
more explicit theories of development and change.
ties. plans and skills. and needs for belonging and identity; (c) a cultural-
sociological progression of an individual's conformity or deviance with
the culture. language. institutions. and customs of the organizations in
which the individual participates; and (d) an outer-physical progression
of events. such as natural disasters. social demography. or economic
cycles that an individual may encounter. Riegel (1975: 392) pointed out
that events within and between these progressions are not always syn-
chronized. Developmental crises occur whenever two sequences are out
of step. He identified 16 developmental progressions that can be produced
by asynchronies along the four developmental progressions. which can
result in either destructive outcomes or constructive leaps in develop-
ment. Riegel (1975: 385) went on to state.
Once generated, these new developments can transform the
previously contradictory interactions of conflicting events into
a coordinated, synchronized pattern of interactions and
change. As synchrony is reestablished, a form of individual
and social progress is achieved. And yet with each successful
new development. new questions and discrepancies emerge
and. in this process. produce a continuous flux of contradic-
tions and developmental change.
Riegel's theory of human development provides a rich example of what a
theory of organizational development might look like if it focused on the
crises produced by asynchronies in the operation of life-cycle. teleologi-
cal. dialectical. and evolutionary motors of change.
Benefits of the Framework for Theory and Research
The approach outlined in this article contributes to organization the-
ory in at least four respects. First. it offers a parsimonious explanation of
a wide variety of organizational development and change theories. The
four ideal-type motors serve as theoretical primitives. and the complexi-
ties of the developmental process can be analyzed as the interplay among
these primitives. This interplay makes it possible to discern commonali-
ties among a broad range of specific theories that might otherwise be
overlooked. Some review articles. such as Cameron and Whetten's (1983)
discussion of organizational life-cycle models. have attempted to do this
for a limited range of developmental theories. The current framework
extends this projection to the entire breadth of organization development
and change.
Second. the framework also can serve as a heuristic for critique and
reformulation. In an adequate theory. each ideal-type motor should be
represented in its full-fledged form. and the relationships among motors
should be fully specified. The framework encourages scholars to identify
aspects of motors or relationships that are incompletely described in a
given theory. In such cases, it would be necessary to spell out the remain-
der and fill in details. We hope the framework will promote clearer and
more explicit theories of development and change.
Third. the framework points out previously unexplored explanations
of organizational change and development. In particular. we could not
find examples of theories in the management literature for rows 12. 13.
and 15 of Table 3. These "missing" rows represent opportunities for theory
building. perhaps through novel applications of theories or metaphors
from other contexts. For example. we introduced Riegel's theory of human
development to illustrate the structure of a theory of organizational de-
velopment that incorporates interactions from all four change motors.
Finally. the framework provides a foundation for empirical research.
As our example of cochlear implants showed. it is not always clear from
the outset what forces are influencing a complex developmental process.
Indeed. if it is true that the interplay of multiple forces often drives de-
velopment. then conducting research with a simple a priori theory in
mind actually may impede adequate explanation. The researcher may
look only for indicators of that particular theory. ignoring other possible
explanations. In the best case. this myopia results in an incomplete ac-
count of development and change; in the worst case. the researcher may
incorrectly reject his or her model because complexities introduced by
other motors covered over evidence of its adequacy. An alternative ap-
proach is to collect very rich data and canvass it for several alternative
motors of change. as done by the Minnesota Innovation Research Pro-
gram (Van de Ven. Angle. & Poole. 1989). To do this. the researcher must
first determine which of the four motors are operating by testing whether
the conditions summarized in Table 2 are present. If more than one motor
is operating. the second step is to examine how they are related. This
two-step approach. which we call template matching. avoids the narrow-
ness imparted by adherence to a simple developmental theory. while
keeping a strong theoretical basis for research. Template matching is
sensitive to the context of organizational development and change. It
promotes the development of explanations commensurate with the com-
plexity of a given process. Moreover. because explanations are cast in
terms of the four ideal-type motors and their interplay. this approach
promotes the development of more general theories of development and
change.
IV. CONCLUSION
This article introduced a typology of four ideal-type theories of orga-
nizational development and change: life cycle. teleological. dialectical
and evolutionary. These four theories have rich intellectual traditions and
offer fundamentally different explanations of change and development
processes. Each theory relies on a different motor of change. which can be
mapped as a distinct action cycle. However. observed change and devel-
opment processes in organizations often are more complex than anyone
of these theories suggests because conditions may exist to trigger inter-
Third. the framework points out previously unexplored explanations
of organizational change and development. In particular. we could not
find examples of theories in the management literature for rows 12. 13.
and 15 of Table 3. These "missing" rows represent opportunities for theory
building. perhaps through novel applications of theories or metaphors
from other contexts. For example. we introduced Riegel's theory of human
development to illustrate the structure of a theory of organizational de-
velopment that incorporates interactions from all four change motors.
Finally. the framework provides a foundation for empirical research.
As our example of cochlear implants showed. it is not always clear from
the outset what forces are influencing a complex developmental process.
Indeed. if it is true that the interplay of multiple forces often drives de-
velopment. then conducting research with a simple a priori theory in
mind actually may impede adequate explanation. The researcher may
look only for indicators of that particular theory. ignoring other possible
explanations. In the best case. this myopia results in an incomplete ac-
count of development and change; in the worst case. the researcher may
incorrectly reject his or her model because complexities introduced by
other motors covered over evidence of its adequacy. An alternative ap-
proach is to collect very rich data and canvass it for several alternative
motors of change. as done by the Minnesota Innovation Research Pro-
gram (Van de Ven. Angle. & Poole. 1989). To do this. the researcher must
first determine which of the four motors are operating by testing whether
the conditions summarized in Table 2 are present. If more than one motor
is operating. the second step is to examine how they are related. This
two-step approach. which we call template matching. avoids the narrow-
ness imparted by adherence to a simple developmental theory. while
keeping a strong theoretical basis for research. Template matching is
sensitive to the context of organizational development and change. It
promotes the development of explanations commensurate with the com-
plexity of a given process. Moreover. because explanations are cast in
terms of the four ideal-type motors and their interplay. this approach
promotes the development of more general theories of development and
change.
IV. CONCLUSION
This article introduced a typology of four ideal-type theories of orga-
nizational development and change: life cycle. teleological. dialectical
and evolutionary. These four theories have rich intellectual traditions and
offer fundamentally different explanations of change and development
processes. Each theory relies on a different motor of change. which can be
mapped as a distinct action cycle. However. observed change and devel-
opment processes in organizations often are more complex than anyone
of these theories suggests because conditions may exist to trigger inter-
play among several change motors and produce interdependent cycles of
change. Even though each of these types has its own internal logic. com-
plexity and the potential for theoretical confusion arise from the interplay
among different motors.
Based on the presence or absence of the generating mechanisms
underlying the four ideal-type theories. we develop a framework of 16
logically possible explanations of organizational change and develop-
ment. As the examples illustrate. this framework provides a systematic
way to compare and contrast alternative theories of organizational
change in the management and organization literature. It also promotes
theory construction by identifying logical combinations that have previ-
ously not been developed.
An important extension of the framework is to more fully examine the
types of relationships that might hold between the four change motors.
Several types warrant investigation. First, there is the degree of nesting
of motors. In some cases motors may operate on the same level of analysis
(e.g .. the organizational level). However. it is possible that one motor may
be nested within the other. for example. when one characterizes the de-
velopment of the organization as a whole. while the other pertains to the
actions of individuals within the organization. or when one depicts the
development of an industry and another the development of individual
organizations in that industry. When motors are at the same level of
analysis. relationships among them represent simple influences; how-
ever. when motors are nested. working out the relationships among them
requires specifying macro-micro links. A second key relationship is the
timing of the motors. Motors may operate simultaneously. or they may
alternate at different times. If they operate simultaneously. the degrees of
amplitude or influence of each motor on a change process over time
should be examined. Third. we must consider the degree of complemen-
tarity among motors. Motors may reinforce or contradict one another.
Baum and Singh (1994) provided a constructive approach to examine these
relationships by specifying the vertical and horizontal relationships be-
tween ecological and genealogical hierarchies in levels of organizational
systems.
As these types of relationships suggest, the relative balance between
the constructive and prescribed motors operating at different levels of
analysis are likely to playa major role in explaining patterns of stability
and change in an organization. For example. when an institutionally
prescribed motor dominates the development of an organization. it may
suppress or dampen internally generated variety to the degree that the
organization begins to act more rigidly and more predictably. When a
constructive motor dominates through either teleological or dialectical
processes. the organization may be unable to suppress rival subsystems
that rise up from within. creating too much variety to integrate into one
system. In other words. positive feedback between constructive and
play among several change motors and produce interdependent cycles of
change. Even though each of these types has its own internal logic. com-
plexity and the potential for theoretical confusion arise from the interplay
among different motors.
Based on the presence or absence of the generating mechanisms
underlying the four ideal-type theories. we develop a framework of 16
logically possible explanations of organizational change and develop-
ment. As the examples illustrate. this framework provides a systematic
way to compare and contrast alternative theories of organizational
change in the management and organization literature. It also promotes
theory construction by identifying logical combinations that have previ-
ously not been developed.
An important extension of the framework is to more fully examine the
types of relationships that might hold between the four change motors.
Several types warrant investigation. First, there is the degree of nesting
of motors. In some cases motors may operate on the same level of analysis
(e.g .. the organizational level). However. it is possible that one motor may
be nested within the other. for example. when one characterizes the de-
velopment of the organization as a whole. while the other pertains to the
actions of individuals within the organization. or when one depicts the
development of an industry and another the development of individual
organizations in that industry. When motors are at the same level of
analysis. relationships among them represent simple influences; how-
ever. when motors are nested. working out the relationships among them
requires specifying macro-micro links. A second key relationship is the
timing of the motors. Motors may operate simultaneously. or they may
alternate at different times. If they operate simultaneously. the degrees of
amplitude or influence of each motor on a change process over time
should be examined. Third. we must consider the degree of complemen-
tarity among motors. Motors may reinforce or contradict one another.
Baum and Singh (1994) provided a constructive approach to examine these
relationships by specifying the vertical and horizontal relationships be-
tween ecological and genealogical hierarchies in levels of organizational
systems.
As these types of relationships suggest, the relative balance between
the constructive and prescribed motors operating at different levels of
analysis are likely to playa major role in explaining patterns of stability
and change in an organization. For example. when an institutionally
prescribed motor dominates the development of an organization. it may
suppress or dampen internally generated variety to the degree that the
organization begins to act more rigidly and more predictably. When a
constructive motor dominates through either teleological or dialectical
processes. the organization may be unable to suppress rival subsystems
that rise up from within. creating too much variety to integrate into one
system. In other words. positive feedback between constructive and
prescribed motors reinforces change and can produce exploding complexity.
whereas negative feedback counteracts the effects of change events and is
likely to produce a moving equilibrium in organizational development.
More precisely. temporal shifts in the relative balance between pos-
itive and negative feedback loops in the operation of different change
motors can push an organization (a) to flow toward a fixed-point equilib-
rium. (b) to oscillate in a periodic sequence between opposites. (c) to
bifurcate far from equilibrium and spontaneously create new structures.
or (d) to behave in a random fashion. First. as just stated. organizational
stability occurs when a negative feedback loop exists between the oper-
ation of prescribed and constructive motors of change. For example. the
institutional routines or the established goals of the organization are suf-
ficient to keep the creation of new programs or conflicts between alter-
native programs within limits so that the organization does not fly apart
from too much novelty and. thereby. produce incremental adaptations
flowing toward a stable equilibrium. Second. organizational cycles. fads.
or pendulum swings occur when the relative influence of positive and
negative feedback loops between change motors alternate in a periodic
pattern and push the organization to oscillate somewhat farther from its
stable equilibrium orbit. Such recurrent cycles are exemplified in some
models of vicious circles in organizations (Masuch. 1985). group entrain-
ment processes (McGrath & Kelly. 1986). and creative destruction (Schum-
peter. 1942). Third. organizational transformations and spontaneous
novel structures can be produced when strong imbalances occur between
constructive and prescribed change motors. which may push the organi-
zation out of its equilibrium orbit and produce bifurcations (Prigogine &
Stengers. 1984) or catastrophes (Zeeman. 1976). leading to chaotic patterns
of organizational change. Finally. the behavior of change motors in a
developing organization may be so complicated and indeterminate to
render deterministic modeling infeasible; the best one can do is to sto-
chastically model the behaviors as a random process. Stochastic models
based on the theory of random processes allow researchers to make better
predictions than they could make without a model (Eubank & Farmer.
1990).
As this discussion suggests. a major extension of the framework is to
develop and study nonlinear dynamical systems models of organizational
change and development. which may be produced by feedback loops
among two or more simple motors of change. Organizational researchers
have tended to focus on linear or cyclical models of organizational devel-
opment and have treated other seemingly random patterns as either truly
stochastic processes (Tum a & Hannan. 1984) or as various forms of "error"
distributions messing up their experiments (Abraham. Abraham. & Shaw.
1990). Advances in dynamic systems theory provide mathematical tools
for examining chaos as an alternative explanation of organizational
change and development processes. These advances have been intro-
prescribed motors reinforces change and can produce exploding complexity.
whereas negative feedback counteracts the effects of change events and is
likely to produce a moving equilibrium in organizational development.
More precisely. temporal shifts in the relative balance between pos-
itive and negative feedback loops in the operation of different change
motors can push an organization (a) to flow toward a fixed-point equilib-
rium. (b) to oscillate in a periodic sequence between opposites. (c) to
bifurcate far from equilibrium and spontaneously create new structures.
or (d) to behave in a random fashion. First. as just stated. organizational
stability occurs when a negative feedback loop exists between the oper-
ation of prescribed and constructive motors of change. For example. the
institutional routines or the established goals of the organization are suf-
ficient to keep the creation of new programs or conflicts between alter-
native programs within limits so that the organization does not fly apart
from too much novelty and. thereby. produce incremental adaptations
flowing toward a stable equilibrium. Second. organizational cycles. fads.
or pendulum swings occur when the relative influence of positive and
negative feedback loops between change motors alternate in a periodic
pattern and push the organization to oscillate somewhat farther from its
stable equilibrium orbit. Such recurrent cycles are exemplified in some
models of vicious circles in organizations (Masuch. 1985). group entrain-
ment processes (McGrath & Kelly. 1986). and creative destruction (Schum-
peter. 1942). Third. organizational transformations and spontaneous
novel structures can be produced when strong imbalances occur between
constructive and prescribed change motors. which may push the organi-
zation out of its equilibrium orbit and produce bifurcations (Prigogine &
Stengers. 1984) or catastrophes (Zeeman. 1976). leading to chaotic patterns
of organizational change. Finally. the behavior of change motors in a
developing organization may be so complicated and indeterminate to
render deterministic modeling infeasible; the best one can do is to sto-
chastically model the behaviors as a random process. Stochastic models
based on the theory of random processes allow researchers to make better
predictions than they could make without a model (Eubank & Farmer.
1990).
As this discussion suggests. a major extension of the framework is to
develop and study nonlinear dynamical systems models of organizational
change and development. which may be produced by feedback loops
among two or more simple motors of change. Organizational researchers
have tended to focus on linear or cyclical models of organizational devel-
opment and have treated other seemingly random patterns as either truly
stochastic processes (Tum a & Hannan. 1984) or as various forms of "error"
distributions messing up their experiments (Abraham. Abraham. & Shaw.
1990). Advances in dynamic systems theory provide mathematical tools
for examining chaos as an alternative explanation of organizational
change and development processes. These advances have been intro-
duced into the management and organizational literature by Cheng and
Van de Ven (In press), Cottrell (1993), Koput (1992), and Polley (1993).
As Koput (1992) stated, a dynamic model is one where the variables
(here the operation of the change motors) at a given time are a function (at
least in part) of the same variables at an earlier time. Nonlinearity im-
plies that there are feedback loops that vary in strength (loose or tight
coupling) and direction (positive or negative) over time between opposing
forces or demands. Such nonlinear dynamic models are often path de-
pendent or sensitive to initial conditions. This sensitivity means that
small initial differences or fluctuations in trajectories of variables may
grow into large differences over time, and as they move far from equilib-
rium they bifurcate or branch out into numerous possible pathways re-
sembling a chaotic decision tree. In a chaotic state the pathways that are
taken in the branching cannot be predicted; they represent spontaneously
created new structures that emerge in a seemingly random order. What is
impressive about such chaotic processes is that they have a hidden order
that typically consists of a relatively simple nonlinear system of dynamic
relationships among only a few variables (Eubank & Farmer, 1990). We
close "out on a limb" by speculating that underlying the indeterminate
and seemingly random processes of development often observed in orga-
nizational entities there exists such a relatively simple system of nonlin-
ear dynamic relationships among a few of the motors of change examined
here.
Finally, although much can be said in favor of the analytical. heu-
ristic, and research potential of this framework, one common objection
will be that it seems overly reductionistic. Can all models of development
be reduced to four relatively simple motors and their interactions? The
typology is based on an extensive search through hundreds of works, and
the four motors emerged as the "least common denominators" of the
change theories reflected in those works, reflecting essential differences
among these theories. Certainly, the ultimate determinant will be re-
searchers' experience with the typology, using it to analyze existing theo-
ries and determining what. if anything, is left out.
REFERENCES
Abernathy, W. J., & Clark, K. B. 1985. Innovation: Mapping the winds of creative destruction.
Research Policy. 14: 3-22.
Abraham, F. D .. Abraham, R. H .. & Shaw, C. D. 1990. A visual introduction to dynamical
systems theory for psychology. Santa Cruz, CA: Aerial Press.
Aldrich. H. 1979. Organizations and environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Arnold, A. J .. & Fristrup, K. 1982. The theory of evolution by natural selection: A hierarchical
expansion. Paleobiology. 8: 113-129.
Astley, W. G. 1985. The two ecologies: Population and community perspectives on organi-
zational evolution. Administrative Science Quarterly. 30: 224-241.
duced into the management and organizational literature by Cheng and
Van de Ven (In press), Cottrell (1993), Koput (1992), and Polley (1993).
As Koput (1992) stated, a dynamic model is one where the variables
(here the operation of the change motors) at a given time are a function (at
least in part) of the same variables at an earlier time. Nonlinearity im-
plies that there are feedback loops that vary in strength (loose or tight
coupling) and direction (positive or negative) over time between opposing
forces or demands. Such nonlinear dynamic models are often path de-
pendent or sensitive to initial conditions. This sensitivity means that
small initial differences or fluctuations in trajectories of variables may
grow into large differences over time, and as they move far from equilib-
rium they bifurcate or branch out into numerous possible pathways re-
sembling a chaotic decision tree. In a chaotic state the pathways that are
taken in the branching cannot be predicted; they represent spontaneously
created new structures that emerge in a seemingly random order. What is
impressive about such chaotic processes is that they have a hidden order
that typically consists of a relatively simple nonlinear system of dynamic
relationships among only a few variables (Eubank & Farmer, 1990). We
close "out on a limb" by speculating that underlying the indeterminate
and seemingly random processes of development often observed in orga-
nizational entities there exists such a relatively simple system of nonlin-
ear dynamic relationships among a few of the motors of change examined
here.
Finally, although much can be said in favor of the analytical. heu-
ristic, and research potential of this framework, one common objection
will be that it seems overly reductionistic. Can all models of development
be reduced to four relatively simple motors and their interactions? The
typology is based on an extensive search through hundreds of works, and
the four motors emerged as the "least common denominators" of the
change theories reflected in those works, reflecting essential differences
among these theories. Certainly, the ultimate determinant will be re-
searchers' experience with the typology, using it to analyze existing theo-
ries and determining what. if anything, is left out.
REFERENCES
Abernathy, W. J., & Clark, K. B. 1985. Innovation: Mapping the winds of creative destruction.
Research Policy. 14: 3-22.
Abraham, F. D .. Abraham, R. H .. & Shaw, C. D. 1990. A visual introduction to dynamical
systems theory for psychology. Santa Cruz, CA: Aerial Press.
Aldrich. H. 1979. Organizations and environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Arnold, A. J .. & Fristrup, K. 1982. The theory of evolution by natural selection: A hierarchical
expansion. Paleobiology. 8: 113-129.
Astley, W. G. 1985. The two ecologies: Population and community perspectives on organi-
zational evolution. Administrative Science Quarterly. 30: 224-241.
Bales. R. F .. & Strodtbeck. F. L. 1951. Phases in group problem-solving. TournaI 01 Abnormal
and Social Psychology. 46: 485-495.
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development of intelligence' during adulthood and old age. In A. B. Sorensen. F. E.
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Baum. J. A. C., & Singh. J. V. 1994. Evolutionary dynamics 01 organizations. New York: Ox-
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Benson, J. K. 1977. Organizations: A dialectical view. Administrative Science Quarterly. 22:
1-21.
Berger. P. L .. & Luckmann, T. 1966. The social construction 01 reality. Garden City, NY:
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Boyd, R., & Richerson. P. J. 1985. Culture and the evolutionary process. Chicago: University
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Brunsson, N. 1982. The irrationality of action and action rationality: Decisions, ideologies,
and organizational actions. TournaI 01 Management Studies. 19: 29-34.
Burgelman, R. A. 1991. Intraorganizational ecology 01 strategy making and organizational
adaptation: Theory and field research. Organization Science. 2: 239-262.
Burgelman. R. A., & Sayles, L. R. 1986. Inside corporate innovation: Strategy. structure. and
managerial skills. New York: Free Press.
Cameron. K .. & Whetten, D. 1983. Models of the organizational life cycle: Applications to
higher education. Review 01 Higher Education. 6(4): 269-299.
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Systems. 16: 69-85.
CampbelL D. 1974. Evolutionary epistemology. In P. A. Schilpp (Ed.). The philosophy 01 Karl
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Carroll. G .. & Hannan, M. T. 1989. Density delay in the evolution of organizational popula-
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Chakravarthy. B. S .. & Lorange, P. 1991. Managing the strategy process. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cheng. Y .. & Van de Ven, A. In press. The innovation journey: Order out of chaos? Organi-
zation Science.
Clark, K. B. 1985. The interaction of design hierarchies and market concepts in technological
evolution. Research Policy. 14: 235-251.
Cohen. M. D .. March. J. G., & Olsen, J. P. 1972. A garbage can model of organizational
choice. Administrative Science Quarterly. 17: 1-25.
Commons. J. R. 1950. The economics 01 collective action. Madison: University of Wisconsin
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Coser. L. A. 1956. The lunctions 01 social conllict. New York: Free Press.
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Darwin. C. 1936. The origin 01 species. New York: Modern Library.
De Rosnay. J. 1970. Evolution and time. Main Currents. 27: 35-47.
Etzioni. A. 1963. The epigenesis of political communities at the international level. American
TournaI 01 Sociology. 68: 407-421.
Bales. R. F .. & Strodtbeck. F. L. 1951. Phases in group problem-solving. TournaI 01 Abnormal
and Social Psychology. 46: 485-495.
Baltes. P. B .. Dittman-Kohli. F .. & Dixon. R. A. 1986. Multidisciplinary propositions on the
development of intelligence' during adulthood and old age. In A. B. Sorensen. F. E.
Weinert. & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.). Human development and the lile course: Multidisci-
plinary perspectives: 467-507. Hillsdale. NT: Erlbaum.
Baum. J. A. C., & Singh. J. V. 1994. Evolutionary dynamics 01 organizations. New York: Ox-
ford University Press.
Benson, J. K. 1977. Organizations: A dialectical view. Administrative Science Quarterly. 22:
1-21.
Berger. P. L .. & Luckmann, T. 1966. The social construction 01 reality. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday.
Boyd, R., & Richerson. P. J. 1985. Culture and the evolutionary process. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Brunsson, N. 1982. The irrationality of action and action rationality: Decisions, ideologies,
and organizational actions. TournaI 01 Management Studies. 19: 29-34.
Burgelman, R. A. 1991. Intraorganizational ecology 01 strategy making and organizational
adaptation: Theory and field research. Organization Science. 2: 239-262.
Burgelman. R. A., & Sayles, L. R. 1986. Inside corporate innovation: Strategy. structure. and
managerial skills. New York: Free Press.
Cameron. K .. & Whetten, D. 1983. Models of the organizational life cycle: Applications to
higher education. Review 01 Higher Education. 6(4): 269-299.
Campbell, D. 1969. Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution. General
Systems. 16: 69-85.
CampbelL D. 1974. Evolutionary epistemology. In P. A. Schilpp (Ed.). The philosophy 01 Karl
Popper: 413-463. LaSalle, 1L: Open Court Press.
Carroll. G .. & Hannan, M. T. 1989. Density delay in the evolution of organizational popula-
tions: A model and five empirical tests. Administrative Science Quarterly. 34: 411-430.
Chakravarthy. B. S .. & Lorange, P. 1991. Managing the strategy process. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cheng. Y .. & Van de Ven, A. In press. The innovation journey: Order out of chaos? Organi-
zation Science.
Clark, K. B. 1985. The interaction of design hierarchies and market concepts in technological
evolution. Research Policy. 14: 235-251.
Cohen. M. D .. March. J. G., & Olsen, J. P. 1972. A garbage can model of organizational
choice. Administrative Science Quarterly. 17: 1-25.
Commons. J. R. 1950. The economics 01 collective action. Madison: University of Wisconsin
Press.
Coser. L. A. 1956. The lunctions 01 social conllict. New York: Free Press.
Cottrell. T. 1993. Nonlinear dynamics in the emergence 01 new industries. Unpublished
paper. University of California. Berkeley.
Darwin. C. 1936. The origin 01 species. New York: Modern Library.
De Rosnay. J. 1970. Evolution and time. Main Currents. 27: 35-47.
Etzioni. A. 1963. The epigenesis of political communities at the international level. American
TournaI 01 Sociology. 68: 407-421.
Eubank. S .. & Farmer. D. 1990. An introduction to chaos and randomness. In E. Jen (Ed.). 1989
lectures in complex systems: SFI studies in the sciences 01 complexity, vol. 2: 75-190.
Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.
Featherman. D. L. 1986. Biography. society. and history: Individual development as a pop-
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Flavell. J. H. 1982. Structures. stages. and sequences in cognitive development. In W. A.
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acquiring of knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 39: 1-41.
Gioia. D. A . & Pitre. E. 1990. Multiparadigm perspectives in theory building. Academy of
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Gould. S. J. 1989. Punctuated equilibrium in fact and theory. Journal 01 Social and Biological
Structures. 12: 117-136.
Gould. S. J .. & Eldridge. N. 1977. Punctuated equilibria: The tempo and model of evolution
reconsidered. Paleobiology, 3: 115-151.
Greiner. L. 1972. Evolution and revolution as organizations grow. Harvard Business Review.
50(4): 37-46.
Hannan. M. T .. & Freeman. F. 1977. The population ecology of organizations. American
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Hannan. M. T .. & Freeman. F. 1989. Organizational ecology. Cambridge. MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Harre. R.. & Madden. E. A. 1975. Causal powers. Totowa. NJ: Littlefield. Adams.
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Kimberly. J .. & Miles. R. 1980. The organizational life cycle. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Koput. K. 1992. Dynamics of innovative idea generation in organizations: Randomness and
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University of California School of Business. Berkeley.
Levinson. D. J. 1978. The seasons 01 a man's lile. New York: Knopf.
Lindblom. C. E. 1965. The intelligence of democracy. New York: Free Press.
March. J. G. 1981. Footnotes to organizational change. Administrative Science Quarterly. 26:
563-577.
March. J. G. 1994. The evolution of evolution. In J. Baum & J. Singh (Eds.). Evolutionary
dynamics of organizations: 39-49. New York: Oxford University Press.
March. J. G .. & Olsen. J. P. 1976. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen. Norway:
Universitetsfor laget.
March. J. G .. & Simon. H. A. 1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
Eubank. S .. & Farmer. D. 1990. An introduction to chaos and randomness. In E. Jen (Ed.). 1989
lectures in complex systems: SFI studies in the sciences 01 complexity, vol. 2: 75-190.
Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.
Featherman. D. L. 1986. Biography. society. and history: Individual development as a pop-
ulation process. In A. B. Sorensen. F. E. Weinert. & L. R. Sherrod (Eds.). Human devel-
opment and the liIe course: Multidisciplinary perspectives: 99-149. Hillsdale. NJ: Erl-
baum.
Flavell. J. H. 1982. Structures. stages. and sequences in cognitive development. In W. A.
Collins (Ed.). The concept 01 development: The Minnesota symposia on child psychology:
1-28. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
Gersick. C. J. 1991. Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctu-
ated equilibrium paradigm. Academy 01 Management Review, 16: 10-36.
Gibson. E. J. 1988. Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving. acting. and the
acquiring of knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 39: 1-41.
Gioia. D. A . & Pitre. E. 1990. Multiparadigm perspectives in theory building. Academy of
Management Review, 15: 584-602.
Gould. S. J. 1989. Punctuated equilibrium in fact and theory. Journal 01 Social and Biological
Structures. 12: 117-136.
Gould. S. J .. & Eldridge. N. 1977. Punctuated equilibria: The tempo and model of evolution
reconsidered. Paleobiology, 3: 115-151.
Greiner. L. 1972. Evolution and revolution as organizations grow. Harvard Business Review.
50(4): 37-46.
Hannan. M. T .. & Freeman. F. 1977. The population ecology of organizations. American
Joumal of Sociology. 82: 929-964.
Hannan. M. T .. & Freeman. F. 1989. Organizational ecology. Cambridge. MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Harre. R.. & Madden. E. A. 1975. Causal powers. Totowa. NJ: Littlefield. Adams.
Kaplan. A. 1964. The conduct 01 inquiry: Methodology lor behavioral science. New York:
Chandler.
Kimberly. J .. & Miles. R. 1980. The organizational life cycle. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kohlberg. L. 1969. Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socializa-
tion. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.). Handbook 01 socialization theory and research: 347-480.
Chicago: Rand McNally.
Koput. K. 1992. Dynamics of innovative idea generation in organizations: Randomness and
chaos in the development 01 a new medical device. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
University of California School of Business. Berkeley.
Levinson. D. J. 1978. The seasons 01 a man's lile. New York: Knopf.
Lindblom. C. E. 1965. The intelligence of democracy. New York: Free Press.
March. J. G. 1981. Footnotes to organizational change. Administrative Science Quarterly. 26:
563-577.
March. J. G. 1994. The evolution of evolution. In J. Baum & J. Singh (Eds.). Evolutionary
dynamics of organizations: 39-49. New York: Oxford University Press.
March. J. G .. & Olsen. J. P. 1976. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen. Norway:
Universitetsfor laget.
March. J. G .. & Simon. H. A. 1958. Organizations. New York: Wiley.
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organizational behavior. vol. 13: 147-190. Greenwich. CT: JAI Press.
Newell, A. 1973. Production systems: Models of control structures. In W. G. Chase (Ed.),
Visual inlormation processing: 463-562. New York: Academic Press.
Nisbet, R. A. 1970. Developmentalism: A critical analysis. In J. McKinney & E. Tiryakin
(Eds.). Theoretical sociology: Perspectives and developments: 167-206. New York:
Meredith.
Parsons, R. 1951. The social system. New York: Free Press.
Pfeffer. J. 1982. Organizations and organization theory. Boston: Pitman.
Piaget, J. 1975. The child's conception 01 the world. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams.
Poggie, G. 1965. A main theme of contemporary SOCiological analysis: Its achievements and
limitations. British Journal 01 Sociology. 16: 283-294.
Polley, D. 1993. Chaos as metaphor and science: Applications and risks. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the Academy of Management. Atlanta, GA.
Poole. M. S. 1981. Decision development in small groups I: A test of two models. Commu-
nication Monographs. 48: 1-24.
Poole, M. S. 1983. Decision development in small groups ITI: A multiple sequence theory of
decision development. Communication Monographs. 50: 321-341.
Poole, M. S. 1985. Tasks and interaction sequences: A theory of coherence in group decision-
making. In R. Street & J. N. Cappella (Eds.), Sequence and pattern in communicative
behavior: 206-224. London: Edward Arnold.
Poole. M. S .. & Roth, J. 1989. Decision development in small groups V: Test of a contingency
model. Human Communication Research. IS: 549-589.
Poole, M. S., & Van de Ven, A. H. 1989. Toward a general theory of innovation. In A. H. Van
de Ven, H. Angle, & M. S. Poole. Research on the management 01 innovation: 637-662.
New York: HarperCollins.
Prigogine, I., & Stengers, S. 1984. Order out 01 chaos. New York: Heinemann.
Riegel. K. F. 1975. From traits and equilibrium toward developmental dialectics. In J. Cole
& W. S. Arnold (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: 349-407. Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press.
Riegel. K. F. 1976. The dialectics of human development. American Psychologist. 31: 689-
700.
Rogers, E. 1983. Dillusion 01 innovations (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press.
Schumpeter, J. A. 1942. Capitalism. socialism. and democracy. New York: Harper & Row.
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Academic Press.
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convergence and reorientation. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.). Research in
organizational behavior. vol. 7: 171-222. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Utterback, J. M . & Abernathy. W. J. 1975. A dynamic model of process and product innova-
tion. Omega. 3: 639-656.
Van de Ven, A. H. 1992. Suggestions for studying strategy process: A research note. Strategic
Management Joumal. 13: 169-188.
Van de Ven, A. H .. Angle, H. Loo & Poole. M. S. 1989. Research on the management of inno-
vation: The Minnesota studies. New York: BallingerlHarper & Row.
Van de Ven, A. H., & Garud, R. 1993. Innovation and industry development: The case of
cochlear implants. In R. Burgelman & R. Rosenbloom (Eds.). Research on technological
innovation. management and policy. vol. 5: 1-46. Greenwich, CT: JAl Press.
Van de Ven. A. H., & Poole, M. S. 1988. Paradoxical requirements for a theory of organiza-
tional change. In R. Quinn & K. Cameron (Eds.), Paradox and transformation: Toward a
theory of change in organization and management: 19-BO. New York: HarperCollins.
Von Wright, G. H. 1971. Explanation and understanding. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press.
Watzlawik, P., Weakland. J. Hoo & Fisch, R. 1974. Change: Principles of problem formation
and problem resolution. New York: Norton.
Weick, K. E. 1979. The social psychology of organizing (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley.
Zeeman. E. C. 1976. Catastrophe theory. Scientilic American. 234(4): 65-83.
Andrew Van de Ven received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.
He is the Vernon Heath Professor of organizational change and innovation in the
Carlson School of Management and Director of the Minnesota Innovation Research
Program in the Strategic Management Research Center of the University of Minne-
sota. His research interests include theories and methods for understanding pro-
cesses of change and innovation in organizations.
Marshall Sco" Poole received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.
He is professor of speech communication in the College of Liberal Arts at Texas A&M
University. His research interests include group and organization decision pro-
cesses. information technology, organizational innovation and change, and organi-
zation theory.
Simmel. G. 1955. Der steit. [Chapter 4 in Soziologiel. In K. H. Wolff & R. Bendix (Trans.), Georg
Simmel: Conflict & the web 01 group alliIiations: 11-123. New York: Free Press, (Original
work published 1908)
Simon, H. A. (Ed.). 1979. Models 01 thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Singh, J. V .. & Lumsden. C. J. 1990. Theory and research in organizational ecology. Annual
Review 01 Sociology. 16: 161-195.
Sztompka, P. 1993. The sociology 01 social change. London: Basil Blackwell.
Tsoukas, H. 1989. The validity of idiographic research explanations. Academy 01 Manage-
ment Review. 14: 551-561.
Tuma, N. Boo & Hannan. M. T. 1984. Social dynamics: Models and methods. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press.
Tushman, M. L., & Romanelli. E. 1985. Organizational evolution: A metamorphosis model of
convergence and reorientation. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.). Research in
organizational behavior. vol. 7: 171-222. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Utterback, J. M . & Abernathy. W. J. 1975. A dynamic model of process and product innova-
tion. Omega. 3: 639-656.
Van de Ven, A. H. 1992. Suggestions for studying strategy process: A research note. Strategic
Management Joumal. 13: 169-188.
Van de Ven, A. H .. Angle, H. Loo & Poole. M. S. 1989. Research on the management of inno-
vation: The Minnesota studies. New York: BallingerlHarper & Row.
Van de Ven, A. H., & Garud, R. 1993. Innovation and industry development: The case of
cochlear implants. In R. Burgelman & R. Rosenbloom (Eds.). Research on technological
innovation. management and policy. vol. 5: 1-46. Greenwich, CT: JAl Press.
Van de Ven. A. H., & Poole, M. S. 1988. Paradoxical requirements for a theory of organiza-
tional change. In R. Quinn & K. Cameron (Eds.), Paradox and transformation: Toward a
theory of change in organization and management: 19-BO. New York: HarperCollins.
Von Wright, G. H. 1971. Explanation and understanding. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press.
Watzlawik, P., Weakland. J. Hoo & Fisch, R. 1974. Change: Principles of problem formation
and problem resolution. New York: Norton.
Weick, K. E. 1979. The social psychology of organizing (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley.
Zeeman. E. C. 1976. Catastrophe theory. Scientilic American. 234(4): 65-83.
Andrew Van de Ven received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.
He is the Vernon Heath Professor of organizational change and innovation in the
Carlson School of Management and Director of the Minnesota Innovation Research
Program in the Strategic Management Research Center of the University of Minne-
sota. His research interests include theories and methods for understanding pro-
cesses of change and innovation in organizations.
Marshall Sco" Poole received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.
He is professor of speech communication in the College of Liberal Arts at Texas A&M
University. His research interests include group and organization decision pro-
cesses. information technology, organizational innovation and change, and organi-
zation theory.

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Explaining development and change in organizations

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