1

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
&
EVERYDAY SCIENCE


NOTES
FOR


TEHSILDAR EXAM
&
A.C/D.C EXAM





MUHAMMAD IBRAHIM KHAN MANDOKHAIL
Cell No.: 0344-8016994
0332-7809022




Hafiz_khan2010@hotmail.com

2

ABBREVIATIONS IN COMMON USE


A.B.M. Anti Ballistic Missile
A-bomb Atom bomb
A.B.C. Weapons Atomic, Bacteriological and Chemical Weapons
A/c. Account
A.C. Ante Christum: before Christ: (elect); Alternating Current; Aero Club
A.C.A. Associate of the Chartered Accountants
A.D.B.P. Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan
A.D. Anno Domini: in the year of our Lord
A.D.A. Airport Development Authority
A.A.J.A. Afro-Asian Journalists Association
AE.C. Army Education Corps; Atomic Energy Commission (UN).
A.F.P. Associated French Press
A.G. Accountant-General; Adjutant-General; Advocate-General
A.H. Anno Hegirae: in the year of Hegirae, i.e. from Hijrat of Muhammad the
Prophet SAWW (622 A.D. 13
th
September). Anno Hebrew: the Jewish
Calendar
A.I.D. Agency for Industrial Development
A.I.R. All-India Radio; All India Reports (Law)
A.K. Azad Kashmir
A.M. Air Ministry; Ante moridiem: before noon, before midday. Artium
Magister: Master of Arts. Anno Mundi: in the year of the world. Annus
mirablis: the wonderful year (1666)
A.M.C. Army Medical Corps
A.M.I.E.E. Associate Member of the institute of Civil Engineers
A.M.S. Army Medical Service
Anon. Anonymous
A.N.Z.U.S. Australian, New Zealand, and U.S. (defence group for the security of the
Pacific)
A.P. Associated Press
A.P.A Associated Press of America
A.P.A.A. All Pakistan Automobile Association
A.P.I. Associated Press of India
A.P.N.S. All Pakistan Newspapers Society
A,P.P. Associated Press of Pakistan
A.P.R. All Pakistan Radio
A.P.T.C. Army Physical Training Corps
A.P.W.A. All Pakistan Womens Association
A.R.C. Agricultural Research Council
A.R.P. Air Raid Precautions
A.S.A. Atomic Scientists Association
A.S.E.A.N. Association of South East Asian Nation
A.W. Atomic Weight
B.A. Baccalaureus Artium: Bachelor of Arts; British America; British
Association; British Academy
Bar-at Law. Barrister-at-law
B.B.C. British Broadcasting Corporation
B.C. Before Christ
B.C.G. Bacillus Calmete Gueria (T.B. vaccine)
B.D.S Bachelor of Dental Surgery
B.E.C.O. Batala Engineering Company
Benelux. Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg
B.I.S. Bank of International Settlements; British Information Service
B.O.A.C. British Overseas Airways Corporation
B.O.T. Board of Trade
C.A. Constituent Assembly; Chartered Accountant
Cantt. Cantonment
C.C. Chamber of Commerce; Chief Commissioner; Cricket Club
C.D. Civil Defence
C.D.A. Capital Development Authority

3

C.E.C. Chief Election Commissioner
C.P.C. Civil Procedure Code
Cr.P.C. Criminal Procedure Code
CENTO. Central Treaty Organisation
C.I.A. Criminal Investigation Agency; Central Intelligence Agency
C.I.D. Criminal Investigation Department
C-in-C. Commander-in-Chief
C.M.A. Controller of Military Accounts
C.M.O. Chief Medical Officer
C.P.N.E. Council of Pakistan Newspapers and Editors
C.P. Candle Power; Communist Party
C.S.I.R. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
D.C. Deputy Commissioner; (elec.) Direct Current
D.G.P.R. Director-General Public Relations
D.M. District Magistrate; Daily Mail
D.O. Demi-Official; Delivery Order
D.P. Displaced Person
D.D.T. Domani Dormiano Tranquillo (Tomorrow we will be able to sleep
soundly); Medicine which kills germs and insects. It is called Dechloro-
Diphenyl Trichloro ethane
D.P.R. Defence of Pakistan Rules; Director of Public Relations
E.C.M.E. Economic Commission for Middle East
E.E.C. European Economic Community
E. & O.E. Errors and Omissions Excepted
E.P.B. Export Promotion Bureau
Eco S.O. Economic and Social Council
E.C.M. European Common Market
F.A. Faculty of Arts; Football Association
F.A.O. Food and Agricultural Organisation
F.C.P.S. Fellow of College of Physicians and Surgeons
Flt. Flight
F.P.A. Foreign Press Association
F.P.C.C.I. Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry
F.P.I. Freedom of Press Information
F.T.U. Federation of Trade Unions
G.A. General Assembly (U.N.)
G.A.T.T. General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
G.H.O. General Headquarters (Military)
G.M.T. Greenwich Mean Time
G.N.P. Gross National Product
G.O.C. General Officer Commanding
G.P.O. General Post Office
H.B.F.C. House Building Finance Corporation
H.E. His/Her Excellency; His Eminence
I.A.E.Q. International Atomic Energy Agency
I.A.T.A. International Air Transport Association
I.B.R.D. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
I.C.A. International Cooperation Administration
I.C.A.O. International Civil Aviation Organisation
I.C.C. International Chambers of Commerce; International Control Commission
I.C.J. International Court of Justice
I.C.M.B. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles
I.D.B.P. Industrial Development Bank Pakistan
I.G.Y. International Geographical Year
I.J. Institute of Journalists
I.L.O. International Labour Organisation
I.M.C.O. International Maritime Consultative Organisation
I.M.F. International Monetary Fund
I.N.A. Indian National Airways
I.O.J. International-Pakistan Economic Cultural Cooperation
I.R.C. International Red Cross
I.O.C. International Olympic Committee

4

I.R.B.M. International Range Ballistic Missiles
I.R.O. International Refugee Organisation
Is. Island
I.S.F. International Students Federation
I.S.S.B. Inter Services Selection Board
I.T.O. Income tax Officer; International Trade Organisation (UNO)
I.T.U. International Telecommunication Union
I.W.W. Industrial Workers of the World
KA.NU.P.P. Karachi Nuclear Power Plant
K.D.A. Karachi Development Authority
K.K.K. Ku-Klux-Klan
K.M.C. Karachi Municipal Corporation.
K.P.T. Karachi Port Trust
Ib. Pound
L.B.W. Leg Before Wicket
L.L.B. Bachelor of Law (Legum Baccalaureus)
L.L.D. Doctor of Law (Legum Doctor)
L.L.M. Master of Laws
L.M.C. Lahore Municipal Corporation
L.R. Legal Remembrance
M.B. Bachelor of Medicine
M.B.B.S. Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery
M.D. Medicine Doctor: Doctor of Medicine Mentally Deficient.
M.D.S. Master of Dental Surgery
M.E.N.A. Middle East News Agency
M.E.D.O. Middle East Defence Organisation
M.O. Money Order; Medical Officer; Mass Observation
M.O.H. Medical Officer of Health
M.O.I. Ministry of Information
M.P. Military Police; (U.S.) Municipal Police; Metropolitan Police
M.P.H. Miles Per Hour
M.S. Master of Surgery
M.T. Mechanical Transport
N.A. National Assembly
N.A.F.E.N. New and Far East News (Agency)
N.A.S.A. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (at New York)
N.A.T.O. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
Nota bene: Note well, or take notice; North Britain; North British; New
Brunswick.
N.B.C. National Broadcasting Corporation (U.S.A.).
N.B.P. National Bank of Pakistan
N.C.N.A. New Chine News Agency
N.E.C. National Economic Council
N.I.P.A. National Institute of Public Administration
N.P.T. National Press Trust
N.T.P. Normal Temperature and Pressure
N.U.J. National Union of Journalists
O.A.S. Organisation for American States
O.A.S. Organisation for African Unity
O.E.C.D. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
O.E.E.C. Organisation for European Economic Co-operation
O.G.D.C. Oil and Gas Development Corporation
O.P.E.C. Organisation of the petroleum Exporting Countries
O.P.S.S. On Pakistan State Service
P.A. Personal Assistant; Press Association; Provincial Assembly
P.A.A. Pan-American Airways
P.A.&.A.S. Pakistan Audit and Accounts Service
P.A.E.C. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
P.A.F.A. Pakistan Air Force Academy
P.I.C.I.C. Pakistan Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation
P.C.E. Pakistan Council of Editors
P.C.S.I.R. Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

5

P.E.M.E. Pakistan Electrical and Mechanical Engineer
P.F.U.J. Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists
P.I.D.C. Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation.
P.L.O. Pakistan Liberation Organisation
p.m. Post meridiem: (Afternoon); post mortem: (after death examination of
dead body for ascertaining the cause of death).
P.M.A. Pakistan Military Academy; Pakistan Medical Association
P.M.G. Pakistan Muslim League
P.N. Pakistan Navy
P.N.E.A. Pakistan News Editors Association
P.N.E.C. Pakistan News Editors Council
P.P.A. Pakistan Press Association
P.O.W. Prisoner of War
P.P.I. Pakistan Press International; Pakistan Products Institute
P.S.C. Pakistan Shipping Corporation.
P.R.O. Public Relations Officer
P.S. Post Scriptum: Post Script: Written afterwards.
P.S.T. Pakistan Standard Time
P.T. Physical Training
P.F.F. Pakistan Football Federation
P.H.F. Pakistan Hockey Federation
P.O.A. Pakistan Olympic Association
P.L.A. Pakistan Liberation Army
P.P.W.D. Pakistan Public Works Department
P.C.S.I.R. Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
P.E.C.H.S. Pakistan Employees, Co-operation Housing Society
P.E.N. Poets, Playwrights, Editors, Essayists and Novelists (International Club)
P.T.I. Press Trust of India
P.T.O. Please Turn Over; Post and Telegraph Office.
P.T.P. Press Trust of Pakistan
P.U.C. Paper Under Consideration.
P.U.J. Pakistan Union of Journalists
P.W.D. Public Works Department
Radar. Radio, Angle, Direction and Range (Used to determine an object)
R.C.D. Regional Co-operation for Development
R.D.A. Royal Dutch Airlines
S.A.S. Scandinavian Airlines System; Sub Assistant Surgeon; Subordinate
Accounts Service
S.C. Supreme Court; Security Council (U.N)
S.D.O. Sub-Divisional Officer
S.E.A.D.O. South East Asia Defence Organisation
S.E.A.T.O. South East Asia Treaty Organisation
S.O.S. Save our Souls (wireless appeal)
S.P. Superintendent of Police
S.S.P. Senior Superintendent of Police
S.U.P.A.R.C.O. Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Committee (Pakistan)
T.C.A. Trans-Canada Airlines; Technical Co-operation Administration
T.D.A. Thal Development Authority
T.D.C. Trade and Development Committee
T.M.O. Telegraphic Money Order
T.T.C. Travelling Ticket-Checker
T.W.A. Trans-World Airline
U.A.R. United Arab Republic (Egypt)
U.N.C.T.A.D. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
U.N.D.P. United Nations Development Programme
U.N.E.C.A. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
U.N.E.S.C.O. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
U.N.I.C.E.F. United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund.
U.N.T.C. United Nations Trusteeship Council
U.P.A. United Press of America
U.P.I. United Press of India
V.I.P. Very Important Personality

6

V.O.A. Voice of America
W.A.P.D.A. Water and Power Development Authority
W.A.S.A. Water and Sewerage Authority
W.H.O. World Health Organisation
X. Chi: The Greek letter Chi (for Christ) is Similar Shape.
Xmas Christmas


7

MORE COMMON ABBREVIATIONS


abbr. abbreviation(s), abbreviated
Acad. Academy
A.D. anno Domini [in the year of the Lord]
Alt. Altitude
A.M. ante meridiem [before noon]; Artium Magister [Master of Arts]
AM amplitude modulation
Assn. Association
at. no. atomic number
at. wt. atomic weight
Aug. August
Ave. Avenue
AWOL absent without leave
b. born, born in
B.A. Bachelor of Arts (Baccalaureus Artium)
B.C. Before Christ
b.p. boiling point
B.S. Bachelor of Science
Btu British thermal unit(s)
C Celsius (centigrade)
c. circa [about]
cal calorie(s)
Capt. Captain
cent. century, centuries
Cm centimeter(s)
Co. county
Col. Colonel; Colossians
Comdr. Commander
Corp. Corporation
Cpl. Corporal
Cu cubic
d. died, died in
D.C. District of Columbia
Dec. December
dept. department
dist. district
div. division
Dr. doctor
E east, eastern
Ed. edited, edition, editor(s)
est. established; estimated
et al. et alii [and others]
F Fahrenheit

8

Feb. February
fl. floruit [flourished]
fl oz fluid ounce(s)
FM frequency modulation
Ft foot, feet
gal. gallon(s)
Gen. General, Genesis
GMT Greenwich mean time
GNP gross national product
GOP Grand Old Party (Republican Party)
Gov. governor
grad. graduated, graduated at
H hour(s)
Hon. the Honorable
Hr hour(s)
i.e. id est [that is]
in. inch(es)
inc. incorporated
Inst. Institute, Institution
IRA Irish Republican Army
IRS Internal Revenue Service
Jan. January
Jr. Junior
K Kelvin
Kg kilogram(s)
Km kilometer(s)
libra [pound], librae [pounds]
Lat. latitude
Lb libra [pound], librae [pounds]
Lib. Library
long. longitude
Lt. Lieutenant
Ltd. Limited
M meter(s)
M minute(s)
M.D. Medicinae Doctor [Doctor of Medicine]
mg milligram(s)
Mi mile(s)
min minute(s)
mm millimeter(s)
mph miles per hour
Mr. Mister (always abbreviated)
Mrs. Mistress (always abbreviated)
Msgr Monsignor

9

Mt. Mount, Mountain
mts. mountains
Mus. Museum
N north; Newton(s)
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NE northeast
No. number
Nov. November
OAS Organization of American States
Oct. October
Op. Opus [work]
Oz ounce(s)
pl. plural
pop. population
pseud. pseudonym
pt. part(s)
Pt pint(s)
pub. published; publisher
Qt quart(s)
Rev. Revelation; the Reverend
rev. revised
R.N. registered nurse
rpm revolution(s) per minute
RR railroad
S south
S second(s)
SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
sec second(s); secant
Sept. September
Ser. Series
Sgt. Sergeant
Sq square
Sr. Senior
SSR Soviet Socialist Republic
St. Saint; Street
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
uninc. unincorporated
Univ. University
U.S. United States
USA United States Army
USAF United States Air Force

10

USCG United States Coast Guard
USMC United States Marine Corps
USN United States Navy
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VFW Veterans of Foreign Wars
VISTA Volunteers in Service to America
vol. volume(s)
Vs. versus
W west; watt(s)
WHO World Health Organization
Wt. weight
Yd yard(s)
YMCA Young Men's Christian Association
YWCA Young Women's Christian Association



ABBREVIATIONS OF DEGREES

Note: Italics = Latin

BA: Bachelor of Arts
BBA: Bachelor of Business
Administration
BS: Bachelor of Science DA: Doctor of Arts
EdD: Doctor of Education JD: Doctor of Law
LLB: Bachelor of Laws (legum
baccalaureus)
LLD: Doctor of Laws (legum doctor)
LLM: Master of Laws (legum magister) MA: Master of Arts
MBA: Master of Business
Administration
MD: Doctor of Medicine (medicinae
doctor)
MS: Master of Science PhD: Doctor of Philosophy

11

FAMOUS WESTERN AUTHORS
AND THEIR WORKS

Matthew Arnold: Culture and Anarchy, The Scholar Gipsy, Literature and Dogma, God and
The Bible, Sohrab and Rustam.

Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, Persuasion, Emma.

Francis Bacon: The Wisdom of Ancients, Novum Organum, The Advancement of Learning.

Geoffrey Chaucer: Canterbury Tales.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Kubla Khan, Table Talk, Biographia Literaria, Ancient Mariner,
Christabel, Lyrical Ballads.

Charles Dickens: Pickwick Papers, David Copperfield, Tale of Two Cities, The Battle of Life,
Hard Times, Great Expectations, Oliver Twist.

T. S. Eliot: Bante, Murder In The Cathedral, Homage To John Dryden.

William Hazlitt: Napoleon Bonaparte, The Spirit of The Age, Essay On The Principles of
Human Act, On The English Poets.

Aldous Huxley: Point Counter-Point, Brave New World, Jesting Pirate.

Karl Marx: Das Kapital, Communist Manifesto.

John Keats: Isabella, Ode To The Nightingale, The Grecian Urn, Endymion, Eve of St. Agnes.

Rudyard Kipling (British writer born in India): The Light That Failed, Plain Tales From The
Hills, The Jungle Book, Something of Myself, Kim.

H. W. Longfellow: A Psalm of Life, Excelsior, The Golden Legend, The Village Blacksmith, The
Slaves Dream.

John Milton: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, On
The Death of A Fair Infant, Lycidas, LAllegro.

Plato: Dialogues, Republic.

Sir Walter Scott: Invanhoe, The Pirate, The Lady of Last Minstrel, The Lady of The Lake, Old
Morality.

William Shakespeare: Comedy of Errors, As You Like It, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet,
Merchant of Venice, Macbeth, Midsummer Nights Dream, Tempest, Loves Labour Lost, Julius
Caesar, All Is Well That Ends Well, Measure For Measure, Much Ado About Nothing.

George Bernard Shaw: Man And Superman, The Sanity of Art, Pleasant and Unpleasant, Three
Plays For Puritans, A Political Extravaganza, The Intelligent Womans Guide to Socialism and
Capitalism, The Irrational Knot, Love Among The Artists, Far Fetched Fables, Joan of Arc.

Percy Bysshe Shelley: The Cenci, Julian and Maddalo, Hellas, Adonais, Queen Mab,
Prometheus, Ode To Wes Wind.

Robert Louis Stevenson: The New Arabian Nights, An Inland Voyange, Treasure Island, The
Merry Men, The Black Arrow.

Alfred Tennyson: Idylls of The King, The Two Voices, The Promise of May, The Lovers Tale,
The Revenge, In Memoriam, Ulysses.


12

Count Leo Tolstoy: War and Peace, Resurrection, The Power of Darkness, The End of The Age,
Childhood, Anna Karenina.

H. G. Wells: The Wheels of Chance, The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind, The Shape of
Things To Come, Kipps, Outline of The History of The World.

William Wordsworth (British Romantic Poet): Ode To Duty, The Prelude, Intimations and
Immortality, Solitary Reaper, The Excursions, Lyrical Ballads, Revolution and Independence.

Voltaire (French Writer and Philosopher): Discourses on Man, Essays on The Morals and Spirit
of Nations, Candid.

Dante (Italian Poet): La Divina Comedia (The Divine Comedy)

Goethe (Greatest German Poet): Sorrows of Weather, Faust.

Homer (Greek Poet): Iliad, Odyssey.

Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher): A Critique of Pure Reason.

Plutarch (Greek Historian): Parallel Lines, Plutarch's Lives.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (French Writer and Philosopher): The Social Contract, Julie,
Confessions. He invented the phrase, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".

J. C. Schiller (German Writer): The Maid of Orleans.

Arthur Schopenhauer (German Philosopher): The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, The
World as Will and Representation.

Thomas Carlyle (Scottish Writer): French Revolution, Heroes and Hero-worship.

Sir Winston Churchill (British Prime Minister during most of World War II): Great
Contemporaries.

Adolf Hitler: Mein Kampf (My Battle) was written while Hitler was in prison in 1923.

Charles Darwin: Origin of Species.

Bertrand Russell (British philosopher and mathematician): Roads To Freedom

John Ruskin (British Art Critic and Social Critic): Seven Pillars of Wisdom

Joseph Canvas: Tales of Unrest

David Hume (Scottish Writer on Philosophy and History): A Treatise of Human Nature, History
of England

Sir Thomas Moore: Utopia

George Herbert Well: Time Machine

C. M. Doughty: Travels in Arabian Deserts

Adam Smith (Scottish Economist): Wealth of Nations

Congreve: Way of The World

W. M. Thackeray: Vanity Fair

Dr. Samuel Johnson: Vanity of Human Wishes


13

Miguel de Cervantes (Spanish Writer): Don Quixote

Alexander Pope (British Poet and Satirist): Essay on Man, The Rape of the Lock, The Dunciad.

Thomas Hardy (British Writer and Poet): Far From The Madding Crowd, The Mayor of
Casterbridge, Tess of the D'Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure, The Dynasts.

Beaumont and Fletcher: Loves Cure.

Upton Sinclair: Loves Pilgrimage.

Michael Arlen: May Fair

Gibbon: Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire

Sarojini Naidu (Indian): The Bird of Time, Broken Wing, Golden Threshold.

Virgil: Aeneid

Lewis Caroll: Alice in Wonder Land

W. H. Auden: The Dance of Death

14

FAMOUS URDU & PERSIAN AUTHORS
AND THEIR WORKS


Agha Hashar Kashmiri: Asir-i-Haris, Sur Das, Turki Hoor, Sita Ban Bas, Khubsurat Bala.

Akbar Hussain Akbar: Khan Bahadur, Kulliyat (in Urdu).

Mohammad Hussain Azad: Darbar-i-Akbari, Ab-i-Hayat, Nairang-i-Khayal, Sukhandan-i-
Fars, Khwab-i-Amn, Shab-i-Qadr, Subh-i-Ummid, Abr-i-Karam.

Salamat Ali Dabir: Marsiah

Nawab Mirza Khan Dagh: Aftab-i-Dagh, Mehtab-i-Dagh, Gulzaar-i-Dagh, Faryad-i-Dagh.

Faiz (Persian): Kulliyat (in Persian), Talism-e-Hosh Ruba.

Firdausi (Persian): Shahnama

Saadi (Persian): Bostan (The Orchard), Gulistan (The Rose Garden)

Asadullah Khan Ghalib: Diwan-i-Ghalib, Ud-i-Hindi, Urdu-i-Mualla.

Hafeez Jallandhari: Shahnama-i-Islam, Naghma Zar, Soz-o-Saz, Haft Paikar.

Altaf Hussain Hali: Shams-ul-Ulema, Mussaddas-i-Hali, Diwan-i-Hali, Maddo-oJazr-i-Islam,
Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shairi, Hayat-i-Javid, Hayat-i-Sadi, Yadgar-i-Ghalib.

Fazal-ul-Hassan Hasrat Mohani: Arbab-i-Sukhun, Kulliyat-i-Hasrat.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal: Bang-i-Darra, Asrar-o-Rumuz, Pyam-i-Mashriq, Zubur-i-Ajam,
Javed Namah, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i-Kaleem, Armughan-i-Hijaz, The Reconstruction of Thought in
Islam, Asrar-i-Khudi, Rumuz-e-Bekhudi, Shikwah, Jawab-e-Shikwa.

Insha Ullah Khan Insha: Diwan-i-Insha, Shikar Nama Kaani (Persian), Qasida, Subeh.

Saadat Hssan Minto: Manto Ki Mazamin, Manto Ki Afsanay, Talak, Tursh, Shireen.

Momin Khan Momin: Diwan-i-Momin.

Nazir Ahmed: Shams-ul-Ulema, Miraat-ul-Arus, Banat-un-Nash, Tauba-tun-Nusuh.

Josh Malihabadi: Junun-o-Hikmat, Saif-o-Subu.

Shabbir Hussain Josh: Ruh-i-Adab, Naksh-o-Nigaar.

Prem Chand: Prema, Jalwa-i-Isar, Bazar-i-Hussan, Prem Pachisi, Soz-i-Watan, Hasti-Gosha-i-
Afiat, Khwab-o-Khayal.

Maulana Jalal-ud-Din Rumi also known as Maulana Rum (Persian): Masnavi.

Muslih-ud-Din Shiraazi Saadi (Persian Poet): Gulistan (The Rose Garden), Bostan (The
Orchard).

Ratan Nath Dar Sarshar: Fasana-e-Azad, Sair-i-Kohsar, Jam-i-Sarshar, Khudai Faujdaar,
Karamdham, Bichari Dulhan, Tufan-i-Betamizi.

Muhammad Rafi Sauda: Diwan-i-Sauda.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Asar-us-Sanadid, Silsila-e-Muluk-i-Hind, Wafadaar, Musalmanan-e-
Hind.

15


Abdul Halim Sharar (Urdu Novelist): Ayyam-i-Arab, Hussan Ka Daaku, A History of Sindh,
Life of Abu Bakar, Shibil.

Shibli Numani: Shir-ul-Ajam, Biography of The Holy Prophet (SAWW), Historical Survey of
Persian Poetry, Biographies of Maulana Rum and Aurangzeb, Mawazana of Anis and Dabir,
Biography of Umer The Great.

Muhammad Ibrahim Zauq: Diwan-i-Zauq.

Muhammad Hussain Azad: Ab-i-Hayat, Darbar-i-Akbari.

Rattan Nath Sarshar: Fasana-i-Azad.

Rabindranath Tagore (Indain): Gitanjali, Chitra, The Crescent, Moon, The Post Office, Sonar
Tari, Natir Puja, Ankh Ki Khirki Gora.

Hali: Hayat-i-Javid, Yadgar-i-Ghalib.

Hafiz Tabrizi: Masnavi

Nazir Ahmed: Mirat-ul-Arus

Jasim-ud-Din (Bengali): Nakshikanthar.

Hafeez Jallandari: Shahnama-i-Islam.

Shibli Naumani: Shir-ul-Ajm

Inayatullah Khan Al-Mashriqi: Tazkirah

Kali Das: Shakuntala

Nazrul Islam (Bengali): Dolon Champa, Agni Vina.




GREATEST POETS

Language Poet
Bengali Rabindranath Tagore
English Shakespeare
German Goethe
French Sully Prudhomme
Italian Dante
Persian Saadi
Sanskrit Kalidas
Urdu Iqbal

16

INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS


INVENTION INVENTOR COUNTRY
Aeroplane Orville & Wilbur Wright USA
Autogiro Juan de la Cievra Spain
Bakelite L.S. Baekeland USA
Balloon Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier USA
Ballpoint Pen (Improved form) L. and G. Biro Hungary
Barometer E. Torricelli Italy
Barometer, Aneroid W.J. Cante
Bicycle K. Macmillan Scotland
Bicycle Tyre (Air) J.B. Dunlop Scotland
Bunsen Burner K. W. von Bunsen Germany
Calculating Machine Blaise Pascal France
Cellophane J.E. Brandenberger Switzerland
Heating furnace A. Parker USA
Centigrade Scale A. Celsius France
Chloroform E. Souberran France
Cine Camera Wm. Friese-Greene Britain
Cinema A.L. and J. Lumiere France
Circulation of blood William Harvey England
Clock (Mechanical) Hsing and Ling-Tsan China
Clock (Pendulum) C. Huygens Holland
Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel Germany
Dynamite Alfred Nobel Sweden
Dynamo (Principle) Michael Faraday England
Dynamo (In Practice) Picinotti Italy
Electric Blanket Simmons Co. USA
Electric Iron H. W. Seeley USA
Electric Lamp Thomas Alva Edison USA
Electric Motor Moritz Jacobi USA
Electromagnet W. Sturgeon England
Evolution Theory Charles Darwin USA
Fountain Pen L.E. Waterman USA
Gas Lighting William Murdoch Scotland
Glider Sir George Cayley England
Gramophone Thomas Alva Edison USA
Insulin Sir Frederick Banting Canada
Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle England
Lift E.G, Otis USA

17

Lighting Conductor Benjamin Franklin USA
Steam Locomotive Richard Trevithick England
Power Loom Edmund Cartwright England
Machine Gun Richard Galling USA
Margarine H. Mege-Mouries France
Safety Match J.E. Lundstrom Sweden
Microphone David Hughes USA
Microscope Z. Jansen Holland
Motorcar Petrol Karl Benz Germany
Motorcycle Edward Bulter England
Motor scoter G. Bradshaw England
Nylon Dr. W.H. Carothers USA
Parachute A. J. Garnerin France
Penicillin Sir Alexander Fleming England
Piano Cristofori Italy
Printing Press J. Gutenberg Germany
Radar Dr. A.H. Taylor and L.C. USA
Radium Marie and Pierre Curie France
Radio G. Marconi England
Rayon American Viscose Co. USA
Safety Razor K. G. Gillette USA
Electric Razor Col. J. Schick USA
Refrigerator J. Perkins Britain
Revolver Samuel Colt USA
Vulcanized Rubber Charles Goodyear USA
Rubber Charles Macintosh Scotland
Safety Lamp Sir Humphry Davy England
Safety Pin Wiliam Hurst USA
Sewing Machine B. Thimmonnier France
Sewing Machine (Improved) I.M Singer USA
Steamship or Steamboat Robert Fulton USA
Steam Turbine Engine Sir Charles Parsons Britain
Shorthand (Old Form) Willis Britain
Shorthand (Modern) Isaac Pitman Britain
Spectacles Venice Italy
Spinning Frame Sir Richard Arkwright England
Steam Engine Thomas Savery Britain
Steam Engine (Piston) Thomas Newcomen Britain
Steam Engine (Condenser) James Watt Scotland
Steel Production Henry Bessemer England

18

Steel (Stainless) Harry Brearley England
Submarine D. Bushnell USA
Tank Sir Ernest Swinton England
Telegraph W. Cooke and C. Wheatstone England
Telegraph Code Samuel F. B. Morse USA
Telephone J. P Reis Germany
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell USA
Telescope Hans Lippershey Holland
Television John Logie Baird Scotland
Terylene J. Winnfield and J. Dickson England
Thermometer Galileo Galilee Italy
Tractor J. Froelich USA
Transistor Barden, Shockley and Brattain USA
Typewriter Mitterhofer Austria
Typewriter (Improved) C. Sholes USA
Radio Valve Sir. J.A. Fleming Britain
Washing Machine Hurley Machine Co. USA
Watch A.L. Breguet France
X-ray Wilhelm Roentgen Germany
Zip Fastener W.L. Judson USA


19


SCIENCE DEALING WITH DIFFERENT SUBJECTS


Agronomy: Agros: field + nomous: cultivation, i.e., the art of growing crops

Aeronautics: The science of flight of aeroplanes

Anatomy: The study of the structure of human body

Arboriculture: The cultivation of trees and vegetables

Astronomy: The study of heavenly bodies

Biology: The science of living bodies

Botany: The science of plant life

Chemistry: The study of composition and properties of various elements in nature

Cryptography: The study of secret writing

Cryogenics: The study of the production, control and application of very low temperatures

Cytogenetics: The study of cell formation

Cytology: The study of cells

Entomology: The study of insects

Exobiology: The study of life or possibilities of life existing beyond the earth

Floriculture: The cultivation of flowers

Geology: The study of the rocks, soil etc that make up the Earth, and of the way they have
changed since the Earth was formed

Horticulture: The art of garden cultivation

Hydroponics: The cultivation of plants without soil, with the help of chemical solution
containing nutrients

Iconography: Teaching by pictures and models

Jurisprudence: The study of law

Lexicography: Compiling dictionary

Meteorology: The study of atmospheric phenomenon

Mycology: The study of fungi

Neurology: The study of nerves

Numismatics: The activity of collecting and studying coins and medals

Obstetrics: The branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy

Odontography: The study of teeth

Olericulture: Vegetables growing

Ornithology: The study of bones

Paleontology: The study of animal fossils

Pathology: (Pathos: disease + logus: knowledge, science or study) The study of diseases

20


Pedagogy: The study of teaching, or practice of teaching

Phrenology: The study of skull and brain

Philately: The activity of collecting stamps

Philology: The study of language

Phonetics: The science and study of speech sounds

Physiographic: The study of natural phenomenon

Phytogeny: The study of the origin and growth of plants

Pomology: The study of fruits

Psychology: The study of mind

Seismology: The study of earthquakes

Sericulture: Silk-worm breeding

Sociology: The study of societies and the behaviour of people in groups

Telepathy: Communication between two minds at a distance with the help of emotions,
thoughts and feelings

Therapeutics: The medical science relating to the treatment and cure of illness

Tribiology: The study of increasing surfaces in relative motion

Virology: The study of viruses

Zoology: The science of animal life


21

INTERESTING GEOGRAPHICAL DATA


WORLDS IMPORTANT AND HIGHEST MOUNTAINS

Name Range Height in Feet
Everest Himalayas 29,141
Godwin-Austen (K-2) Himalayas 28,250
Kanchanjunga Himalayas 28,146
Sahama Andes 21,480
Mount Logan Rockies 19,539
Mount Elias Rockies 19,500
Kilimanjaro East Africa 19,326
Elburs Caucasus 18,464
Popocatepet Mexico 17,785
Ararat Armenia 16,916
Mount Blanc Alps 15,782



OCEANS

Oceans Approx. Sq. miles Greatest depth in feet
Pacific 6,38,01,000 35,400 off Mindanao
Atlantic 4,13,22,000 27,962 off Puerto Rico
Trench
Indian 2,83,56,000 22,268 off Surda Trench
Antarctic 75,00,000 18,850 off South Pole
Arctic 54,40,000 15,910 off North Pole



LARGEST ISLANDS

Island Ocean Area (Sq. miles)
Australia (a continent island) India 2,974,580
Greenland Arctic 827,330
New Guinea Pacific 330,000
Borneo Pacific 209,000
Baffin Land Aretic 231,000
Madagascar India 228,000
Sumatra India 178,330
Philippine Islands Pacific 114,400
Great Britain Atlanic 89,135



22

WORLDS BIGGEST DESERTS

Desert Area (Sq. miles)
The Great Sahara (Africa) 2,000,000
The Great American 1,050,000
Gopi (Asia) 300,000
Tibet (Asia) 230,00



LOWEST PART OF EARTH BELOW SEA LEVEL

Death Valley (California) 276 feet Libyan Desert 440 feet
Caspian Sea (Russia) 86 feet Lake Eyre 39 feet
Desert Sea (Palestine) 1,290 feet Desert of Sahara 105 feet



IMPORTANT RIVERS OF THE WORLD

Name Outflow Country
Mississippi Gulf of Mexico U.S.A.
Missouri Mississippi River North America
Amazon Atlantic Ocean South America
Nile Mediterranean Egypt
Yangtse North Pacific China
Vanisei Arctic Sea Siberia
Congo Atlantic Africa
Obi Arctic Sea Siberia
Hwang Ho North Pacific China
Niger Gulf of Pacific Africa
Ob Arctic Sea Siberia
Amur North Pacific Siberia
Volga Caspian Sea Europe
Danube Black Sea Europe
Euphrates Persian Gulf Iraq
Indus Arabian Sea Pakistan
Brahmaputra Bay of Bengal Pakistan & India



POPULAR GEOGRAPHICAL EPITHETS

Blue River The Yangtse Kiang
Blue Mountains The Nilgiri Hills
Britain of South New Zealand
City of Colleges Lahore (Pakistan)
City of Seven Hills Rome
City of Silent Thoroughfares Venice
City of bazaars Cairo (Egypt)
City of Magnificent Distances Washington (U.S.)
City of Ghosts & Temples Benares
City of Popes Rome
City of Sky-Scrapers New York
Dark Continent Africa
Emerald Island Ireland
Empire City New York
Eternal City Rome
Forbidden City Lhassa (Tibet)
Forbidden Land Tibet
Great Britain of the Pacific Japan
Garden of South India Tanjore (India)

23

Gateway of Pakistan Karachi
Gate of Tears The Strait of Bab-al-Mandeb (Red Sea)
Gibraltar of the West Quebec (Canada)
Gibraltar of the India Ocean Aden
Gift of the Nile Egypt
Human Equator of the Earth The Himalayas
Island Continent Australia
Island of Cloves Zanzibar
Isle of Pearls Bahrain (Persian Gulf)
Key to the Mediterranean Gibraltar
King of India Forests Teak
Land of Cakes Scotland
Land of Deserts Africa
Land of the Midnight Sun Hammerfest (Norway)
Land of Morning Calm Korea
Land of Rising Sun Japan
Land of Golden Fibre Bangladesh
Land of Golden fleece Australia
Land of Maple Canada
Land of Five Rivers Punjab
Land of Thousand Islands Finland
Land of White Elephants Thailand (Siam is the former name for Thailand)
Pillars of Hercules Strait of Gibraltar
Playground of Europe Switzerland
Pearl of Antilles Cuba
River in the Sea The Gulf Stream
Rome of India Delhi
Roof of the World The Pamirs
Silver City Algiers (Algeria)
Sorrow of China The Hwang Ho River
Worlds Loveliest Island Tristan de Cunha (Mid-Atlantic)
Whitemans Grave Guinea (A country in West Africa)
Wilderness of Bamboo and Paper Tokyo
Windy City Chicago (U.S.A.)
Yellow River The Hwang Ho


24

THE GREATEST, THE LARGEST, THE LONGEST

Biggest Dam Three Gorges Dam (China)
Biggest Museum British Museum (London)
Biggest Ocean The Pacific
Biggest Park Yellow Stone National Park (U.S.A) 3,350 sq. miles
Biggest Railway Trans-Siberian Railway
Coldest Part Belt between Arctic and North Pole in Arctic
Coldest Place Verkhoyansk (in North East Siberia) 90* below zero
Densest Population Java; East Pakistan over 1000 to a square mile
Deepest Lake Lake Baikal (Siberia)
Deepest Ocean The Pacific Ocean
Finest Harbour Sydney Harbour
Greatest Jute Producer East Pakistan
Greatest Ocean Depth Mindanao (between Japan and the Philippines ), 36,400 ft.
Greatest River Depth 815 feet below sea-level
Greatest Wool Producer Australia
Highest Building Soviet Palace (Moscow)
Highest Dam Boulder Dam (U.S.A)
Highest Lake Lake Titica (Bolivia 12,000 feet above Sea)
Highest Mountain The Himalayas
Highest Peak Mount Everest
Highest Plateau Palmir (Tibet)
Highest Statue Statue of Liberty (New York Bay)
Highest Town Pasco (Peru)
Highest Volcano Chimborazo (S. America)
Hottest Place (Pakistan) Jacobabad
Hottest Place (World) (1) Aziz (Tripolitania) 136 (2) Death Valley (California)
Largest Artificial Waterway Grand Canal (China)
Largest Battleship Queen Elizabeth, 85,000 ton.
Longest Bridge San Francisco, (Oakland)
Largest Building The Great pyramid at Gizeh (UAR)
Largest City Beijing
Largest Dam Three Gorges Dam (China)
Largest Continent Asia
Longest Day (in Northern Hemisphere) 22
nd
June
Largest Desert The Sahara (Africa)
Largest diamond Mine Kimberley (South Africa)
Largest Diamond Cullinan (3,106 carats)
Largest Island Australia
Largest Fresh-Water Lake Lake Superior
Largest Library Bibleotheque National (Paris, over 18 lac items)
Longest Mountain Chain The Andes
Largest Ocean Pacific
Largest Peninsula India
Largest Planet Jupiter
Largest Platform Sonepur (India)
Largest Railway Station Grand Central Terminal (New York)
Largest River Amazon
Largest Salt-water Lake Caspian Sea
Largest Ship Canal Baltic White Sea Canal (152 miles)
Largest Silver Producer Mexico
Largest Telescope At Mt. Palomar (California) diameter of a reflector 200 inches
Largest Tree Gen. Sharman Tree (California)
Longest Tunnel Simplon (Switzerland) 12 miles
Largest Wall The Great Wall of China (1,250 miles)
Longest River The Mississippi (4,502 miles)
Most Populous Country China
Nearest Planet Venus
Rainiest Place Cherrapunchi (Assam)
Saltiest Sea Dead Sea
Smallest Planet Mercury

25




IMPORTANT SITES, BUILDINGS AND STREETS


Arafat (Saudi Arabia):A hill near the Holy Mecca.
Anarkali: A business centre of Lahore (Pakistan).
Balmoral castle: A royal residence in Aberdeenshire (Scotland for the Kings and Queen of
England)
Big Ben: Clock in Westminster, on the tower of the House of Parliament.
Crystal Palace: In Hyde Park, London, where the Great Exhibition was held in 1851;
destroyed by fire in November, 1936.
Harappa: A place of excavation in Shiwala District (Pakistan).
Hollywood: A suburb of Los Angeles, California, centre of cinematograph industry.
Hyde Park: In London, part of the property of old abbey of Westminster; a pleasant
resort.
Kaaba: The sacred place of hajj Muslims.
Kremlin: The seat of Soviet Government in Moscow, Formerly a Citadel.
Lick: Observatory in California.
Mayfair: A district north of Piccadilly, London, so-called from an annual fair held
in May; aristocratic families live there.
Mohenjodaro: An ancient city excavated in West Pakistan.
Reuters: News Agency of world repute with headquarters at thames embankment
(founded by Dr. Reuter. aGerman).
Rotton Row: A road in Hyde. Park, London, Reserved for horse-riding.
Shantiniketan: University in W. Bengal (Bholpur) founded by Rabindranath Tagore.
Taj Mahal: Mausoleum of Queen Mumtaz Mahal at Agra, India; built by her husband,
Emperor Shah Jehan.
Vativan (Rome): Official residence of the Pope.
Wall Street: In New York, U.S.A. the Stock Exchange.
White House: Official residence of U.S.A. President in Washington.
Whitehall (London): Government offices housed in Whitehall, once known as York Palace.


26

WONDERS OF WORLD


Seven Wonders

1. The Pyramids of Egypt.
2. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus (in Rome).
3. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (in Iraq).
4. Statue of Jupiter at Olympia (in Greece).
5. The Tomb (Mausoleum) of Taj Mahal (in India)
6. Colossus of Rhodes (in Greece).
7. The Lighthouse on the island of Pharos near Alexandria (in Egypt).

Other Wonders

1. The Tomb (Mausoleum) of Mausolus in Anatolia or Asia Minor.
2. The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy.
3. The Mosque of Hagia Sophia or Sancta Sophia (Sancta Sophia means Holy Wisdom)
at Istanbul (Turkey).
4. The Great Wall of China, which is 16 feet high and 1,259 miles long on the northern
frontier of the country, was built in about the 3
rd
Century.
5. The Vatican at Rome is the largest residence in the world containing thousands of rooms.
6. Coliseum or Colosseum at Rome
7. The Basilica of St. Peter is the largest church in the world completed in 126 years.
8. The Porcelain Tower of Nanking in China.


27

INTELLIGENCE AGENCIES

Country Intelligence Agency
Australia ASIS (Australian Secret Intelligence Service)
Belgium SV or SE
Brazil ABIN
Canada CSIS (Canadian Security Intelligence Service)
China MSS (Ministry of State Security)
Chile ANI
Colombia ACI
Cuba DGI
Egypt Al-Mukhabarat al-'Ammah Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate
Finland SUPO
France DGSE
Germany BND
Greece NIS
India RAW (Research and Analysis Wing)
Ireland G2
Iran MOIS (Ministry Of Intelligence and Security)
Iraq GSD (General Security Directorate)
Israel Mossad
Italy AISE
Mexico AFI
Morocco DST
New Zealand NZSIS
Norway NSM
Pakistan ISI
Poland AW
Russia GRU
Saudi Arabia Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah (General Intelligence Directorate)
Sweden KSI
Spain CNI
South Africa NIA
Singapore SID
Turkey MIT
United Kingdom MI6 also known as SIS (Secret Intelligence Service)
US CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)
Vietnam TC2

28

CHANGED NAMES OF IMPORTANT COUNTRIES,
STATES & PLACES
Old Name Changed/New Name
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Angora Ankara
Basutoland Lesotho
Batavia Djakarta
Byelorussia Belarus
Burma Myanmar
Bechuanaland Botswana
British Guiana Guyana
Combodia Kampuchea
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Ceylon Sri Lanka
Christina Oslo
Congo Zaire
Constantinople Istanbul
Dacca Dhaka
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
Dutch Guiana Surinam
Formosa Taiwan
Gold Coast Ghana
Holland The Netherlands
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
Japan Nippon
Malaya Malaysia
Manchukuo Manchuri
Mesopotamia Iraq
Northern Rhodesia Zambia
Nyasaland Malawi
Peking (China) Beijing
Persia Iran
Rangoon Yangon
Rhodesia Zimbabwe
Salisbury Harare
Sam Thailand
South-West Africa Namibia
Thanganyika Zanzibar Tanzania

29

COUNTRY, CAPITAL & CURRENCY


Country Capital Currency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani
Albania Tirana Lek
Algeria Algiers Dinar
Andorra Andorra La Vella Euro
Angola Luanda New Kwanza
Antigua and Barbuda Saint Johns (Antigua) East Caribbean dollar
Argentina Buenos Aires Peso
Armenia Yerevan Dram
Australia Canberra Australian dollar
Austria Vienna Euro
Azerbaijan Baku Manat
Bahamas Nassau Bahamian dollar
Bahrain Al-Manama Bahrain dinar
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka
Barbados Bridgetown Barbados dollar
Belarus Minsk Belorussian ruble
Belgium Brussels Euro
Belize Belmopan Belize dollar
Benin Porto Novo CFA Franc
Bhutan Thimphu Ngultrum
Bolivia La Paz Boliviano
Bosnia & Herzegovina Sarajevo Marka
Botswana Gaborone Pula
Brazil Brasilia Real
Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei dollar
Bulgaria Sofia Lev
Burkina Faso Ouagadougou CFA Franc
Burundi Bujumbura Burundi franc
Cambodia Phnom Penh Riel
Cameroon Yaound CFA Franc
Canada Ottawa Canadian dollar
Cape Verde Praia Cape Verdean escudo
Central African Republic Bangui CFA Franc
Chad N'Djamena CFA Franc
Chile Santiago Chilean Peso
China Beijing Yuan/ Peso
Cyprus Lefkosia (Nicosia) Cyprus pound
Czech Republic Prague Koruna
Denmark Copenhagen Krone
Djibouti Djibouti Djibouti franc
Dominica Roseau East Caribbean dollar
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo Dominican Peso
East Timor Dili U.S. dollar
Ecuador Quito Renminbi
Colombia Santa Fe de Bogot Colombian Peso
Comoros Moroni Franc
Democratic Republic of the Congo Kinshasa Congolese franc
Republic of Congo Brazzaville CFA Franc
Costa Rica San Jose Coln
Cte d'Ivoire Yamoussoukro CFA Franc
Croatia Zagreb Kuna
Cuba Havana Cuban U.S. dollar
Egypt Cairo Egyptian pound
El Salvador San Salvador Coln; U.S. dollar
Equatorial Guinea Malabo CFA Franc
Eritrea Asmara (Formerly Asmera) Nakfa
Estonia Tallinn Kroon
Ethiopia Addis Ababa Birr

30

Fiji Suva (Viti Levu) Fiji dollar
Finland Helsinki Euro
France Paris Euro
Gabon Libreville CFA Franc
Gambia Banjul Dalasi
Georgia T'bilisi Lari
Germany Berlin Euro
Ghana Accra Cedi
Greece Athens Euro
Grenada Saint George's East Caribbean dollar
Guatemala Guatemala City Quetzal
Guinea Conakry Guinean franc
Guinea-Bissau Bissau CFA Franc
Guyana Georgetown Guyanese dollar
Haiti Port-au-Prince Gourde
Honduras Tegucigalpa Lempira
Hungary Budapest Forint
Iceland Reykjavik Icelandic krna
India New Delhi Rupee
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Iran Tehran Rial
Iraq Baghdad U.S. dollar
Ireland Dublin Euro
Israel Jerusalem1 Shekel
Italy Rome Euro
Jamaica Kingston Jamaican dollar
Japan Tokyo Yen
Jordan Amman Jordanian dinar
Kazakhstan Astana Tenge
Kenya Nairobi Kenya shilling
Kiribati South Tarawa Australian dollar
North Korea Pyongyang Won
South Korea Seoul Won
Kuwait Kuwait City Kuwaiti dinar
Kyrgyzstan Kuwait City Som
Laos Vientiane New Kip
Latvia Riga Lats
Lebanon Beirut Lebanese pound
Lesotho Maseru Maluti
Liberia Monrovia Liberian dollar
Libya Tripoli Libyan dinar
Liechtenstein Vaduz Swiss franc
Lithuania Vilnius Litas
Luxembourg Luxembourg Ville Euro
Macedonia Skopje Denar
Madagascar Antananarivo Malagasy franc
Malawi Lilongwe Kwacha
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur4 Ringgit
Maldives Male Rufiya Mali CFA Franc
Malta Valletta Maltese lira
Mauritania Nouakchott Ouguiya
Mauritius Port Louis Mauritian rupee
Mexico Mexico City Mexican peso
Moldova Chisinau Leu
Monaco Ulaanbaatar Euro
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Tugrik Montenegro Euro
Morocco Rabat Dirham
Mozambique Maputo Metical
Myanmar Rangoon Kyat
Namibia Windhoek Namibian dollar
Nauru (world's No official capital; Australian dollar
smallest island nation) Govt offices in Yaren District.

31

Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese rupee
Netherlands Amsterdam Euro
New Zealand Wellington New Zealand dollar
Nicaragua Managua Gold Cordoba
Niger Niamey CFA Franc
Nigeria Abuja Naira
Norway Oslo Norwegian krone
Oman Muscat Omani rial
Pakistan Islamabad Pakistan rupee
Palau Koror U.S. dollar used
Palestinian Authority Ramallah Jordanian dinars
Panama Panama City Balboa, US Dollar
Papua New Guinea Port Moresby Kina
Paraguay Asuncion Guaran
Peru Lima Nuevo sol
Philippines Manila Peso
Poland Warsaw Zloty
Portugal Lisbon Euro (formerly escudo)
Qatar Doha Qatari riyal
Romania Bucharest Leu
Russia Moscow Ruble
Rwanda Kigali Rwanda franc
St. Kitts and Nevis Basseterre East Caribbean dollar
St. Lucia Castries East Caribbean dollar
St. Vincent and the Grenadines Kingstown East Caribbean dollar
Samoa Apia Tala
San Marino San Marino Euro
So Tom and Prncipe Sao Tome Dobra
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Riyal
Senegal Dakar CFA Franc
Serbia Belgrade Yugoslav new dinar
Seychelles Victoria Seychelles rupee
Sierra Leone Freetown Leone
Singapore Singapore Singapore dollar
Slovakia Bratislava Koruna
Slovenia Ljubljana Slovenian tolar; euro
Solomon Islands Honiara Solomon Islands dollar
Somalia Mogadishu Somali shilling
South Africa Pretoria Rand
Spain Madrid Euro
Sri Lanka Colombo Sri Lanka rupee
Sudan Khartoum Dinar
Suriname Paramaribo Surinamese dollar
Swaziland Mbabane8 Lilangeni
Sweden Stockholm Krona
Switzerland Bern Swiss franc
Syria Damascus Syrian pound
Taiwan Taipei Taiwan dollar
Tajikistan Dushanbe Somoni
Tanzania Dar es Salaam Tanzanian shilling
Thailand Bangkok baht
Togo Lome CFA Franc
Tonga Nuku'alofa Pa'anga
Trinidad and Tobago Port-of-Spain Trinidad and Tobago dollar
Tunisia Tunis Tunisian dinar
Turkey Ankara Turkish lira
Turkmenistan Ashgabat Manat
Tuvalu Funafuti10 Australian dollar
Uganda Kampala Ugandan new shilling
Ukraine Kiev Hryvna
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi U.A.E. dirham
United Kingdom London Pound sterling ()

32

United States Washington, DC dollar
Uruguay Montevideo Uruguay peso
Uzbekistan Tashkent (Toshkent) Uzbekistani sum
Vanuatu Port-Vila (Efate) Vatu
Vatican City (Holy See) Vatican City Euro
Venezuela Caracas Bolivar
Vietnam Hanoi Dong
Western Sahara (proposed state) Tala
Yemen Sana Rial
Zambia Lusaka Kwacha
Zimbabwe Harare Zimbabwean dollar

33

POLITICAL TERMS


Abdication: Renunciation of an office, usually throne by a ruler, whether voluntarily or
under compulsion.
Ad Hoc Committee: A committee which is formed for a specific object as and when the
necessity arises.
Adjournment: Postponement of the meeting of a legislative body till another fixed time.
Agent Provocateur: Means a person planted during political or social conflicts into the enemy
ranks to provoke in the garb of an adherent, compromising action.
Aggression: Hostile action without provocation.
Allegiance: The duty of a subject for loyalty to his sovereign or state, in return for
protection.
Ambassador: A diplomatic representative of a sovereign state sent to another state. As
personal representative of their sovereigns, ambassadors enjoy many
privileges and powers which extend to their families and households.

Amnesty: A Greek, term, meaning forgetfulness or oblivion. It is an act of the head
of the state whereby he pardons political or other offenders.
Anarchy: is political autonomy or unrestricted sovereign power.
Annexation: From Latin anexus (tying up), the act whereby a state takes possession of a
territory belonging to another state, or to no state at all. It is one-sided
action without the consent, or at least voluntary consent, of the lawful
possessor, such as Hyderabad by India in recent times.
Armistice: A suspension of hostilities by agreement between combatant parties.
Asylum: When a political refugee flies and takes protection in another country, he
is said to have taken asylum.
Attache: A junior member of an ambassadors suite. They are of different types,
e.g., Naval, Military, Air, Commercial, etc., according to the work on
which they are put.
Autocracy: A form of government in which political power is absolute and unlimited.
Such governments do not exist today, but they were known to ancient
Greece.
Autonomy: A word of Greek origin meaning self law or home rule Provincial
autonomy was established in erstwhile India under the Government of
Indian Act, 1935.
Balance of Power: The idea is that the strength of one group of powers should be equal to the
strength of the other group, thus preventing any conflict and ensuring
peace. It has played a very important part in the history of Europe.
Ballot: is the system of secret voting.
Big: Three At the end of World War (II) the U.S.A. Britain and the U.S.S.R.
emerged as the Big Three.
Four: The U.S.A. Britain, France, and the U.S.S.R.
Five: The U.S.A. Britain, France, the U.S.S.R. and Communist China.
Blockade: The blocking up of a place by surrounding it with troops or by ships. A
blockade may be exercised against the enemys coasts whenever it is
intended to prevent the reaching of supplies to it.
Bolshevism: is an alternate name for Communism. The Russian word for majority is
bolshintov and hence the radicals and mensheviki meaning members of
the majority The moderate Socialists were called mensheviki derived
form menshintov, minority.
Buffer State: is used for a small natural state between two greater States in order to
prevent direct clashes between them.
Bureaucracy: stands for a government run by an elaborate system of administrative
departments controlled by high officials like the I.C.S. rule in erstwhile
India. This system is often charged with red-tape and is very rigid,
conservative and full of routine.
Cabinet: The cabinet is an extra-legal body. That body of ministers who hold the
most important portfolios constitute the cabinet. They are responsible to
the legislature and have joint responsibility strict secrecy is the keynote of
the meetings of a cabinet. Its meetings are presided over by the Prime
Minister and it is the cabinet which decides the policy of government.

34

Casting: vote means the vote cast by a chairman in the case of a tie, to decide an
issue.
Caucus: is an unofficial grouping of influential members of a political party who
actually control its policy. The term applies loosely to any influential
committee in a constituency.
Centralism: The system of government under which the entire work of a state is
controlled from the centre, the component units enjoying no appreciable
power.
Coalition: When two or more political parties combine to form a Government, it is
called coalition government. This happens either at a time of national
emergency or when no single party returned to the legislature has a clear
majority.
Collective Security: stands for the theory that all nations should guarantee collectively the
security of each individual nation, e.g. the N.A.T.O., the C.E.N.T.O. etc.
Communism: A revolutionary movement aiming at the overthrow of the capitalist
system and the establishment of proletarian dictatorship instead. The
Communist theory opposes moderate, democratic socialism, describes it as
treacherous and as an agency of capitalism; denounces democracy as the
concealed dictatorship of capitalists; rejects the idea of arriving at
socialism through peaceful, democratic development, and maintains that it
can be achieved only by armed revolution, followed inevitably by periods
of civil war and proletarian dictatorship. The Russian Revolution, the
Soviet Union and the Red China are the Communist models.
Confederation: Alliance of states for defined common purposes. It is distinct from
federation as it emphasises on individual independence. Today there are
federations but, strictly speaking, no confederation.
Consul: An official employed by a state to protect the interests of its citizens and to
assist its trade in another state.
Conscription: is compulsory enlistment of all able-bodied men between specified age
limits for military service. Such a measure has to be adopted by a nation
during grave emergency.
Constituency: Body of persons forming an electoral district entitled to elect
representatives to a legislature.
Constituent Assembly: A representative body of people assembled together with the specific
object of formulating the constitution of their country.
Constitution: means the fundamental laws of a state (drawn up by its Constituent
Assembly) laying down the system of the Government and defining the
relations of legislature, executive and judiciary to each other and to the
state.
Convention: denotes an assembly of representatives delegated to decide an important
question. A temporary treaty is also called a convention.
Credentials: letters entitling the bearers to credit of confidence are presented by newly
appointed ambassadors to the Heads of states to which they are accredited.
Coup detat: A sudden stroke of policy, through which the government is changed by
force by holders of governmental or military force. It differs from a
revolution inasmuch as while it is made from above; a revolution is
made from below. A revolution is carried out by large masses of people,
while a coup detat is carried out by the state officials, generally by the
army.
De Facto Recognition: An act whereby a new government or state without formal recognition,
is made a partner in international relations of any kind.
De Jure Recognition: means the formal recognition of a new government or state.
Democracy: From Greek Demos (people), and kratein (to rule) meaning government by
the people.
Despotism: An arbitrary government by one invested with full powers.
Detente: means relaxation of tension. It refers to decrease in tension between two
hostile states.
Diarchy: A form of government in which the ultimate power is vested in two
persons or two bodies.
Dictatorship: signifies absolute rule of one person or one group, without any consent of
the governed.
Disenfranchisement: means depriving of the right to vote.

35

Election: Choosing a representative through votes.
Embargo: A ban on the export of certain goods or on the granting of loans to foreign
countries.
Embassy: The charge or function of an ambassador; the person or the persons sent
on an undertaking.
Envoy: A representative of one country sent to a foreign country to transact
business, usually a diplomat of the second order.
Evacuee: One who is conveyed to a safer place in a war.
Espionage: An organised system of spying.
Federation: System of government in which states are united for a certain purpose, but
for others they are independent, each managing its own affairs.
Fifth Column: is a term originating from the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) when General
Franco attacked the Republicans in four columns from the outside, his
adherents organised uprisings, espionage and sabotage within the
Republican ranks. These secret fighters behind the opponents lines were
called fifth column. This term has now come to signify a traitor, who
works against the interests of the state and helps the enemy.
Four Freedoms: Freedom (i) of speech, (ii) of religion, (iii) from want, and (iv) from fear.
Franchise: Right to vote.
Fundamental Rights: The basic rights which are usually incorporated in the constitution of a
country to be enjoyed by all nationals of a state irrespective of caste and
creed. They generally comprise right of life and liberty, right of property,
right of contact, right of free speech, discussion and public meetings, right
of worship and conscience, right of association and right of family life.
Good Offices: Whenever a power offers its services to two or more countries to settle
down a controversy between them or avoiding war by peaceful
negotiation, it is said to have offered its good offices.
Government: means that part of the organisation of a state which deals with its day-to-
day administration.
G.O.P.: Grand Old Party (Republican Party) U.S.A.
G.P.U.: The Soviet Russian Political Police, organised after Communist
Revolution of 1917 to find out and annihilate the opponents of
Communism.
Hara Kiri: From of suicide committed by military classes of Japan.
Impeachment: mean the special trial of the head of a state or a minister before parliament
or other high tribunal appointed for the purpose for offences against the
state.
Imperialism: In a broader sense, imperialism means a general tendency to build up great
empires through conquest but in a narrow sense, relating only to the
British Empire. It is a tendency towards strengthening the connection
between the various parts of the British Common wealth, and towards
thinking politically in terms on Empire as a whole.
Internationals: The international associations of Socialist parties are set up for the
purpose of co-ordinating their policies.
International Law: is that body of laws or set of rules which civilized states regard as binding
on then in respect of their relation with each other. They comprise of
numerous treaties, pacts, conventions and international practices. U.N.O.
considered about codifying International Law.
Joint Electorate: means a system of election in which voters of various communities have
common constituencies irrespective of their caste, creed or interest.
Junta: A self-constituted committee which meets for political purposes.
Kremlia: A castle in Moscow, once the residence of the Czars, now the seat of
Soviet Government. Whenever a reference is made to the Kremlin, it
means the Soviet Russian.
Lease and Lend: was the policy adopted by the U.S.A. during and after the World War II. It
undertook to provide Britain and afterwards China, Russia and Turkey and
certain other Allied States with ammunition and other necessities as a loan
to be liquidated on some future, undefined date by payment or repayment
in kind or property. About 40 thousand million dollars worth of goods,
etc., were provided to different countries by U.S.A. under the
arrangement, which ultimately took the shape of a mutual programme

36

ignoring the balances of account. This policy came to an end in August,
1950.
Liquidate: Getting rid of unwanted opponents.
Lobbying: (used originally in U.S.A.) means pursuing a political aim by attempting to
influence the votes of representatives by means of personal contacts,
usually in the lobbies or part of a legislative building to which public
has an access.
Manifesto: Future programme or declared policy of a political party issued on the eve
of contesting election.
Marxism: is the socialist doctrine following the theories of Kar1Marx Marxism is
based on the method of dialectic materialism. It looks upon economic
conditions as the basis of life, political and ideological systems being
merely the superstructure above them and undergoing changes along
with them.
Mikado: Official title of the Emperor of Japan.
Monarchy: is the form of government in which Supreme power is vested in the hands
of one person, the monarch.
Nationalisation: Taking possession and management of land, trades and industries, etc by
the state.
National debt: A debt incurred by the government of a country for financing a war or to
implement a scheme of national reconstruction.
Neutrality: Non-participation of a country in a war between other countries.
According to International Law a neutral country must abstain from any
interference with the war. She must neither favour nor hinder any
belligerent country and is bound to defend herself against any violation of
her neutrality.
Non-Aggression pact: An agreement between two or more countries to abstain from the use of
force against each other and to settle their differences or disputes by
negotiation or arbitration.
Non-Intervention: (Non-interference_. A fictitious policy of the Powers in the Spanish Civil
War (1936-39) when they and a number of smaller countries agreed not to
supply arms or to send troops to either of the Spanish parties.
OGPU: Alternative for G.P.U., the Soviet Secret Police.
Oligarchy: According to Aristotle, oligarchy is the perverted form of aristocracy,
which is the rule of a few. Whenever these few start ruling in their own
interest at the cost of the general public, whose welfare should be their
first concern, such a rule degenerates into oligarchy. This is considered to
be a bad form of government.
Open-Door Policy: The policy of keeping trade open to all countries coming for trade on
equal terms, without any monopolies or preferences for any individual
country.
Ordinance: Decree or order that is not, strictly speaking, a law and is not passed by the
legislature. An ordinance is usually issued by the Governor of a province,
President or the Governor-General and although it is not fully a law, it has
the power of law.
Pan-Arabic Movement: The movement is striving for an Arab state of federation. This
movement is founded more on national feelings rather than religious.
Syria is its centre, but all Arabic-speaking countries are in favour of it.
Pan-Islamism: A movement striving for close political co-operation among Islamic
people and, in the end, for an all-Islamic empire or federation. This is
based on the principle of Islamic Brotherhood. ().
Plebiscite: A vote of the electorate taken to decide a specific issue. A plebiscite will
be held in Kashmir under the supervision of the U.N.O. to decide whether
the State would like to accede to Pakistan or Bharat.
Plutocracy: is a form of government controlled and dominated by the wealthy section.
Poll: Term denoting the taking of votes at an election.
Protectorate: The relationship of a sovereign state to a territory not recognised as
sovereign, over which the former exercises a direct or indirect control,
especially for external affairs. Uganda and Zanzibar were British
Protectorates.

37

Protocol: The original copy of formal diplomatic document, especially of treaties
before the final signatures by the parties concerned. This also refers to
diplomatic etiquette.
Purge: Literally, to make pure. In politics it means the expulsion of the
unreliable, untruly or disobedient members of a party from its
membership.
Quisling: A traitor acting against his country in collaboration with any enemy. It
was derived from the name of Pro-Nazi politician Vidkum Quisling of
Norway who collaborated with Hitler and became a puppet premier in
1942. He was shot as a traitor in 1945.
Quorum: The minimum number of the members of any body taken sufficient to
transact business.
Ratification: Formal adoption by a state of a treaty signed by its documents. This is
done by an exchange of documents embodying their formal adoption by of
the treaty between the states concerned.
Reconnaissance: The act of surveying a tract of country with a view to military or
engineering operation.
Reds: Communists are called reds, because red flag is their symbol.
Red Army: The army of the U.S.S.R. is called the Red Army. It raised the army of the
Communist Revolution in 1917 and was called Red as it bore the red
flag of the revolution.
Referendum: is a popular vote of the electors on laws or legislative questions which
have already been discussed by the representative body of the nation.
Regent: One who rules on behalf of a sovereign. Wheen a sovereign is minor, or is
insane, or in any other way incapable of ruling, it is usual to appoint a
regent to act for him.
Reichstag: is the name of the German parliament.
Reparations: Fine paid by a defeated nation to the victorious nation for the losses borne
by the latter on account of war.
Republic: A Republican Government is on in which the head of the executive is
elected by the people of the state and there is no hereditary sovereign.
Rule of Law: means that law of the land is supreme. It implies equality before law. It is
the supremacy of law over arbitrary law.
Sabotage: To destroy the state property or to undermine its interests by adopting
terrorist or underground methods.
Sanctions: measures intended to enforce the fulfilment of international treaty,
obligations. Sanctions were embodied in the Covenant of League of
Nations and Article 16 thereof provided for economic and military
sanctions against countries proceeding to war in defiance of Covenant
provisions.
Security Council: One of the five mot important organs of the United Nations Organisation.
Select Committee: is a committee of a few members of legislative assembly selected by it to
consider a measure and report their findings.
Socialism: A system of common property and planned economy, and the political
movement aiming at it. Modern socialism began with the Utopians in the
first half of the 19
th
century, describing ideal human society in books. The
Soviet Union is a state with an all-round socialist system. Mexico has also
taken socialist measures. Other countries have not adopted socialist
policies so far but state control and state initiative in economics have
become more and more outspoken throughout the world.
Soviet: is Russian word for Council. In 1905 Revolution soviets were strike
committees elected by Russian workers, thereafter local soviets were set
up by peasants, soldiers and industrial workers. The Soviet system of
Government is based on the small soviet in workshop, factory, village or
town. All Soviets are elected directly by the people. The Supreme Soviet
is sort of Parliament in Russia.
Standing Committee: consists of selected members of a legislature attached to a ministry in
order to advise the latter in all important measure.
State: is a people organised for law within a definite territory. It is a legal or
political concept and consists of territory, population and sovereignty.

38

S.S.: Initials of German Schutz Staffel, protective squadron, a branch of the
Nazi Party army recruited from particularly reliable Nazis, preferably
those coming from better classes.
Status quo: (Latin). Usually used in politics, signifying that there is no change in the
position and it is there as before.
Statute: Law made by the legislature of a country, which is binding on all subjects
of the state. After a law is enacted, this is placed on the statute book.
Suffrage: is the right to vote for electing members to the legislature of a country.
Universal suffrage men and women having right to vote on equal basic
was introduced in England in 1921 by the Representation of the People
Act.
Supplementary Question: is a question that arises while another question is under discussion in
a legislature and asked without any previous notice.
Territorial Waters: is that part of a sea or ocean adjoining a country, over which that country
has its jurisdiction. According to convention, territorial waters extend up
to ten miles from the coast line measured from low water mark.
Totalitarian: A term used to denote the single party, or one man, dictatorial system of
government, based on the totality of the state.
Tyranny: Rule of absolute monarch administered cruelly.
Ultimatum: Final demand of any type. It is usually used for the final demand
preceding a declaration of war.
Unicameral System: of Government has only one chamber of Government.
Unitary State: A state wherein authority emanates from the centre. The units have
practically no powers and are controlled in every respect by the centre.
Veto: The right of an individual to express his opinion especially at an election,
in favour of a candidate. There are the following systems of voting:
Single non-transferable vote: A voter has only one vote which he
may cast in favour of any on of the candidates seeking election.
Distributive vote: A voter has as many votes as there are seats, but he is
entitled to give only one to any one candidate.
Cumulative System: allows each elector to have as many votes as there
are vacant seats and cast his votes as he likes, e.g. if there are five
representatives he may cast his five votes in favour of one or in favour of
more than one as he wishes.
Plural voting: Certain individuals receive more than one vote. A person
with sufficient property in more than one electoral area for which he is
qualified. A graduate with 10 years standing is also entitled to two votes,
one for representative of the constituency where he lives and the other for
the representative form the University constituency.
Wafd: was the nationalist party of Egypt.
War Criminal: One accused of atrocities during a war, fro which he is usually tried by the
victorious nation.
White House: Official residence of the President of the U.S.A. in Washington.
Whitemans Burden: denotes the self-imposed burden of the White imperialists to
civilize the backward people of Asia and Africa. The phrase is used
sarcastically.
White Paper: A document issued by the legislature of a county giving detailed
information on a matter of public importance.
White Russia: One of the Republics of the Soviet Union, lying one south western frontier
and inhabited by White Russians, people speaking a language distinct
from but akin to the Russian and Ukrainian.
Zionism: A movement among the Jew to restore a Jewish state in Palestine, which
has now culminated in the establishment of Israel State.

39

ECONOMIC, BUSINESS AND LEGAL TERMS


Above par: Above normal value.
Accommodation: A bill of exchange accepted by a businessman for accommodating
another.
Amortisation: Repayment of a debt, usually applies to the drawing and repayment of
Government and debenture bonds.
Advice: Commercial or other information and intelligence conveyed by letter,
wherein one party advised another of some business transaction done on
its account.
Affidavit: is a written statement given on oath in the presence of a magistrate.
Alibi: is a legal tern, for the defence of a person accused of a crime by which he
offers evidence that when the act took place he was too far from the scene
of the crime to have possibly committed the crime with which he is
charge.
Annuity: (Annus, year). A sum of money paid of received annually for some fixed
number of years or for life.
Articles of Association: Rules and regulations of a company for its internal regulation.
At Call: Deposits with bankers, the payment of which may be demanded without
notice.
Ante-date: To give a date prior to that on which it is written.
Arbitration: is settlement of dispute by a disinterested person or party.
Assets: Property of any kind available for discharge of liabilities.
At sight: is a term used upon bills of exchange when they are payable on demand.
Attorney Power of: is a formal document authorising one person to act for or, on behalf of
another.
Average due date: is an equated date on which payment may be mad of amount due on
different dates.
Bail: is the legal process of procuring the release of an accused from custody
upon pledge of surety for his appearing in court for trial.
Balance of trade: is the difference in the money value is favourable when a country exports
more goods to another country than it imports from that country. It is
unfavourable when the value of imported goods of a country exceeds that
of her exports.
Balance Sheet: is a statement of accounts at the end of a year. It shows debits and credits
under abroad heads.
Bank Draft: is a form of cheque, a bill of exchange, drawn by a banker on one of his
agents or correspondents.
Bankrupt: is a debtor who is unable to meet his engagements, or pay his creditors in
full and has been adjudged a bankrupt by a court, and has given the whole
of his estate to be realised, as for as possible, for payment of his debts.
Bearer Cheque: is a cheque payable to a person holding it.
The words or bearer are added after the name of the payee.
It does not require any endorsement.
Bill of exchange: is a credit instrument like cheque, bank notes, and Government notes.
Bond: is a sealed, written, agreement or contract which one is bound to honour.
Bonus: is an addition to normal payment of dividend to shareholders by a
company or extra payment of gratuity to workers.
Boom: is an upward rush of prices produced by active speculation.
Broker: is an intermediary agent in the purchase and sale of any goods.
Budget: is estimated income and expenditure of particular period.
Bullion: is uncoined gold or silver in bars, dust or groups.
Cartel: A combination of Firms for business purposes.
Cash on Delivery: (C.O.D) denotes that a buyer must pay for the goods at the time of its
delivery.
Cheque: is an order for money, payable to bearer or to order, drawn on a banker.
Crossed cheques must be paid into banking accounts.
Commission: Compensation fro transacting business.
Consignee: is the person to whom goods are forwarded or consigned.

40

Contempt of Court: is wilful disobedience to a judicial court or legislature or manifesting
disrespect of such bodies. It also applies to refusal to carry out a court
order.
Copyright: is the sole legal right to print or publish anything which belongs to the
author or his assigns.
Corner: is a term use in the commercial world to designate a monopoly of the
supply of marketable good.
Soft Currency: The money of a country with which another country has a favourable
balance of payment. A payment is therefore, easily obtainable.
Current Account: a bank account which can be operated at will No interest is charged on
stocks, usually for future delivery, in order to increase prices so that the
buyers can benefit.
Days of grace: are the day, usually three, which are allowed to elapse after a bill becomes
due, before payment is demanded.
Debit Note: is a note which gives particulars of an allowance claimed for damaged or
defective good.
Deed: means something done. In legal sense, it is writing under seal.
Deflection: is reduction, deliberate reduction, in the amount of money in circulation,
so as to cause to sudden fall in price. This is exactly the opposite of
inflation.
Demand draft: is a bill of exchange payable on demand.
Demurrage: is a fine which is payable for failing to clear goods from a storehouse,
either railway or marine, with in a specified period.
Devaluation: Devalue is to reduce (currency, etc.) in value of currency.
Discharge: To acquit or set free.
Discount: is a deduction, an allowance, made on a bill or any other debt not yet due,
in consideration of present payment.
Dividend: (dividendum from dividers, to divide). A dividend is a share of profits of a
joint stock company, the profit being divided among the shareholders
periodically.
Draft: is an order to a person to pay a certain sum to a certain person.
Dumping: is the sale of goods aboard at price lower then those prevailing in the home
market. This is made possible by large scale production or higher price for
home consumption. This is done with the view to under cutting the
producers in the importing country. The value of dumping is said to be
that it enables industry to maintain a high level of production.
Earnest money: is money paid in token of a bargain made.
Easement: is legal term for the right over the property of another, such as the right of
way, light, air, drainage, support of building etc
Economic crises: is a downward turning point in the prosperity of a country. It is a
breakdown in the industrial or financial situation.

Economic crises may be caused by war, over confidence which leads to
gradual over expansions during a long period of none-spectacular good
feeling and well-balanced success and which is shaken by crop-failures,
other disasters, threat of war, etc. ; or by the inevitable after-effect of some
exaggerated boom period.

The first symptom of economic crisis is the weakening of some major
financial, industrial, agricultural or commercial factors in the national life.
This causes in certain directions, restricted credit and lessened buying
power. This leads to lessened markets, accumulated stocks of goods over
stocked factories, cancelled orders for raw material, unemployment,
enforced selling at a loss, bankruptcies, etc.

In an industrial crisis things do not sell at their cost of production, and
sometimes they sell even at prices lower than that. Consequently
industries have to keep idle. A financial crisis means that the banks have
unduly inflated their credit previously and that many banks have failed for
doing unsound business and that there is an unusual scarcity of money in
the money market.


41

If panic is added to the situation, people begin to sell hastily their property
whether tangible goods, estate, or stocks and bonds. The idea is to save
themselves from approaching loss. General feeling of unrest and
discontent prevails which usually manifests itself in strikes and other
disturbances. Relief agencies, both private and governmental, are taxed to
their utmost to mitigate the suffering and supply the needs of the idle.
History has shown that gradually the upward swing begins almost
unnoticed through the need for goods and consequent re-employment.

World War II brought about economic crises in several countries. The
relief organisations set at work in various parts of the parts of the world.
Embargo: is an order issued by a government to prevent the arrival or departure of a
ship or restrict the import or export of specified goods, sometimes
enforced in times of war.
Endorse: is to sign ones name upon the back of a cheque, promissory-note, a bill of
exchange, a warrant, delivery order, etc.
Endorsement: is anything written upon the back of a document.
Escheat: Lapsing of property to the State on the owners death with heirs.
Exchange: in its literal sense means the exchange of one commodity for another
commodity directly. In economic terminology this is called barter.
Exchange in economics means not only transactions in the nature of barter
but also all sales of goods or services for money, whether paid for by cash,
cheque, bill of exchange, or draft.
Foreign Exchange: Foreign exchange is the buying and selling of foreign currencies and bills
of exchange. The rates of exchange are the prices of the various national
currencies in terms of other national currencies.
Excise duty: is a tax levied on certain articles produced and consumed in a country, and
on licenses for certain trades.
Exports: is a collective term for all goods and articles of commerce sent from one
country to another.
Floor Price: is the minimum price of a commodity fixed by a government. This is done
with a view to saving the interests of producers of raw materials.
Forfeiture: is a penalty whereby a person, as a result of some illegal act, loses title to
his property.
Forgery: is the fraudulent making or altering of a written or printed document with
the intention of deceiving anyone thereby, to that persons detriment.
Free Port: is a port where no export or import duties are levied.
Freight: is the amount paid for carriage of goods by steamers, railways or airways.
G.A.T.T. (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) is an international trade
agreement on tariffs. It was concluded in 1947 by the International Trade
Organisation.
Gilt-edged Securities: are stocks on which interest is absolutely safe; investments in which one
can never lose, e.g. Government paper.
Goodwill: is the good name of any business which is a valuable asset to it when it is
up for sale. It is Nothing more than the probability that the old customers
will resort to the old place the benefit arising from connection and
reputation.
Habeas Corpus: is a writ to a jailor requiring him to produce into court for full inquiry, the
body of one detained in prison, and to state the reasons of such detention.
Hearsay Evidence: is evidence at second hand, and as such it is not to be taken as conclusive
proof by a law court.
Imports: is a collective term for all goods and commodities brought into country
from some other nation or country.
Indemnity: is a formal legal undertaking of responsibility against damage or loss in
such circumstances as may be expressed.
Inflation: When the amount of money in circulation is increased, unless that increase
is accompanied by and equivalent increase in quantity of consumer goods
in circulation, there will be an increase in prices. If this process goes on
without an equivalent increase in all incomes, the standard of living will
decrease. This is inflation. Any rise in prices does not mean inflation.
Insurance Premium: is a periodical payment towards an insurance policy.

42

Invoice: is a statement which sets forth full particulars as to the quantity, quality
and price of goods sold.
I.O.U. (I owe you): is a mere acknowledgement of a debt and does not require to be stamped
or dated.
Jury: A body of persons selected and sworn as prescribed by law to declare and
give true judgement of the evidence placed before them.
Lease: is a document relating to the letting of offices, houses, buildings or land
for a term of years.
Leasehold: is property held on lease.
Legal Tender: The authorised coins or payment that may be legally ten ered in payment
of a debt.
Libel: is a written, or recorded as in pictures, expression of defamation tending to
subject a person to ridicule or contempt. Proving the truth of a statement is
usually a valid defence against libel charges. See also Slander.
Limited Company: is a company in which the liability of the shareholders is limited to the
amount of their shares.
Lock Out: When a dispute arises between an employer and labour the employer, in
order to prevent the entry of labour, locks out the business premises.
Malthusian Theory of Population: The theory holds that supply of food increases in
arithmetical progression, whereas population in geometrical progression.
Thomas Robert Malthus, therefore, proposed that society should check the
growth of population by late marriages and self-restraint.
Martial Law: is the use of power by military authorities as a result of war or when civil
government authorities are unable to preserve law and order.
Monopoly: (Greek monos: above, and poleo: Isell) is the sole power of dealing gin
anything. It is an exclusive right secured by one or more persons to carry
on some branch of trade or manufacture.
Mortgage: (literally mort: dead, gage: a pledge) is conveyance of property as security
for a debt, which is lost or becomes dead if the money or the interest due
thereon is not paid on a certain date.
Nationalisation: is the taking over control, management and working of industrial and
commercial concerns by government.
Negotiable Instruments: like bills, cheques, bonds, etc., which convey legal right therein to
another.
Nisi: is a decree or order of court enforceable when the party has failed to show
cause against the order.
Open Door Policy: Policy which gives equal rights of trade without giving monopolies or
preferences to an individual country.
Patent: is an exclusive right or privilege in something invented or discovered.
Policy: is a document given to the insured person by an insurance company. It
contains the contract term of insurance.
Pool: is an association of firms manufacturing the same product, for the purpose
of regulating and controlling the selling price of their product.
Power of Attorney: is a document in which one person authorises another to act on his behalf
in respect of matters specified in document.
Premium: is something above the nominal or fixed price. It is also used to denote a
periodical payment to an insurance company in respect of a policy insured.
Profiteering: Exacting exorbitant profit by charging high prices when a commodity is
scarce.
Pronote: is a written promise to pay a stated amount to a specified person or bearer
at specified date or on demand.
Royalty: is a payment made in return for some transference of privilege, e.g. author
is paid a royalty or agreed amount periodically for the transference of the
right in his book to the publisher.
Rebate: is a discount, a disallowance, deduction from a sum to be paid.
Representative Money: See Money, Representative boycott of any power that resorts to war
contrary to its undertakings.
Sedition: is an offence against the State nest to treason.
Slump: is a fall in the price of stock.
Slinking Fund: is a fund created by regularly setting aside certain amount to provide for a
repayment by instalments of a definite liability, e.g., a National Debt.

43

Slander: is a verbal expression of defamation tending to subject a person to
ridicule or contempt. See also libel.
Sleeping Partner: is one who has money invested in a business, but takes no part in its
management.
Socialism: as defined by Fairchild Furness and Buck is A programme of reform
which repudiates private ownership of the means of production, and
competitive control of industry: it proposes a type of society in which
productive capital with be owned collectively and economic and financial
machinery administered by State in the interests of the majority of the
community.
Speculation: in the buying and selling of shares securities. Stocks and commodities in a
stock exchange with the idea of making a large profit in short time by
resale.
Standard Gold: contains 22 parts of pure gold and 2 parts of copper melted together.
Sterling Area: Countries whose currencies are closely connected to sterling.
Sterling Balances: are the debts lying in sterling in the Bank of England which the British
Government owes to various countries.
Stock: is capital consolidated in one mass and can be bought in any quantities.
Summons: A call to appear in court of law.
Surcharge: An overcharge.
Tariff: is a table of fixed charges; also a list of articles upon which duties are
charged by a government when exported or imported.
Tax: A rate imposed by a state on property or persons to meet the national
expenses of the country.
Tender: It is an offer to supply certain things upon specified terms, perform
certain acts, or pay a specified sum, but it is not binding until accepted.
Toll: A tax for the liberty of passing over a bridge or road; selling goods in a
market, etc.
Tout: A person who hangs about in a law-court and induces client to entrust
their cases to a particular lawyer.
Trade Balance: The phrase refers to the difference between imports and exports. A
country the exports of which are greater in value than its imports, is
usually a creditor country because it is selling more than it buys; and per
contra a country which buys more than it sells is usually a debtor.
Trade Mark: It is a mark imposed upon goods or upon the wrapper containing the foods
to show that the articles bearing the marks are those of a particular trader.
Trade marks are protected by law and it is an offence for a trader to use
the trade mark of any other firm.
Warrant: is a document authorising arrest or search, etc.
Wealth: To a layman it means money, hard currency. But in the wider sense the
word is synonymous with economic goods; commodities having exchange
value, in relation to demand, it is transferable and is external to material
possessions measured by price. Wealth is scarce in relation, to demand, it
is transferable and is external to men. It must have utility. The word is not
applied to necessities of life like air and sunlight, which are not bought
and sold.
Individual Wealth: Individual wealth is anything in possession of an individual which is
transferable for value.
Collective Wealth: Collective wealth consists of those transferable and external goods which
are public property and can be enjoyed by every member of the
community, e.g., roads, public buildings, etc.
National Wealth: National wealth includes the aggregate wealth of all members of the
community as also the collective wealth. Government loans and public
debts are, of course, excluded; god coin, gold ore, minerals, etc., are
national wealth.
Wealth and Welfare:An increase of wealth is not necessarily synonymous with increase of
welfare Income derived from unhealthy and immoral surroundings or
from menial services, or from a dull, monotonous work may produce
economic welfare which may be totally cancelled by the evil effects of
such surroundings and other conditions under which that income is earned.
Besides, much also depends on how the income is spent. Income may be
spent on evils such as on intoxicating wine, gambling and other harmful

44

luxuries. An increased production of wealth adds to the welfare of the
people, if this income is distributed wisely.
Writ: is an order of a court to an individual to appear at a certain place at an
appointed time.

45

ISMS

Ism: (French. Isme, Latin ismus, Greek ismos, forming nouns of action from
verbs) denote any distinctive doctrine, theory, or practice usually in
disparagement of lowering in rank or estimation, dishonouring by
comparison with what is inferior. A relative suffix isma, which
expresses rather the finished action, is sometimes the cource ofism. A
frequent use of ismos was to express the sense of acting like or adopting
the habits of a body of people e.g. Judaism, paganism, etc.
Absolutism: A system of Government in which there is no public representation. A
Government or theory of Government, by a ruler without restriction. The
world absolute means free from restrictions, limits, or conditions.
Anarchism: (Gr. Anarchia, leaderlessness; lawlessness; or primitive, arche,
government). A social theory which embodies the idea of equality,
fraternity, liberty in its extreme and logical form. Main features of
anarchism are: total extinction state, complete social liberty and equality,
etc.
Animism: It is a theory which regards the belief in separate spiritual existence. It is
adopted by Sir E.B. Tylor in his Primitive Culture as the minimum
definition of religion, being considered to have arisen simply from the
evidence of the senses, interpreted by the crude and child like science of
the savage.
Agnosticism: is the doctrine (in itself old) established by T.H. Huxley in 1869. It
elucidates that man can have accurate knowledge of the phenomena of the
world, but can know nothing beyond that limit. It is impossible for man to
know any thing about the spiritual existence either of God or man, or of
any other after death states.
Ascetism: is the training of the body and mind. It renounces the world with its
repression of mind and body and it teaches the systematic exercise and
effort leading to the advancement of virtue and spiritual perfection, and
also to the control of disordered tendencies.
Bihtallism: (L. bi, twice) A monetary system in which two metals (e.g. gold and
silver) form the standard of a countrys currency.
Capitalism: Literally it means condition of possessing capital or money. Capitalism
is the economic system which generates and gives power to capitalists.
This political and economic order generally prevails in the world.

The system first appeared in England with the dawn of the Industrial
Revolution there. The economic system under capitalism has three basic
factors; (a) non-intervention by state into the growth of private business;
(b) competition into profit motive; and (c) the system of private property is
held sacred. Capitalism becomes a curse to humanity when it goes too far,
but it is a blessing when it restricts itself to investment for the general
good of the masses. Communist Russia is deadly against capitalism.
Western Powers, many of them, have become capital minded. Islam roots
out the dangers of capitalism by distributing wealth and properties
according specific principles of inheritance.
Centralism: It is the system of Government under which the entire work of a state is
controlled by the centre, the component units enjoying no appreciable
power.
Collectivism: It is the economic theory of socialism that industry should be carried on
with a collective capital.
Conceptualism: is the doctrine in philosophy that universals have an existence in the mind
apart from any concrete embodiment. In opposing the rival theories of
nominalism and realism, conceptualism. Aimed at steering a middle
course between the two. Realism is claims that the genus is more real
than the species and that particulars have no reality; and nominalism
asserts that genus and species are no more than mere names. The
conceptualists believe that universals are concepts which exist but only in
the mind.
Communism: The word Communism means a theory or condition of things according
to which private property is altogether abolished and all things are held by

46

the state. Communism is self-made philosophy produced by Kari Marx
and Engel. It negates all rights to private properties. By abolishing
personal interest and basic right of a man, Communism rests on quite a
weak foundation. Islam opposes communism and safeguards the basic
right of mankind by distributing wealth and properties according to
specific principles of inheritance.
Communism: is a revolutionary movement aiming at the establishment of proletarian
dictatorship which Islam disapproves. The Communist theory opposes
moderate, democratic socialism, describes it as treacherous and as an
agency of capitalism; denounces democracy as the concealed dictatorship
of capitalists; rejects the idea of arriving at socialism through peaceful,
democratic development, and maintains that it can be achieved only by
armed revolution, followed inevitably by periods of civil war and
proletarian dictatorship. The Russian Revolution, the Soviet Union and the
Red China are the Communist models.
Cynicism: is the contempt for human nature. Cynics were a group of Greek
philosophers founded by the pupil of Socrates named Antisthenes. They
assert that virtue is the only good thing, and they condemned arts,
sciences, pleasures and riches.
Cubism: The word cube means a solid body having six equal square faces, a solid
square, the third power of a quantity, raising to the third power. Cubism
is a modern mode of art in painting, which seeks to represent several
aspects of an object seen from different standpoints arbitrarily grouped in
one composition making use of cubes or other solid geometrical figures.
Cubism aims at giving third dimensional effect, so that the object
presented gives the exact likeness of length, breadth and thickness, and in
addition to it they look like an assemblage of geometric figures, e.g.,
rectangles, ovals, hexagonals, etc.
Darwinism: It is the theory of the origin of species put forward by Charles Drawin
(1809-1882), an English scientist. It contains that man has evolved as a
consequence of gradual material change over the universe. Drawins
theory is opposed to theory of divine creation. His famous book, The
Origin of Species attributes the differences between species of the same
genus of animals, birds, or other living creatures to the struggle for
existences that results in the survival of the individuals best able to bear it.
Changes in environment cause the evolutions, species, suited to the new
conditions in the course of generations.
Despotism: An arbitrary Government by one invested with full powers.
Dualism: Dualism is that view which seeks to explain the world by the assumption
of two radically independent and absolute elements e.g.,
(1) the doctrine of the entire separation of spirit and matter, thus being
opposed both is idealism and to materialism;
(2) the doctrine of two distinct principles of good and evil, or of two
distinct divine beings of these characters.
Egotism: is the doctrine that we have proof of nothing but our own existence; the
theory of self-interest as the principle of morality: selfishness.
Escapism: Tendency to escape especially from reality, tendency on the part of an
artist to escape from the hard realities of life. Such an artist portrays things
not as they are but as he wishes them to be. An escapist idealises things,
indulges in utopias and ignores the hard realities of life. A romance writer,
as for example T.S. Eliot, is as escapist to a great extent.
Expressionism: In literature and painting it is a revolt against impressionism. It is turning
away from the outer life to the inner. Expressionism is a mode of writing
that makes a detailed study of the subject.
Fascism: I is the political philosophy which favours state and puts it above the
individual. It places supreme power into the hands of one man.
Feudalism: A social system which spread over Europe after the breakdown of the
Roman Empire. The system was based on self-protection, weaker fold
placing themselves under a stronger overlord, from whom they held their
land and whom they supported in the field, in return for protection against
outsiders. At the head was the supreme overlord, the monarch, and under
him in turn the grater barons, the lesser barons and the yeomen. Under a

47

weak ruler his kingdom would split up into more or less independent
districts, each dominated by a powerful baron.

A form of feudalism usually appears in backward countries. Sometimes a
sort of the system is created by big powers to dominate a comparatively
weak country. In Middle East countries and India the British had
introduced Nawabs, Jagirdars, petty rulers, etc., to frustrate unity of the
countries and to perpetuate their hold there.
Gandhism: is a philosophy of life advocated by the late M.K. Gandhi, an Indian
Congress leader. Gandhism advocated the use of non-violence as effective
political weapon, hated machines and use of foreign goods and it was a
semi-religious, semi-politico-economic creed. After Gandhis death
different trends are, however, manifesting in India.
Hypnotism: (Gr. Hypnos sleep). An artificially produced sleep or state of
unconsciousness, during which the subject may be insensitive to pain,
respond to any suggestion mad by the hypnotizer and perform feats (acts)
not possible under ordinary conditions. Hypnotism is stated to be useful in
treating mental disorders.
Idealism: It is the doctrine or system that considers thought or the idea as the basis
either of knowledge or existence. In its conception, ideas are the only
things known. It claims that there exists only mind and spirit and that there
is no matter in the universe. This philosophy is coined along different lies
by many philosophers, including Plato, while late systems were developed
by Locke, Descartes, and Spinoza up to Berkelay, but most famous are
those of Leibnitz. Hegel and Kant. The leader of the idealist, Hegel, holds
that universe is a process of thought in continual evolution, and that the
process is unconscious in nature and that in man the process becomes fully
self-aware.
Imperialism: Imperialism, in a broad sense means a general tendency to build up great
empires through conquest but in a narrow sense, relating only to the
British Empire. It is a tendency toward strengthening the connection
between the various parts of the British Commonwealth, and towards
thinking politically in terms of Empire as a whole.
Impressionism: is a nineteenth century movement in painting, originating in France aiming
at the realistic representation of the play of light in nature, purporting to
render faithfully what the artist actually sees, dispensing with the
academic rules of composition and colouring and any similar tendency in
other arts. Impressionism is a mode of art which ignores the detailed
treatment of a subject whether it be music or painting and aims at giving
the general tones without elaborate details. As for example, in an
impressionistic picture, an artist would treat his subject in such a manner
that all its details are apprehended simultaneously and the focus has not to
be shifted successively.
Materialism: (Latin materialsmateria, matter) is the doctrine which denies the
independent existence of spirit, and maintains that there is but one
substance matter; blindness to the spiritual, exclusive or excessive
devotion to bodily or physical wants. Materialism embodies a materialist
conception of universe, believes that nothing exists outside matter, even
the consciousness is a function of matter. This philosophy was advocated
by Hegel, Karl Marx and others.
Individualism: It is the theory which opposes interference of the State in the affairs of
individuals, opposed to socialism or collectivism. This doctrine favours
the individuals freedom least restricted by the state. It considers that the
existence of a state is an evil. In its extreme form, individualism shifts to
anarchism.
Islamism: Islamism is the doctrine of Islam. It is the name of the religion of Islam.
The system of Islam guides man for success in this world and the
hereafter. Islam is God-made religion while all other religions are man-
made ones. This religion is also called din-i-fitrat i.e., the path or
religion which is according to the nature of man.


48

The word Islam means mans complete submission to Allah. Islam
means and enjoys complete submission and obedience to Allah not
merely in belief and mode of abadat (worship), but in ethics and morality,
in culture and social behaviour, in politics and law, in economics and
social set up, and in all the individual, national and international affairs of
man alike. Islam is a comprehensive concept of life. It establishes sound
relations between man and Allah and between man and man.

The religion of Islam is the name of the system of Islam. Allah approves
the religion of Islam only. The Quran certifies it in its 3 : 19 where it
says: Surely the religion (din) with Allah is only Islam. Islam is not a
new religion. It is the same religion which Adam, Noah, Ibrahim, Yaqub,
Ishaque Ismail, Daud, Solaiman, Musa, Muhammad, and all other
prophets (Peace Be Upon Them All) brought to mankind from Allah.
There has all along been only one true religion. And this has all along
been stated in the Revelations of Allah. The Quran emphasises that Islam
is not a new religion. We will see that in 87:18 and 6:92 it says: And this
is in the scriptures of the earliest Revelations, the scriptures of Ibrahim
and Musa And this is a book which we have revealed bringing blessings
and confirming all which has been revealed before it. Islam is the same
way of Allah, which has all along been revealed to the former mankind.
Man has been straying from the Right Path. The Quran pronounces that
Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) is not he founder of any new class or
community. He does not seek to establish any new leadership, but his
absolute purpose is to bring back astray mankind to the way of Islam from
which it has deviated.
Islam rejects both capitalism and communism.
Isolationism: (Italian, isolare isola Latin, insula, an island). Isolate means to place in
a detached situation like an island, to separate (esp. from those who might
be infected).

Isolationism is the policy of avoiding political entanglements with other
countries. It is a body of political opinion which advocates non-
interference in other countries affairs.

A body of political opinion in the U.S.A. advocated non-interference in
European affairs. There was a certain amount of isolationism in Great
Britain before the World War II advocating non-interference in
Continental or at least in East Continental affairs. Similarly, any country
may adopt this policy.
Magnetism: a quality which gives a body polarity, that is, properties of turning into a
north and south line if left perfectly free to adjust its direction, and of
attracting steel, iron, and to a much more limited extent, nickel.

The word magnet is derived from the Greek word magnetis, Magnesian
(stone) from Magnesia in Lydia or Thessaly. Magnet means the
loadstone or lodestone, a magnetic iron ore, which was probably used in
early mariners compasses. A body possessing magnetism is called a
magnet. The iron ore, named magnetite is magnetic by nature. The earth is
huge magnet. A bar of stell may be converted into a permanent magnet by
stroking it with a bar already magnetized, or by surrounding it with a coil
and passing a current through the coil. Soft iron can be temporarily
magnetised in the second way.
Marxism: is the socialist doctrine following the theory of Karl Marx. It is based on
the method of materialism. It looks upon economic conditions as the basis
of life, political and ideological systems being merely the superstructure
above them and undergoing changes along with them.
Materialism: (Latin Materialismateria, matter) is the doctrine that denies the
independent existence of spirit and maintains that there is but one
substance viz matter thus professing to find in matter (monistic or
philosophical materialism). It denies the existence of no-material or
spiritual beings and holds that all phenomena, real and abstract, is

49

explicable by physical science. It takes mater as the ultimate fact, and
mind as a product of matter. Materialism is to be found in all philosophical
systems from ancient Buddism and Greek Epicurianism and Scepticism up
to Locke, Mill etc. Materialism is opposite to idealism.
Monism: I is a philosophical theory that all beings may ultimately be referred to one
category; thus idealism, Pantheism, Materialism are monism, as
opposed to the Dualism of matter and spirit.
Monometalism: the system of using single metal, e.g., silver, gold, copper, etc. in the
standard of a countrys currency.
Nationalism: Nation means a body of people marked off by common descent, language,
culture, or historical tradition. Nationalism is the political theory by which
the social, political or economic interests of a country are placed above all
other consideration. Nationalism means in effect My country, right or
wrong!. It is synonymous with patriotism. Enemies of Islam have been
disrupting the overall unity of Muslims by creating a sense of nationalism
in different countries and thus playing one against the other.
Nihilism: (Latin nihil, nothing). Literally nihilism means belief in nothing, denial of
all reality, or of all objective growth of truth, extreme scepticism and
nothingness. In Czarist Russia a terrorist movement aiming at the overturn
of all the existing institutions of society in order to build it up a new on
different principles. It was a form of terrorism against the cruel autocracy
of the regime. Many Czars were killed by the terrorists. The police, the
Government officials and rich landlords were the victims of the Russian
terrorists who called themselves Nihilists.
Naturalism: is the belief that natural religion ( ) is of itself sufficient. It negates
Creators presence.
Neo-Platonism: It is the mixture of Platonic ideas with oriental mysticism. Platonists strive
to attain knowledge of the Highest by supposing the existence of a power
in man for passing beyond the limits of his personality and acquiring on
intuitive knowledge of the Absolute. Its founder was Plotinus.
Nominalism: is the doctrine that general terms have no corresponding reality either in or
out of the mind, being mere words. The nominalist is opposed to the
realist, who with Plato, assert that class terms are real, more real than the
individual things which come under, them refuse that the concept, or class,
has an existence of its own beyond the individuals which make up the
class.
Pan-Islamism: is a movement striving for close political co-operation among Islamic
people and, in the end, for an all-Islamic khilafat or federation of the
Muslim world. This based on the Islamic principle of Islamic
Brotherhood.
Pantheism: is the doctrine that there is no God apart from nature or the universe,
everything being considered as part of God, or a manifestation of him.
This term was coined by John Toland (1705). He gives essentials of
pantheism as: All things in the world are one. What is all in all things is
God.
Positivism: It is a doctrine which assumes that knowledge is based only on the
methods and discoveries o f physical science, and attempts the revaluation
of social and moral values in the light of the exact sciences. This doctrine
restricts itself to the data of experience.
Pragmatism: It is the doctrine of the expedient; it denies accepting as ultimate the
ordinary and accepted truths of metaphysics, and limits itself wholly to
those truths which are definitely correlated to the actual facts of existence.
As the relation of such truths with facts is liable to permanent growth and
change, truth, thus becomes an intellectual expedient just as right is a
moral expedient. The pioneers of this system were James and Dewey.
Radicalism: is a tendency which desires radical or immediate changes in social,
political or economic spheres and works right from the very basis of the
situation.
Rationalism: establishes the superiority of reason over sensation as a medium of
cognition. It assumes that reason is the independent source of knowledge
and the final standard of criticism in philosophy, religion and aesthetics
alike. The philosophic rationalism was first developed by Descartes. He is

50

of the contention that there are elementary a priori concepts from which
the total knowledge can be deduced mathematically.
Realism: is the medieval doctrine that general terms stand for real existences. It is
opposite to Nominalism which holds that in external perception the
objects immediately known are of real existence. As opposed to
idealism realism is an interpretation of life. It advocates the belief that
time, pace and their attributes are real, that phenomenon exists apart from
mans consciousness or conception, and that mans perception of them is
ruled by direct intuitive cognition.
Romanticism: is the mode of art that lays a greater emphasis upon imagination. Realism
and romanticism are permanent modes of art which have been used
through the ages by writers, musicians, painters and sculptors.
Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley represent best the romantic movement in
English poetry.
Scepticism: It is the philosophy of doubting everything. It has two ideas viz (1) that to
arrive at truth one must believe that everything is false until it is proved to
be true; and (2) that human knowledge can never arrive at truth.
Socialism: is the name given to any one of various schemes for regenerating society
by a more equal distribution of property and especially by substituting the
principle of association for that of competition.

It is a system of common property and planned economy, and the political
movement aiming at it. Communism is an ideal and socialism is the
means to achieve that object. It also aims at abolishing private property. It
is a revolutionary class movement which demands a complete system of
centralised state control on social and economic affairs. However, the
principle of production and distribution will be from everyone according
to his ability, to everyone according to his need. There are two schools of
socialists: evolutionary and revolutionary. The evolutionary socialists
attempt transition from capitalism to socialism by peaceful and democratic
means. But the revolutionary socialists want this through a revolution.
These two schools, however, agree in their goals to establish the rule of
the working class.
Spiritualism: (Latin: spiritus, a breath spirare, to breath). The doctrine that spirit has a
real existence apart from matter. It embodies the philosophic conception
that matter and spirit are two separate entities and that it is the spirit which
gives substance, life and shape to the matter. The spirit is everlasting. All
religions have spiritualism as their basic principle.
Theism: It is the belief in the existence of a persona; deity. It is the exact opposite
of atheism.
Unitarianism: the religious doctrine that holds that God must be One and Undivided.
Utilitarianism: is the theory that (i) belief in truth and goodness is the highest creed
mankind should seek (ii) every action should have utility as its objective
and have a tendency to promote general happiness of mankind, (iii) men
work for money as it is the means of happiness.

51

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN


RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1 Respiration is a catabolic process in
which compounds are broken down.
1 It is an anabolic process in which
compounds are formed.
2 In this process, carbohydrates are
broken down into simpler
compounds.
2 In this process, carbohydrates are
manufactured.
3 The end-products of this process are
Co2 and H2O.
3 The end-products of this process are
simple carbohydrates.
4 In respiration Oxygen enters the
plant body and CO2 is released.
4 In photosynthesis CO2 enters the plant
and O2 is released.
5 It occurs during both day and night
Light is not necessary for this
process.
5 It occurs during day time only. Light is
essential for this process.
6 In Respiration energy is released
from food material.
6 It is energy consuming process.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES OF
ENERGY
NON- RENEWABLE RESOURCES OF
ENERGY
1 Renewable resources are used
continuously and can be used again
and again.
1 Non-Renewable resources can not be
used again and again after their
consumption.
2 Major examples are: air, water, soil,
wildlife, forest, fish etc.
2 Major example include: Coal, oil,
natural gas etc.
3 These resources support million of
people all over the world.
3 These resources cannot support millions
of people all over the world.
4 Renewable resources are constantly
renewed by bio-geochemical cycles
of nature e.g. animals take O2 and
return CO2 to environment.
4 Nor0renewable resources are being
exhausted day by day because their
demand rises. Due to worldwide
demand of fossil fuels, its supplies are
declining.
EMBRYO LARVA
1 Offspring of animals before birth is
called embryo. S found in egg or
uterus.
1 A free living young animal which
hatches from the egg. And markedly
different from its parents.
2 Embryo in majority of animal is
provided with protective coats in the
form of chorine and amnion.
2 Larva in majority of animals is provided
with protective exo-skeleton.
3 Embryo of the man and higher
animals is found in the uterus,
which provides safe and moist
environment to the embryo. It feeds
through placenta.
3 It lives in different environment and
feed upon a food quite different from the
adults.
4 Embryo is commonly formed in
higher vertebrate animals.
4 Larva is commonly formed in lower
vertebrates and in most of the
invertebrates.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1 In sexual reproduction fusion of two
gametes i.e. male and female of the
same species is involved.
1 In asexual reproduction fusion of the
gametes is not involved.
2 Most animals depend on sexual
reproduction to multiply the species.
2 It is very simple and confined mostly to
unicellular organism and in few multi-
cellular animals.
3 Gonads i.e. testes and ovaries are
present.
3 Gonads i.e. testes and ovaries are absent.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
1 External fertilization occurs outside
the body of the animal.
1 Internal fertilization occurs inside the
body of the animal.
2 It is common in aquatic outside e.g. 2 It is common in terrestrial animals e.g.

52

frog, fish etc. deer, monkey etc.
3 It takes place only in water. 3 It takes place on land as well as in
water.
4 Eggs are produced in large quantity. 4 Eggs are produced in small quantity.
ARTERY VEIN
1 Arteries are blood vessels which
transport blood away from the heart.
1 Veins are the blood vessels which
always carry blood towards heart.
2 Arteries have thick vascular walls. 2 Veins have thin muscular walls.
3 The inside bore or lumen of arteries
is narrow.
3 The inside born or lumen of veins is
wide.
4 Arteries carry oxygenated blood
with the exception of pulmonary
artery.
4 Veins carry deoxygenated blood with
the exception of pulmonary veins.
5 The walls of arteries are more
elastic.
5 The walls of veins are less elastic.
6 The blood is under great pressure in
the are arteries.
6 The blood is under less pressure in the
veins.
7 Arteries are generally deeply
placed.
7 Veins are generally superficially placed.
8 Arteries end in the capillaries. 8 Veins start from capillaries.
SESSILE ANIMALS MOTILE ANIMALS
1 Sessile animals remain fixed to
place throughout their life.
1 Motile animals can move from place to
place.
2 Sessile animals depend on food
which comes to them along with the
water currents.
2 Motile animals can move to search their
food.
3 Sessile animals are found in shallow
water bodies or near the banks of
deeper water bodies.
3 Motile animals are found in all depths of
water bodies.
4 Sessile animals are found only in
aquatic conditions.
4 Motile animals are found in aquatic
terrestrial conditions.
5 Sponges and sea-anemones are the
common examples of sessile
animals.
5 Fish, goat and birds are the common
examples of motile animals.
EXOSKELETON ENDOSKELETON
1 It lies external to the muscles. 1 It lies internal to the muscles.
2 Exoskeleton is formed of rigid
plates of cuticle.
2 Endoskeleton is formed of bones and
cartilages.
3 Exoskeleton is composed of dead
substances secreted by the cells.
3 Endoskeleton is composed of living
cells.
4 Exoskeleton retards the locomotion. 4 Endoskeleton helps in locomotion.
5 Exoskeleton is commonly found in
arthropods and molluscs.
5 Endoskeleton is found in chordates.
LATITUDE LONGITUDE
1 Latitude is an imaginary grid which
divides the earth in parallels.
1 A longitude is an imaginary grid which
divides the earth into meridians.
2 Latitudes run, from east to west. 2 Longitudes run from North to South.
3 The latitudes are used to determine
locations either North or South in
relation to the equator.
3 Meridians are used to determine the
locations East or West in relation of
prime meridian.
ROTATION OF THE EARTH REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
1 It is the movement of the earth in
which the earth makes rotation
around its axis.
1 It is the movement of the earth, in which
the earth makes revolution around the
sun.
2 Rotation of the earth occurs from
West to East.
2 Revolution of the earth occurs in
counter clockwise direction or from
right to left.
3 The main effect of the rotation of
the earth is the formation of days
and night.
3 The main effect of the revolution of the
earth is the change of seasons.
TEMPERATE CYCLONE TROPICAL CYCLONE

53

1 The temperate cyclones originate
and grow in temperate lands.
1 Tropical cyclones develop in the tropical
zone.
2 Temperate cyclone can develop
both on land and sea.
2 Tropical cyclones mainly originate in
the sea only.
3 They are mainly born in winter
season.
3 They are mainly born in summer season.
4 Pressure gradient is gentle. 4 Pressure gradient is steep.
5 In temperate cyclones, the wind
velocity is 30-40 km/hour.
5 In tropical cyclones, wind velocity is
more, about 100-200 km/hour.
6 The temperate cyclones move from
West to East.
6 The tropical cyclones move from East to
West.
7 In temperate cyclones rainfall
continues for several days.
7 In tropical cyclone rainfall stops after a
few hours.
8 Rainfall is accompanied with hail
and snow.
8 There is no hail or snow in a tropical
cyclone.
9 Energy in temperate cyclone is
derived from the difference in
densities of contrasting air mass.
9 Energy in a tropical cyclone is derived
from the latent heat of condensation.
10 Direction of wind depends upon the
location of fronts.
10 Direction of wind is more or less
circular.
ACTIN MYOSINE
1 Actin forms a thin myofilament
with diameter of about 5 milli-
microns.
1 Myosine forms a thick myofilament
with diameter of about 10 milli-microns.
2 Actin myofilament together form
light hands or I bands.
2 Myosine myofilament together forms
dark and or A band.
3 A z-line is present across the actin
myofilament.
3 M-line is present across the myosine
myofilament.
LYMPH PLASMA
1 The lymph is the part of blood
which comes out of blood
capillaries.
1 The plasma is that part of blood which
remains inside the blood vessel.
2 The lymph is in direct contact with
the tissues.
2 The plasma does not have a direct
contact with the tissue.
3 The lymph usually contains
bacteria.
3 Plasma usually does not contain
bacteria.
4 Lymph travels all the time in one
direction in the lymph vessels that is
from tissue to subclavian veins.
4 Blood circulates all the time in blood
vessels.
5 Lymph moves slowly. 5 Plasma moves quickly.
DOWNS SYNDROME TURNERS SYNDROME
1 In Down Syndrome one
chromosome is extra.
1 In turner Syndrome the number of
chromosomes is less.
2 Down Syndrome can mature
sexually.
2 Turner syndrome cannot mature
sexually.
3 Down Syndrome are retarded
physically and mentally. Many of
these children may die.
3 Turner syndrome is generally not
retarded physically & mentally.
4 Down Syndrome can be a male or
female.
4 Turner syndrome is mostly females.
RNA DNA
1 RNA is a single stranded molecule. 1 DNA is double stranded helical
structure.
2 RNA contains Ribose sugar. 2 DNA contains deoxyribose sugar.
3 RNA contains adenine, guanine,
cytosine and uracil bases.
3 DNA contains adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine bases.
4 RNA is generally located in
cytoplasm.
4 DNA is generally located inside the
nucleus.
5 RNA is of three kinds. 5 DNA is just of one kind.

REPLICATION TRANSCRIPTION

54

1 During replication DNA molecule
produces another DNA molecule.
1 During transcription DNA molecule
produces mRNAs molecule.
2 During replication codes produce
more codes.
2 During transcription codes produce
codon.
3 Replication is carried out by DNA
polymerase.
3 Transcription is carried out by RNA
polymerase.
4 In replication the adenine nucleotide
always matches with thymine.
4 In transcription adenine matches with
uracil.
5 In replication, double stranded DNA
molecule is produced with adenine,
guanine, cytosine and thymine
nucleotide.
In transcription, single stranded RNA
molecule is produced with adenine,
guanine, cytosine and uracil nucleotides.
COMPOUND MIXTURE
1 A compound is a pure substances
formed by the chemical union of
two or more kinds of elements in a
chemical reaction.
1 A mixture is made up of two or more
pure substances which are physically
combined.
2 In a compound elements unite in a
definite proportion by weight.
2 In mixture the elements are not in
definite proportion.
3 New substance with new properties
is formed.
3 No new substance is formed.
4 Compounds can be separated by
chemical means.
4 Mixtures can only be separated by
physical means.
LASER LIGHT ORDINARY LIGHT
1 Laser light is disciplined light. 1 It is undisciplined light.
2 Laser light has photons of same
length.
2 Ordinary light has no photons of the
same length.
3 It can be focused on a very small
point.
3 It cannot be focused on a very small
point.
4 It is coherent light. 4 It is incoherent light.
5 It is best used in medical and
diseased diagnosis.
5 No use in medical.
HYPOGLYCEMIA HYPERGLYCEMIA
1 The fall in sugar level in the blood
below the normal physiologic level
is known as Hypoglycemia. Normal
physiologic range of sugar in blood
is 60-90 mg% at fasting and 120-
140 mg% at random.
1 Hyperglycemia is a condition in which
blood sugar level rise above its normal
range.
2 It is treated by giving intravenous
glucose.
2 It is treated by exercise, medicine or by
intravenous insulin therapy.
3 It caused mental confusion, visual
problem and often coma etc.
3 It causes weakness, calf pain, unhealed
wounds and kidney problem.
4 It causes weakness and increase in
food desire.
4 It causes excessive urination, dryness of
lips and increased thirst etc.
POLLINATION FERTILIZATION
1 It is a process involving transfer of
pollens from male reproductive
organ to female reproductive organ
of plant.
1 In fertilization fusion of egg. And sperm
occurs.
2 It occurs in flowering plants. 2 It occurs markedly in animals.
3 The product of pollination is seed. 3 The Product of fertilization is zygote.
4 It takes place through animals,
birds, insects, wind and water.
It takes place by physical contact and
mating of male and female.
HERBIVORES CARNIVORES
1 The animals eating green plants,
grass and fodder are known as
Herbivores.
1 The animals eating flash and meat are
known as carnivores.
2 Animals have specific digestive
system to digest leaves, plants and
fodder.
2 Digestive enzymes are specific.

55

3 The teeth are specifically designed
to cut and chew leaves, plants and
fodder.
3 Their teeth are short and to cut and chew
leaves, plants pointed especially for
flash eating.
4 Jaw movement is specific for side
motion.
4 Jaw movement is specific for up and
down movement.
5 At resting periods they reached the
undigested food.
5 This character is absent in carnivores.
6 Examples: Goat, cattle sheep,
buffalo, cow etc.
6 Examples: Tiger, dog, cat, lion etc.
EPIDEMIC ENDEMIC
1 If at one place and time a great
number of people suffer from a
disease, it is known as epidemic.
1 If a disease persists in a particular
locality, certain area or one region, it is
known as endemic.
2 It can travel from one place to
another.
2 It cannot travel from one place to
another place.
3 Examples: Influenza, smallpox,
cholera etc.
3 Examples: Goiter in iodine-deficient
areas.
THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
1 Plastics that can be melted again
and again are known as
thermoplastics.
1 Plastic that can be melted only once are
known as thermosetting plastics.
2 They behave just like wax. 2 They become hard after melting.
3 These plastics can be shaped again
and again.
3 These plastics cannot be shaped again
and again.
4 Examples: Nylon, PVC, Teflon etc. 4 Examples: Polyesters and Bakelite.
LUNAR ECLIPSE SOLAR ECLIPSE
1 It occurs when the earth come
between moon and sun.
1 It occurs when moon comes between
earth and sun.
2 Moon goes through series of partial
eclipses when moon comes out of
umbral region of earths shadow.
2 Partial eclipse of sun occurs as in
penumbra can see a part of the sun.
3 Earth lies in umbral region at total
eclipse when earth lies exactly
between moon and sun and its
shadow covers the whole moon.
3 At the total eclipse of the sun, the
shadow of moon which it throws on
earth consists of an umbra and
penumbra people on earth who are in
umbral region cannot see the sun.
ASTEROID METEORITE
1 The small rocky objects which are
orbiting the sun between orbits of
Mars and Jupiter are known as
asteroids.
1 Tiny chunk of material floating in space,
which can also enter the earths
atmosphere and become meteor are
known as meteorites.
2 Its origin is concentrated to the
remains of planet that fell apart.
2 It may originate by the disintegration of
comet.
3 Asteroid means start like but these
are known as minor planets.
3 A falling star (Meteor) is seen as a
streak of light in sky.
PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
1 In physical change the composition
of molecules of matter remain
unchanged.
1 In chemical change the composition of
molecules of matter is altered.
2 Properties of substances formed are
not materially changed.
2 Properties of new substances are
changed.
3 Physical change is temporary. 3 Chemical change is permanent.
4 It is not accompanied by heat, light
or electricity.
4 It is accompanied by heat, light or
electricity.
5 No new substance is produced. 5 New substances are produced.
NORMALITY MOLARITY
1 The fraction or multiple of the gram
equivalent weight of the solute
present is one litre of solution is
called its normality.
1 The fraction or multiple of one gram
molecular weight of the solute present in
one litre of the solution is called its
molarity.
METALS MON-METALS

56

1 Metals are usually solids at ordinary
temperature.
1 Non-metals usually exist in all the three
states.
2 They posses metallic luster. 2 They do not posses metallic luster.
3 They posses high density. 3 They posses low density.
4 The metals are good conductors of
heat and electricity.
4 They are often had conductors of heat
and electricity.
5 They usually form alloys. 5 They do not usually form alloys.
6 Their oxides are generally basic in
nature.
6 Their oxides are usually acidic in nature.
7 When electrolyzed from their salts,
they deposit at the cathode and are,
therefore electro-positive.
7 When electrolyzed from their
compounds, they deposit at anode and
are therefore, electro-negative.
8 They react with acids to form
hydrogen.
8 They react to form oxygen.
PIG IRON WROUGHT IRON
1 It is the basic raw material for steel
and cast iron.
1 It is the purest form of iron.
2 It contains
1% Silicone
0.03% Sulphur
0.27% Phosphorous
2.4% Magnesium
4.6% Carbon
2 I wrought iron carbon seldom exceeds
0.25% and manganese contact is held at
0.06% maximum.
3 It is the product of blast furnace. 3 Wrought iron is readily fabricated by
standard methods and is quite corrosion
resistant.
STARS PLANETS
1 Stars are self luminous heavenly
bodies.
1 Planets are cocky non-luminous bodies.
2 Stars do not revolve round the sun. 2 Planets revolve round the sun.
3 Stars are usually stationary. 3 Planets usually move.
4 Examples: Fixed Starts, Binary
Stars etc.
4 Examples: Mercury, Venus, Jupiter etc.
NUCLEAR FUSION NUCLEAR FISSION
1 Lighter atoms are fused together at
a very high temperature to form
heavier element.
1 Heavier unstable atoms are broken down
to produce energy.
2 It is difficult to carry out on the
earth.
2 It is easy to carry out on the earth.
3 It has no nuclear waste problem. 3 It has nuclear waste radio-activity
disposal problem.
4 It requires cheaper and abundant
element.
4 It requires expensive and rare elements.
5 Not possible at concerning scale as
high temperature is needed to start
it.
5 Possible to commercialize under
controlled measures.
BACTERIA VIRUSES
1 Bacteria are very small but they can
be seen by light microscope.
1 Viruses are smaller than bacteria and
they can be seen only through an
electron microscope.
2 In bacteria cell wall of cellulose is
present.
2 No such cell wall is present.
3 A bacterium possess nuclear
material but they do not have
nuclear membrane.
3 The inner core of virus contains a single
molecule of DNA or RNA.
4 Bacteria can live every where, in
water, soil, plants or animals.
4 The viruses grow and reproduce only
inside other cells.
INSULIN INULIN
1 Insulin is endocrine hormone
produced by pancreas.
1 Inulin is not a harmonic; but it is a
soluble carbohydrate.
2 Insulin is present in blood. 2 Inulin is present in cell sap.

57

3 Insulin metabolises carbohydrates. 3 No such function. When required for
nutrition it is converted into Fructose.
HARD WARD HEAVY WATER
1 Hard is that type of water which
does not form lather easily.
1 Heavy water is deuterium oxide in
which hydrogen of water is replaced by
its heavier isotope, Deuterium.
2 Its formula is H2O 2 The formula of heavy water is D2O.
3 Hard water is not used in nuclear
power plants.
3 Heavy water is used in nuclear power
plants.
MASER LASER
1 Maser stands for microwave
Amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.
1 Laser stands for light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation.
2 A class of amplifiers and oscillators
that makes use of the internal
energy of atoms and molecules to
obtain low noise level amplification
and microwave oscillations of
precisely determined frequencies.
2 Laser is used to produce coherent light.
It produces a beam of light in which
photons are not out of step and travel
like a well drilled army.
3 It is not used medically. 3 It is used in medical.
ALPHA RAYS BETA RAYS
1 Alpha ray is a stream of particles.
Each particle contains two protons
and two neutrons.
1 Beta ray is a stream of light which
contains electrons or positrons.
2 Alpha rays have a positive charge,
because photons are positively
charge.
2 Beta rays can have either negative or a
positive charge.
3 It is not used medically. 3 It is used in medical.
ALPHA RAYS BETA RAYS
1 Alpha ray is a stream of particles.
Each particle contains two protons
and two neutrons.
1 Beta ray is a stream of light which
contains electrons or positrons.
2 Alpha rays have a positive charge,
because photons are positively
charge.
2 Beta rays can have either negative or a
positive charge.
3 Alpha rays can travel a long way
through the air, but they cannot pass
through solids such as metals.
3 Beta rays can travel a long way and can
even pass through very thin pieces of
metal.
MALNUTRITION UNDER-NUTRITION
1 Malnutrition is the specific
condition in which certain elements
are deficient in diet, which are
necessary for normal functioning of
body.
1 Under-Nutrition is the condition in
which amount of required ingredients of
food is lower than the required level.
2 Malnutrition affects particular part
of the body and particular system of
the body.
2 Under-Nutrition affects over all systems
of the body.
COMPILER INTERPRETER
1 The compiler is a program, which
translates a program written in a
particular high level language, into
the machine language.
1 An interpreter is also a program that
serves the purpose of translating one
instruction at a time.
2 If a compiler is used, the same
program needs to be translated only
once. Therefore, the object program
be loaded into main storage and
executed.
2 If an interpreter is used, the source
program will be translated every time
the program is executed.
3 Compiler produces list of errors
during the compilation of source
program.
3 If an interpreter language program
contains an error or error then lots of
efforts and time is required for searching
of error.

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4 Compilers are time consuming
where rapid changers are required in
program.
4 They are good where frequent changes
are required in programs.
OBJECT PROGRAM SOURCE PROGRAM
1 Translated program are known as
object program.
1 Original program is called the source
program.
2 Object program cannot be executed
by translators.
2 Source program can be executed.
INTERNAL COMMANDS EXTERNAL COMMANDS
1 Internal commands are the simplest
and most commonly used
commands. These commands reside
in the ROM.
1 These commands reside on disk as
program files. They must be read from a
disk before they can be executed.
2 These commands are part of a large
file COMMAND.COM. When uses
type any internal commands, they
execute immediately. Some
Examples are CLS, DATE, TIME
etc.
2 Any file name with extension of COM,
EXE, BAT, SYS etc. are considered as
external commands. For example
FORMAT.COM, DISKCOPY.COM
etc. are external commands.
MAGNETIC DISK MAGNETIC TAPE
1 Magnetic disk is used to store data
randomly.
1 Magnetic tape is used to store data
sequentially.
2 Magnetic disk is comparatively
expensive.
2 Magnetic tape is very cheap and
inexpensive.
3 It provides large capacity for the
storage of data.
3 It provides low storage capacity.
4 In magnetic disks, hard disk cannot
be easily transported.
4 Magnetic tape can easily be transported.
5 The disks can easily be used in
home.
5 Magnetic tape cannot be easily used.
SOFT COPY HARD COPY
1 It displays the data on screen of
monitor.
1 The data is printed on paper card etc.
with the help of printer.
2 It can be carried in a floppy disk. 2 It cannot be carried in a floppy disk.
3 A change can be made in a soft
copy.
3 No change can be made in a hard copy.
MICRO COMPUTER MINI COMPUTER
1 It is a small computer based on a
micro processor.
1 Mini computers are at least five times
faster than micro computers.
2 One user can use it at a time. 2 More than one person can use at a time.
3 These are very low priced
computers. An individual can afford
it.
3 These are expensive computers. Small
and medium size organizations can
afford it.
4 User-friendly softwares are used to
operate this computer.
4 Special softwares operate these
computers.
ANALOG COMPUTER DIGITAL COMPUTER
1 Analog computer works with
continuous type of data and use a
physical quantity.
1 A digital computer works with data in
terms of discrete number or digit.
2 These computers are mainly made
of electrical devices like resistors,
amplifiers and transistors.
2 These computers are also made of
electrical devices and perform
arithmetic calculations and conclusion
on the basis of those calculations.
3 Analog computers basically solve
ordinary equation and can be used
in solution of those problems which
can be converted to ordinary
differential equations.
3 A digital computer manipulates data
according to the instruction or program
given to it in a certain computer
language.

59

4 Analog computers are very fast in
processing and are used for real
time simulation.
4 Digital computers are easy to program
and are in general purpose use.
THIRD GENERATION
COMPUTERS
FOURTH GENERATION
COMPUTERS
1 Integrated circuits (ICs) on silicon
chips are used for internal
operations.
1 Chips were used for central processing
unit and memory.
2 Increase in speed and their
processors were operated in nano
second speed range.
2 The microprocessors were developed.
3 Increase in primary storage capacity
up to 4 mega bytes.
4 Increase in primary storage devices and
disks were used as secondary storage
device.
4 Reduction in size and cost. Very compact and smallest in size.
5 Common use of mini computers. 5 Micro and super computers were
introduced.
IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
1 These printers print by striking the
ribbon against the paper.
1 These printers produce the output result
on the paper without striking the paper.
2 Due to striking these printers
produce lots of noise.
2 Due to non-striking nature, these
printers are quiet.
3 These printers are slow in speed. 3 These printers are much faster than the
impact printers.
4 These printers are available at very
low cost.
4 These printers are comparatively
expensive than impact printers.
ROOT STEM
1 The root is a descending organ
which is found inside the soil.
1 Stem is and ascending organ which is
found outside the soil.
2 It is away from light. 2 It is close to light.
3 There are no buds in the roots. 3 A number of buds is present in the stem.
4 It is non-green part of the plant. 4 It is green part of plant.
5 Root cap is present at the end of
root.
5 Stem has no root cap but buds are
present.
6 The hairs present in the rood are
unicellular.
6 The hairs present in stem are multi
cellular.
7 Nodes are not present. 7 Nodes are present.
DICOT STEM MONOCOT STEM
1 In dicot stem, pericycle is broken. 1 In monocot stem, pericycle in not
broken.
2 There are few vascular bundles. 2 There are many vascular bundles.
3 The vascular bundles are open. 3 The vascular bundles are closed.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION EXOTHERMIC REACTION
1 Endothermic reactions are those
reactions which require abundance
of heat.
1 Exothermic reactions are those reactions
which do not require much heat or
energy.
2 The consume heat & energy. 2 These reactions liberate heat.
3 The example of endothermic
reaction is the formation of nitrogen
monoxide fro its elements.
3 Burning of carbon is an example of
exothermic reaction.
NUCLEAR FUSION NUCLEAR FISSION
1 Nuclear fusion is the process in
which lighter atoms fuse together.
1 Nuclear fission is process in which
heavier atom split.
2 This process produces heavier
elements
2 The process does not produce heavier
elements.

60

3 Nuclear fusion does not yield
energy.
3 Nuclear fission yield energy.
4 It is very difficult to occur on the
earth.
4 It can occur on the earth.
5 It is nuclear waste free process. 5 It involves nuclear waste and create
nuclear waste problem.
CU ALU
1 It stands for Control unit. 1 It is stands for arithmetic logic unit.
2 Control Unit controls overall
activities of computer.
2 It performs arithmetic and logical
operations.
3 CU does not perform functions of
Calculation.
3 ALU performs functions of addition,
subtraction, multiplication & division.
HYDROSTATICS HYDRODYNAMICS
1 Hydrostatics is a branch of science
which deals with physical behaviour
of liquids at rest.
1 Hydrodynamics is the branch of science
which deals which behaviour of liquids
in motion.
APES MONKEYS
1 Apes does not have tail 1 Monkeys have tail.
2 Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orangutan or
Gibbon is an example of apes.
2 Monkeys are example.
BARRAGE DAM
1 Barrages are constructed not at a
much height but at a low height.
1 Dams are constructed at lighter
elevation or at a height.
2 Barrages are single purpose
constructions i.e. for irrigation.
2 Dam is multipurpose. It acts as
reservoir, controls flood, and for
irrigation.
3 Electricity cannot be produced in
barrages.
3 Dam is constructed to generate
electricity.
4 It is constructed on plains. 4 It is impossible at ground level.
5 Sukkar Barrage is an example. 4 Tarbella dam is an example.
ISOBAR ISOTOPE
1 In geographical terms ISOBAR is
line which joins the places of same
atoms pheric pressure at sea level at
a particularly time.
Isotopes are the different form of
elements which have the same atomic
number i.e. electrons and protons but
different atoms weight.
AUTOPSY BIOPSY
1 Autopsy is a form of medical
examination in which examination
of tissues and organs of dead body
is performed
1 Biopsy is examination of tumour cells. It
is performed in order to investigate the
nature of a tumour.
2 Autopsy is performed for medico-
legal purpose.
2 Biopsy is performed for diagnosis
purposes.
CARDIAC MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE
1 Cardiac muscle is present in the
heart only.
1 Skeletal muscles are present in the
skeleton of the body.
2 Cardiac muscles have a centrally-
placed nucleus.
2 Nuclei are not centrally placed in
skeletal muscles.
3 Cardiac muscles never fatigue. 3 Skeletal muscles can fatigue.
4 It is composed of long fibers. 4 It is not composed of long fibers.
5 It is under involuntary control. 5 It is under voluntary control.
HAZE SMOG
1 The dust particles, smoke etc that
may be visible in atmosphere close
to the earths surface is known as
1 It is mixture of solid and liquid fog as
well as particles of smoke. It is formed
when humidity is high.

61

Haze.
2 It is not affect natural visibility. 2 Smog reduces visibility.
3 It does not occur particularly near
coastal arrears.
3 It occurs near costal areas.
SMALL POX MEASLES
1 It is caused by a virus called
Variola.
1 It is caused by a virus known as
paramyxovirus.
2 It is a viral airborne infection. 2 It is a highly contagious disease.
3 It is characterized by eruptions of
the skin.
3 It is characterized by small red dots of
the skin.
4 Infections of middle ear may not
occur.
4 Infection of middle ear may also occur.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS EXOCRINE CTLANDS
1 Endocrine glands are known as
ductless glands.
1 Exocrine glands are known as ducted
glands.
2 They discharge their secretions
directly into the blood.
2 They do not discharge their secretions in
the blood.
3 The major endocrine glands are:
.Pituitary Glands .Pancreas .Ovaries
.Testes .Adrenal Glands.
3 Typical examples of Exocrine glands
are: . Lachrymal glands .Sweat glands
.Salivary glands .Sebaceous glands.
TELESCOPE MICROSCOPE
1 Telescope is a device which is used
to view the distant and fainted
objects.
1 It is the instrument which is used to
obtain magnified image of minute
objects.
2 Telescope is typically used to
observe the skies.
2 It is typically used to observe minute
objects.
INOCULATION VACCINATION
1 Inoculation is the introduction of a
germ of a disease into body which
produce mild form of disease in
order to prevent the body from its
attack.
1 Vaccination is the process of
introduction of serum of antigens in the
body in order to provide the body with
immunity against specific-type of
organism.
VACCINE ANTIBIOTIC
1 Vaccines are those substances
which are used to prevent a disease
from occurring.
1 Antibiotics are those chemicals which
either kill or retard the growth of micro-
organisms.
2 Vaccines do not kill micro
organisms.
2 Antibiotics kill micro-organisms.
3 Vaccines are not used frequently,
but they are scheduled at a fixed
time interval.
3 Antibiotics are used frequently.
4 Most popular examples are Polio
Vaccines, BCG and DPT.
4 Examples of antibiotics are
Cotriamaxole, Cephradine, and
Ciprofloxacin.
CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON
1 It is an alloy of carbon & silicon
with iron & it is impure form of
iron.
1 It is the purest form of iron.
2 It contains 2-3 % Carbon. 2 Carbon rarely exceeds 0.25%.
ANABOLISM CATABOLISM
1 Anabolism is the constructive
process of metabolic reactions.
1 Catabolism is the destructive process of
the metabolic reactions.
2 In anabolism unstable smaller
chemical components combine to
form a bigger stable molecule.
2 In catabolism bigger organic molecules
are broken down into unstable smaller
chemical components.
3 Anabolism reserves energy. 3 Catabolism provides energy.

62

ACUTE DISEASE CHRONIC DISEASE
1 The disease which usually begins
abruptly and is soon over is known
as acute disease.
1 The disease which usually begins slowly
and persists over a longer time is known
chronic disease.
2 Example: Acute Abdominal Pain 2 Example: Chronic Liver disease.
AIRBORNE DISEASES WATERBORNE DISEASE
1 The diseases which are transported
or transmitted through air are called
airborne disease.
1 The diseases which are transmitted by
contaminated water are classified as
waterborne diseases.
2 The typical examples of borne
disease are:
Tuberculoses
Pneumonia
Small Pox etc.

2 The typical example of water borne
disease are:
Dysentery
Diarrhoea
Typhoid etc.
EROSION WEATHERING
1 The wearing of the fertile layer of
the lands by the erosion agents is
known as erosion.
1 The mechanical breakdown of the rocks
is known as the weathering.
2 The main agents of erosion are wind
and water.
2 The main agents of weathering are the
sun, rainfall, wind etc.
3 Erosion does not take place due to
increase or decrease in temperature.
3 Weathering takes place due to frequent
changes in temperature.
OIL GHEE
1 It contains unsaturated fatty acids. 1 Ghee contains un-saturated fatty acids.
2 Oil cannot be in solid state. 2 Ghee is in the solid state.
TROPOSPHERE TROPOPAUSE
1 Troposphere is the region of the
atmosphere near the earth. It is
about 10 mile thick. It contains dust,
moisture, & Co2.
1 Tropopause is the boundary between the
troposphere and the stratosphere region
of the atmosphere.
PHOBIA MANIA
1 Phobia is a psychological disorder. 1 Mania is a mental disorder.
2 Phobia is persistent abnormal fear,
combined with other word elements
to designate fear of the thing
indicated.
2 It is the disorder of mental state of
extreme excitement.
3 It Includes Hydrophobia,
Claustrophobia, agoraphobia etc.
3 It Includes emotionality elation &
fighting ideas.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
1 Electrocardiograph is the instrument
which records movements of the
heart beat.
1 Electrocardiogram is the printed record
of the movements of the heart beat.
2 Electrocardiograph is an electronic
machine.
2 It is the peace of paper & record of heart
beats.
CENTRE OF MASS CENTRE OF GRAVITY
1 Centre of mass is that point of the
body where if force is applied, the
body undergoes translatory motion.
1 The centre of gravity is the point of the
body, through which the weight of the
body acts.
2 Centre of mass is related to the mass
of the body.
2 It is related to the weight of the body.
MASS WEIGHT
1 The quantity of matter contained by
a body is known as mass.
1 The force by which the earth attracts a
of body towards its centre is called
weight.

63

2 The value of mass is always
constant.
2 The value of weight changes from place
to place.
3 Mass is a scalar quantity. 3 Weight is the vector quantity.
4 For determination of its value,
common balance is used.
4 For determination its value, spring
balance is used.
CARBON CYCLE NITROGEN CYCLE
1 Carbon cycle is the sequence by
which carbon circulates in the
natural world & then recycled.
1 Nitrogen cycle is the sequence of
circulation of nitrogen in the ecosystem.
2 This is totally related to carbon. 2 This cycle is totally related to nitrogen.
3 In carbon cycle the CO2 of the
atmosphere is absorbed by the
plants and oxygen is released.
3 In nitrogen cycle, fixation of free
nitrogen of atmosphere takes place. This
process is especially carried out by
bacteria.
4 This process is carried out by plants. 4 This process is carried out by bacteria.
NEURONS NEUTRONS
1 Neurons are present in the Nervous
system of the body.
1 Neutrons are particles which are present
inside the atom.
2 Neurons transport impulses. 2 Neutrons do not transport impulses.
CLIMATE WEATHER
1 Climate is the normal weather
conditions for an area during a
season or a year.
1 Weather is the condition of the
atmosphere at any on place & time.
2 Climate of an area is described by
means of an average of the statistics
of the various weather factors over a
period of time, normally 10-years.
2 Weather is described by air, temperature
and humidity, wind speed & direction;
cloud amount & precipitation, sunshine
& visibility.
SPINAL CORD VERTEBRAL COLUMN
1 Spinal Cord is the part of central
nervous system.
1 Vertebral Column is the part of main
skeleton of the body.
2 It is the extension of medulla
oblongata without any bone.
2 It is not the extension of spinal cord. It
is totally composed of bones.
3 It lies under vertebral column. 3 It Covers the spinal cord.
4 Spinal Cord conveys impulses to the
brain.
4 It does convey impulses to the brain.
CEREBRAL NERVES SPINAL NERVES
1 Cerebral nerves are those nerves
which originate from the brain.
1 Spinal nerves are those nerves which
originate from spinal cord.
2 There are twelve pairs of cerebral
nerves.
2 The number of spinal nerves is thirty
one pairs.
3 Cerebral nerves control the
functions of vital organs of the body
like heart, stomach, liver etc.
3 The Spinal nerves control the
movements of legs, arms and skin etc.
THALAMUS HYPOTHALAMUS
1 Thalamus serves as a relay station. 1 It serves as the centre of visceral
reflexes.
2 It receives almost all impulses
arriving from different sensory
areas of the body before passing
them to the cerebrum.
2 It plays a major role in controlling and
integration of general metabolism, body
temperature, water balance, appetite &
sleep etc.
SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
1 Some times the pollen grains fall on
to the stigmas of the same flower
and pollination occurs. This type of
pollination is known as self
pollination.
1 More often the pollens are conveyed
either by wind, insects or some other
agent, to a flower of another plant that is
known as cross pollination.

64

DELTA ESTUARY
1 Delta is a triangular shaped tract of
land which is formed by different
and numerous branches of water at
the mouth of river.
1 Estuary is the tidal mouth of a large
river.
THALAMUS HYPOTHALAMUS
1 Thalamus serves as a relay station. 1 It serves as the centre of visceral
reflexes.
2 It receives almost all impulses
arriving from different sensory
areas of the body before passing
them to the cerebrum.
2 It plays a major role in controlling and
integration general metabolism, body
temperature, water balance, appetite &
sleep etc.
UNIFORM VELOCITY AVERAGE VELOCITY
1 In case of uniform velocity the
speed and the direction both remain
same throughout the motion.
1 In case of average velocity, either the
speed or the direction or both
simultaneously change throughout the
motion.
2 In case of uniform velocity, velocity
remains same in all equal interval of
time.
2 In case of average velocity, velocity
does not remain same in all equal
interval of time.
3 Uniform velocity can be found by
dividing any displacement to time
for that displacement.
3 Average velocity can be found by
dividing total displacement to total time
taken by the body.
4 The graph of uniform velocity is a
straight line.
4 The graph of average velocity is not a
straight line.
UNIFORM VELOCITY VARIABLE VELOCITY
1 In case of uniform velocity the
speed and the direction both remain
same throughout the motion.
1 In case of variable velocity, either
speed, or direction changes. Or both
change simultaneously.
2 In case of uniform velocity, velocity
remains same in all equal interval of
time.
2 In case of variable velocity, the velocity
does not remain same in all equal
interval of time.
3 Uniform velocity can be found by
dividing any piece of displacement
to time for that displacement. It will
be equal.
3 Variable velocity can be found by
dividing any piece of displacement to
time for that displacement, but it never
be equal or same.
4 In case of uniform velocity the
magnitude of velocity and the speed
both remain same.
4 In case of variable velocity the velocity
and speed never be same.
REAL IMAGE VIRTUAL IMAGE
1 It is always inverted. 1 It is always erect.
2 It can be seen on an screen. 2 It cannot be seen on a screen.
3 If the rays after the reflection or
refraction meet at a real point then
the image point is called real image.
3 If the rays after reflection or refraction
do not meet at a real point but appear to
come from this point, then such image is
called vertical image.
4 It exists physically. 4 It does not exist physically.
A.C. D.C.
1 A.C. stands for alternating current. 1 D.C. stands for direct currents.
2 A.C. is obtained by a resistor is
connected in series with a source of
alternating voltage.
2 D.C. is obtained by connecting the two
ends of a conductor to the terminals of a
battery.
3 It direction continuously change. 3 It direction remains unchanged.
4 It is obtained by the help of
generators.
4 It is obtained by a cell or chemical
reaction.
5 Its transportation from one point to
another is very easy.
5 Its transportation is very difficult.
6 It has a certain frequency at
Pakistan is 50 Hz.
6 IT has no frequency.
7 No voltage drops takes in the times 7 Great voltage drop takes place at the

65

of transportation if so, it over comes
easily.
times of transportation.
8 It is not too dangerous. 8 IT is too dangerous.
9 It is cheaper then D.C. 9 It is expensive.
10 It changes very high to low or vice
versa.
10 It cannot change easily.
11 It changes its direction continuously
as +y and y.
11 It is unidirectional.
SPEED VELOCITY
1 Speed is rate of change of
DISTANCE with respect to time.
1 VELOCITY is rate of change of
DISPLACEMENT with respect to time.
2 It is specified by magnitude and
suitable unit only. Direction is not
required.
2 It is specified by magnitude, suitable
unit along with proper direction.
3 It is a scalar. 3 IT is a vector.
AVERAGE SPEED AVERAGE VELOCITY
1 It is average of speed. 1 It is average of velocity.
2 It can be found by dividing total
DISTANCE to total time.
2 It can be dividing total
DISPLACEMENT to total time.
3 It is a scalar. 3 It is a vector.
4 It has no direction. 4 It has particular direction.
5 It is rate of change of DISTANCE. 5 It is rate of change of
DISPLACEMENT.
MASS WEIGHT
1 The quantity of matter in a body is
called mass. It is measurement of
inertia possessed by a body. It is the
property of body which determines
the acceleration produced in it
under the influence of a given force
i.e.=f/m.
1 Weight is a force with which earth
attracts a body towards its centre. If
mass of a body is m and acceleration
due to gravity g, its weight w is given by
W=mg.
2 Mass is a scalar quantity. It has no
direction.
2 Weight is always directed to centre of
earth. It is a vector quantity.
3 The mass of body is remains
constant every where. Whether it is
measured at a point for away from
the centre of the earth or very close
to its centre.
3 The weight of a body is not a constant
quantity as its value is different quantity
as its value is different at different
distance from the centre of the earth.
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
1 Distance is the measure of path
travelled between two points.
1 Displacement is the measure of straight
lined path between two points.
2 It is completely specified by
magnitude and suitable unit.
2 It is completely specified by magnitude,
suitable unit and proper direction.
3 Distance mostly occurs in a curved
path some time may be straight
path.
3 Displacement never be curved, it is
always a straight line.
4 It is a scalar physical quantity or
Scalar.
4 It is a vector physical quantity or
vector.
TRANSVERSE WAVES LONGITUDINAL WAVES
1 These are the waves in which the
displacement of particles of
medium is at right angle to the
direction of wave propagation.
1 These are the waves in which the
displacement of particles is paralleled to
direction of wave propagation.
2 These consist of crest and troughs. 2 They consist of compression and
rarefaction.
3 Rigidity of medium is necessary for
their propagation.
3 Rigidity of medium is not necessary for
their propagation.
4 Their velocity depends upon. I-
Tension. II. Mass per unit length of
medium.
4 Their velocity depends upon. I .Density
of medium. II .Elasticity of medium.
REGULAR REFLECTION IRREGULAR REFLECTION

66

1 Regular reflection occurs when
parallel rays of light strike with an
ideal smooth plane surface.
1 Irregular reflection occurs when parallel
rays of light strike with an irregular non
smooth surface.
2 In regular reflection parallel rays of
light remain parallel after reflection.
2 In case of irregular reflection parallel
rays of light does not remain parallel
after reflection.
KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY
1 Formula of KE=1/2 m V2. 1 Formula of PE=mgh.
2 It is defined as energy possessed by
a body due to its motion.
2 It is defined as energy possessed by a
body by the virtue of its position.
3 It increases with increase in velocity
mass keeping constant.
3 It increases with increase in altitude
(height) keeping mass constant.
4 It is directly proportional to mass
and square of velocity.
4 It is directly proportional to mass, height
and gravitational acceleration.
Difference between concave and
convex mirror.

CONCAVE MIRROR CONVEX MIRROR
1 In concave mirror the bulging side
is polished.
1 In convex mirror the hollow or concave
side in polishes.
2 In concave mirror the reflection
occurs from its hollow side.
2 In a convex mirror the hollow or
concave at the bulging side.
3 They converge the parallel rays at a
point.
3 They diverge the parallel rays from a
point.
4 They can from real and imaginary
both images.
4 They can from only virtual image.
FORCE ENERGY
1 Formula of force F=ma. 1 Formula of energy E= FS.
2 It is a vector. 2 It is a scalar.
3 It is defined as an agent who stops
or moves or tends to stop or move a
body.
3 It is defined as capability of doing some
work.
4 Its unit is Newton (N). 4 Its unit is Joule (J).
5 It is directly proportional to mass
and acceleration.
5 It is directly proportional to force and
displacement.
HEAT TEMPERATURE
1 Heat is the sum of all energies
which a body possesses.
1 Temperature is the average of all
energies which a body possesses.
2 The S.I. unit of heat is Joule. (J). 2 The greater and lover amount of same
The S.I unit of temperature is Kelvin.
(K)
3 Greater amount of boiling water has
greater amount of heat and lover
amount has lower heat.
3 The greater and lower amount of same
boiling water has same temperature.
4 Heat depends on the amount of
substance.
4 Temperature is not dependent to amount
of substance.
5 It is an extensive property. 5 It is an intensive property.
6 The heat of a body remains constant
due to variation of pressure.
6 The temperature of a body varies with
pressure.
7 It is measured by means of
calorimeter.
7 It is measured by means of
thermometer.
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
1 Energy evolves in the form of heat. 1 Energy involves in the form of heat.
2 The system becomes warmer. 2 The system becomes cooler.
3 The potential energy of the product
decreases.
3 The potential energy of the product
increases.
4 System losses energy. 4 System gain energy.
5 AH is added at the product side of
the balance equation.
5 AH is added at the reactant side of the
balance equation.
6 It proceeds better when heat is
discarded.
6 It proceeds better when heat is supplied.
ELECTROLYTES NON-ELECTROLYTES

67

1 They ionize or dissociate into
negative and positive ions.
1 They do not ionize.
2 They are mostly ionic compounds. 2 They are covalent compounds.
3 They conduct electric current from
their solutions.
3 They do not conduct electric current
from their solutions.
4 Mostly they are inorganic
compounds.
4 Mostly they are organic compounds.
ATOMIC MASS MOLECULAR MASS
1 Atomic mass stands for atoms of an
element.
1 Molecular mass stands for molecule
specially molecule of a compound.
2 Atomic mass of an atom is the sum
of neutrons and proton present in an
atom.
Ex: Atomic mass of Oxygen = 16
a.m.u.
Ex: Atomic mass of Nitrogen = 16
a.m.u.
2 Molecular mass is the sum of atomic
masses which are present in a molecule.
Ex: Molecular mass of Oxygen = 32
a.m.u.
Ex: Molecular mass of N2 = 28 a.m.u.
SYMBOL FORMULA
1 A symbol stands for an element. 1 A formula stands for a compound.
2 It is an abbreviated name of an
element.
2 It is an abbreviation name of a
compound.
3 Symbol informs only the name of
atom of an element.
3 The formula of a compound indicates
actual number of each atom of elements
with their valencies and molecular mass.
Ex: H2O, CO2, Hcl etc.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR FORMULA
1 The simplest formula of a
compound is known as empirical
formula.
1 The actual formula of a compound is
known as molecular formula.
2 Empirical formula shows the
simplest ratio of different atoms of
a compound.
Ex: Empirical formula of Benzene
is = CH
2 Molecular formula shows the exact
number of different atoms of a
compound.
Ex: Molecular formula of Benzene = C6
C6
3 By the empirical formula we can
get empirical formula weight/mass.
3 By the molecular formula we can get
molecular weight/mass.
4 Empirical formula is obtained by
experiment.
4 Molecular formula is obtained by
multiplication of the Empirical formula
by a number n
Molecular formula = (Empirical
formula)n
GRAM ATOM GRAM MOLECULES
1 Gram Atom stands for elements
only.
1 Gram molecule stands for both the
elements and compounds.
2 It is atomic mass expressed in gram. 2 It is molecular and formula expressed in
gram.
3 One gram atom means 6.023 x 1023
atoms.
3 One gram molecules mean 6.023 x 1023
molecules.
4 It is equal to one mole of atom 16g
= 1 mole Oxygen atom.
4 It is equal to one mole of molecule.
32g = 1 mole of Oxygen molecule.
CELSIUS SCALE FAHRENHEIT SCALE
1 It is unit of temperature in CGS
system and MKS system.
1 It is unit of temperature in BE system.
2 1C = 1.8 F 2 1 F = C/1.8
3 Freezing point of pure water is 0C. 3 Freezing point of pure water is 32F.
4 Boiling point of pure water is
100C.
4 Boling Boiling point of water 212F.
5 The interval between the freezing
and boiling point of pure water is
divided into 100 equal parts.
5 The interval between the freezing and
boiling point pure water is divided into
180 equal parts.

68

6 The absolute zero of this scale is
-273.16C.
6 The absolute zero of this scale is -460F.
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
1 All physical components of
computer, which can be touched,
measured have weight and occupy
space are collectively called
compute hardware etc.
1 Software can be defined as a set of
instructions or codes written in a defined
manner. In other words softwares are
prewritten programs, which control the
operation of computer.
2 Examples of hardware are:
Keyboard
Mouse
Joy stick
Scanners
Monitor
Printer
CPU etc.
2 Examples of softwares are:
DOS
Windows
UNIX
XENIX
Linus
Java
Oracle etc.
MIXTURE COMPOUND
1 It is an impure substance. 1 It is a pure substance.
2 It can be separated into its
components by simple physical
methods.
2 It can not be separated by physical
methods.
3 Its composition is not fixed. 3 Its composition is fixed.
4 The melting and boiling points of a
mixture are not sharp.
4 The melting and boiling points of a
compound are sharp and it is criteria of
purity.
5 The properties of a mixture are sum
of those of its individual
constituents.
5 The properties of a compound differ
entirely form those of its component
elements.
6 Usually heat does not evolve or
involve when a mixture is formed.
6 Head must evolve or involve when a
compound in formed.
7 No chemical bond is formed
between the components of mixture.
7 Chemical bonds are formed between
components of compounds.
8 They may or may not be
homogeneous.
8 They are always homogenous.
INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES
1 The input devices are those devices
which send data or information to
the central processing unit.
1 The output devices are those devices
which display input data as well as
output to the users.
2 Examples are:
Keyboard
Mouse
Joy stick
Scanners
Camera
Joystick etc.
2 The common examples are:
Monitor
Printer
SYSTEM SOFTWARES APPLICATION SOFTWARES
1 Software which is used to operate
the computer is called system
software. In other words, programs
designed to perform tasks
associated directly for controlling
and usage of computer is called
system softwares.
1 Softwares which enable a user to
perform a specific task are known as the
application softwares.
2 System softwares include languages
and operating system.
2 The application softwares include
General purpose application softwares
and special purpose application
softwares.
3 Examples are:
FORTRAN Language
C Language
C + +
3 Examples are:
Word Star
MS Word
MS Excel

69

Visual Basic
Disk Operating System
UNIX
Windows etc.
MS Power Point etc.
METALS NON-METALS
1 Metals have particular lustre on
their surface.
1 Non metals have no such lustre like
surface.
2 Metals are Malleable and ductile. 2 Non metals are brittle.
3 All metals are solid at normal
temperature except mercury which
in liquid.
3 Non metals are found in all three states.
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Chlorine etc. are
gases at normal temperature. Sulphur,
Phosphorous etc. are solid.
4 Metals are good conductor of heat
and electricity.
4 Non metals are poor conductor of heat
and electricity except graphite.
6 They give off a note when hit. They
are sonorous.
6 They are not sonorous.
7 They have relatively high densities. 7 They have relatively low densities.
RAM ROM
1 It stands for random access
memory.
1 It stands for read only memory.
2 It is an optical disk, where data and
information is stored permanently.
2 It is that part of CPU, where temporary
information is stored or it is the media
of storage water data is stored which is
under process.
3 RAM is the primary storage media. 3 ROM is the secondary storage media.
4 RAM is the primary storage device
from which the system boots.
4 System does not boot from ROM.
5 RAM is stored on RAM Chips. 5 ROM is stored on a compact disk.
6 The data or information stored on it
can be written on or it can be
erased.
6 The data or information stored on it
neither be written on, nor it can be
erased.
7 It is the temporary storage media. 7 It is the permanent storage media.
LAN WAN
1 LAN stands for local area network. 1 WAN stands for wide area network.
2 It is a privately owned
communication network that serves
users within a confined
geographical area.
2 It is a communication network that
covers a wide geographical area.
3 The range is usually within a mile
perhaps one office, one building or
a group of buildings.
3 The range is usually a state or country.
Examples are Telenet, Uninet etc.


70


EVERYDAY SCIENCE -- QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. A man with a load jumps from a high building. What will be the load
experienced by him?
Ans. Zero, because while falling, both the man and the load are falling at the same
acceleration i.e. acceleration due to gravity.

2. A piece of chalk when immersed in water emits bubbles. Why?
Ans. Chalk consists of pores forming capillaries. When it is immersed in water, the
water begins to rise in the capillaries and air present there is expelled in the form of
bubbles.

3. Why does a liquid remain hot or cold for a long time inside a thermos flask?
Ans. The presence of air, a poor conductor of heat, between the double glass wall of a
thermos flask, keeps the liquid hot or cold inside a flask for a long time.

4. Why does a ball bounce upon falling?
Ans. When a ball falls, it is temporarily deformed. Because of elasticity, the ball tends
to regain its original shape for which it presses the ground and bounces up (Newton's
Third Law of Motion).

5. Why is standing in boats or double-decker buses not allowed, particularly in the
upper deck of buses?
Ans. On tilting the centre of gravity of the boat or bus is lowered and it is likely to
overturn.

6. Why is it recommended to add salt to water while boiling daal?
Ans. By addition of salt, the boiled point of water gets raised which helps in cooking
the daal sooner.

7. Why is it the boiling point of sea water more than that of pure water?
Ans. Sea water contains salt, and other impurities which cause an elevation in its
boiling point.

8. Why is it easier to spray water to which soap is added?
Ans. Addition of soap decreases the surface tension of water. The energy for spraying
is directly proportional to surface tension.

9. Which is more elastic, rubber or steel?
Ans. Steel is more elastic for the same stress produced compared with rubber.

10. Why is the sky blue?
Ans. Violet and blue light have short waves which are scattered more than red light
waves. While red light goes almost straight through the atmosphere, blue and violet
light are scattered by particles in the atmosphere. Thus, we see a blue sky.

11. Why Does ink leak out of partially filled pen when taken to a higher altitude?
Ans. As we go up, the pressure and density of air goes on decreasing. A Partially filled
pen leaks when taken to a higher altitude because the pressure of air acting on the ink
inside the tube of the pen is greater than the pressure of the air outside.

12. On the moon, will the weight of a man be less or more than his weight on the
earth?
Ans. The gravity of the moon is one-sixth that of the earth; hence the weight of a
person on the surface of the moon will be one-sixth of his actual weight on earth.

13. Why do some liquid burn while others do not?
Ans. A liquid burns if its molecules can combine with oxygen in the air with the
production of heat. Hence, oil burns but water does not.



71

14. Why can we see ourselves in a mirror?
Ans. We see objects when light rays from them reach our eyes. As mirrors have a shiny
surface, the light rays are reflected back to us and enter our eyes.

15. Why does a solid chunk of iron sink in water but float in mercury?
Ans. Because the density of iron is more than that of water bus less than that of
mercury.

16. Why is cooking quicker in a pressure cooker?
Ans. As the pressure inside the cooker increases, the boiling point of water is raised,
hence, the cooking process is quicker.

17. When wood burns it crackles. Explain?
Ans. Wood contains a complex mixture of gases and tar forming vapors trapped under
its surface. These gases and tar vapors escape, making a cracking sound.

18. Why do stars twinkle?
Ans. The light from a star reaches us after refraction as it passes through various layers
of air. When the light passes through the earths atmosphere, it is made to flicker by the
hot and cold ripples of air and it appears as if the stars are twinkling.

19. Why is it easier to roll a barrel than to pull it?
Ans. Because the rolling force of friction is less than the dynamic force of sliding
friction.

20. If a feather, a wooden ball and a steel ball fall simultaneously in a vacuum,
which one of these would fall faster?
Ans. All will fall at the same speed in vacuum because there will be no air resistance
and the earths gravity will exert a similar gravitational pull on all.

21. When a man fires a gun, he is pushed back slightly. Why?
Ans. As the bullet leaves the nozzle of the guns barrel with momentum in a forward
direction, as per Newton's Third Law of Motion, the ejection imparts to the gun as
equal momentum in a backward direction.

22. Ice wrapped in a blanket or saw dust does not melt quickly. Why?
Ans. Both wood and wool are bad conductors of heat. They do not permit heat rays to
reach the ice easily.

23. Why do we perspire on a hot day?
Ans. When the body temperature rises, the sweat glands are stimulated to secrete
perspiration. It is nature's way to keep the body cool. During the process of evaporation
of sweat, body heat is taken away, thus giving a sense of coolness.

24. Why does ice float on water but sink in alcohol?
Ans. Because ice is lighter than water it floats on it. However, ice is heavier than
alcohol and therefore it sinks in alcohol.

25. Why do we perspire before rains?
Ans. Before the rain falls, the atmosphere gets saturated with water vapors; as a result,
the process of evaporation of sweat is delayed.

26. How do birds sit safely on electric power lines?
Ans. This is possible because a bird only touches one line. If the bird were to touch
another line or pole the electricity would travel through the bird, either to the ground or
another wire.

27. Why does a rider feel a tendency to fall when the horse starts running of stops
suddenly?
Ans. This is caused by inertia. When the horse starts running, the rider, being at rest,
falls back. When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider being in motion has a
tendency to fall ahead.

72


28. Why does a person carrying a bucket full of water in his right hand bend
towards the left?
Ans. He bends towards his left so that the centre of gravity falls within the base. This
enables him to keep up balance, otherwise he may fall.

29. Why does tea cool more rapidly in a saucer than in a cup?
Ans. In a saucer evaporation takes place more rapidly than in a cup. Cooling is caused
by evaporation.

30. Ice packed in sawdust does not melt quickly. Why?
Ans. Ice packed in sawdust does not melt quickly, because sawdust being bad
conductor, it cuts the heat rays.

31. Why do you heat a metal rim before fitting it to a wheel?
Ans. By heating, the rim expands and fits easily over a slightly bigger radius than that
of the rim. On being cooled it contracts and has a firm grip on the wheel.

32. Why do wet clothes dry slowly on a rainy day?
Ans. On a rainy day the atmosphere air contains more water vapor than on a dry day
and hence evaporation is slower.

33. Why does a substance thrown up come to the ground?
Ans. Because of the gravitational force of the earth.

34. Why does moisture gather outside of a glass of cold water on a warm day?
Ans. The temperature of the outer surface of glass of cold water is lower than that of its
surroundings. The vapor in the surrounding atmosphere gets condensed on the outer
surface of the water appears in the forms of tiny particles of water.

35. What happens to iron when it rusts?
Ans. It reacts with the oxygen of the air and forms iron-oxide which is the rust.

36. How would you distinguish between welding and soldering?
Ans. Welding is the joining of metals by raising the temperature of the metals to fuse
them together by melting their ends. Soldering is the joining of metals with the help of
an alloy called solder.

37. How does a ball which falls down, bounce up?
Ans. It is due to the operation of Newtons Third Law of motion. To every action there
is equal and opposite reaction. A ball falling to the ground is slightly deformed. Due to
the elastic force of the material of which the ball is made, the ball tries to recover its
original shape. In doing so it forces the ground which pushes the ball upward due to
reaction and the ball bounces up.

38. An iron nail floats on mercury but sinks in water. Give reasons.
Ans. The specific density of iron is lower than of mercury, hence it floats on mercury,
while it is higher than that of water, and hence it sinks in water.

39. How do you convert Centigrade in to Fahrenheit?
Ans. With the help of the following formula C/100 = F-32/180

40. It is advisable to work electric appliances when they are earthed suitably.
Why?
Ans. In case of short-circuiting, the current passes to the earth without harming the
user, if an electrical appliance is properly earthed.

41. How does a refrigerator keep food fresh?
Ans. Food is kept fresh so long as fermentation does not set in; refrigeration prevents
fermentation by providing low temperature.



73

42. Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quickly. Why?
Ans. Blanket being bad conductor of heat prevents the outside heat from creeping
inside.

43. Why can a petrol fire not be extinguished by throwing water on it?
Ans. The heat of the petrol fire is so intense that the water thrown on it gets evaporated
and decomposed. Hence it is not effective in extinguishing the petrol fire.

44. A train stops when the chain is pulled. Why?
Ans. When the chain is pulled, one small valve gets opened and air/atmospheric
pressure is admitted to the under side of the piston head of the brake cylinder through
pipe connection. Initially there is vacuum on both top and bottom side of the piston
head. When the air/atmospheric pressure enters the under side of the piston head, the
piston raises up due to difference of pressure and pulls the brake rigging to which it is
connected with links and levers. Thus the brakes are applied and the train stops.

45. Why is a new quilt warmer than an old one?
Ans. In a new quilt the cotton is not compressed and as such it encloses more air which
is bad conductor of heat. Therefore, it does not allow heat to pass.

46. Curved rail tracks or curved roads are banked or raised on one side. Why?
Ans. Because a fast moving train or vehicle leans inwards while taking turn and the
banked or raised track provides required centripetal force to enable it to move round the
curve.

47. How do bats fly in dark?
Ans. When bats fly they produce ultrasonic sound waves which are reflected back to
them from the obstacles in their way and hence they can fly without difficulty.

48. Water pipes often burst at hill stations on cold frosty nights. Why?
Ans. The temperature may fall below 00C during cold frosty nights which converts the
water inside the pipes into ice, resulting in an increase in volume. This exerts great
force on the pipes and as a result, they burst.

49. Why are white clothes more comfortable in summer than dark or black ones?
Ans. White clothes are good reflectors and bad absorbers of heat, whereas dark or black
clothes are good absorbers of heat. Therefore, white clothes are more comfortable
because they do not absorb heat from the sun rays.

50. Why does a rose appear red grass green in daylight?
Ans. Rose absorbs all the constituent colors of white light except red which is reflected
to us. Similarly, grass absorbs all colors except green which is reflected t us.

51. Why does a ship rise as it enters the sea from a river?
Ans. The density of sea water is high due to impurities and salts compared to river
water as a result; the upthurst produced by the sea water on the ship is more than that of
river water.

52. Why are fuse provided in electric installations?
Ans. A safety fuse is made of a wire of metal having a very low melting point. When
excess current flows in, the wire gets heated, melts and breaks the circuit. By breaking
the circuit it saves electric equipment or installations from damage by excessive flow of
current.

53. Why is it easier to lift a heavy object under water than in air?
Ans. Because when a body is immersed in water, it experiences an upward thrust
(Archimedes? Principle) and loses weight equal to the weight of the water displaced by
its immersed potion, and hence, is easier to lift objects.

54. Question: If a highly pumped up bicycle tyre is left in the hot sunlight, it
bursts. Why?
Ans. The air inside the tube increases in volume when heated up. As sufficient space

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for the expansion of the air is not available because the tube is already highly pumped,
it may result in bursting of the tyre.

55. Question: What will be the color of green in blue light?
Ans. Grass will appear dark in color because it absorbs all other colors of the light
except its own green color. The blue light falling on grass will be absorbed by it, and
hence, it will appear dark in color.

56. Question: Why do two eyes give better vision than one?
Ans. Because two eyes do not form exactly similar images and he fusion of these two
dissimilar images in the brain gives three dimensions of the stereoscopic vision.

57. Why does an electric bulb make a bang when it is broken?
Ans. An electric bulb has a partial vacuum. When it is broken, air rushes into take the
place of the vacuum, hence it bangs.

58. Why does ship made of steel float though a steel ball sinks?
Ans. The ship displaces more water then its own weight whereas the weight of the
water displaced by a steel ball is much less than the weight of the steel ball.

59. Why do the stars twinkle?
Ans. The stars seem to twinkle due to two causes. First the light from the stars passes
through several mediums; secondly our vision has a tendency to distract.

60. Why is it easier to swim in a sea than in a river?
Ans. The density of the sea water is higher than the density of the river water.

61. Why is hot soup tastier than the colder one?
Ans. As temperature is increased, surfaced tension decreases and the liquid now
occupies more area. Thus the hot soup occupies more area on the tongue and is,
therefore, more tasty than the colder one.

62. Thick glass tumblers often crack when very hot liquids are poured into them.
Why?
Ans. The inner layer tends to expand more rapidly than the outer layer thus producing
phenomenon of unequal expansion resulting in cracks due to the resulting pressure.

63. Why does water get cooled in an earthen pitcher?
Ans. Pitchers have pores through which water percolate which evaporates. During
evaporation heat is taken away and the water gets cooled.

64. Why do the sky and the water of the ocean look blue?
Ans. The blue part of the sunlight is scattered by the particles of the atmosphere
around, while other parts of light pass through it: that is why the sky looks blue because
of the refraction of the blue light only.

65. Which will reach the ground first: a bullet which is shot horizontally from a
gun or similar bullet thrown upward from the ground?
Ans. Obviously horizontally shot bullet is to come down first. Its direction is
perpendicular to that of gravitational force. So both vectors will not affect each other
but in the case of a bullet shot upward has velocity vector in the opposite direction of
gravitation force. So it will take more time.

66. Why does an iron gain weight on rusting?
Ans. The rusted iron is nothing but iron-oxide. Iron in the presence of moisture absorbs
oxygen from the atmosphere and forms iron oxide. The weight gained is equal to the
weight of oxygen absorbed.

67. Why does hard water not readily form lather with soap?
Ans. Hard water contains the sulphates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium,
which form insoluble compounds with soap. Hence soap does not lather with hard
water.

75


68. Why tare mountains cooler than plains?
Ans. It is so because, firstly, the air on the mountains is rare than that on the plains and
absorbs less heat than the air on the plains, secondly the heat absorbed during the day
on the mountains radiates away more quickly due to the rarity of the air, thirdly, major
portion of the mountains remains in shade.

69. Why is sea-water saline?
Ans. The rivers in the course of their flow and falling into the sea bring with them
deposits of salt this process has been going on for lakhs of years, it makes sea-water
saline.

70. Glass when heated cracks while metal does not?
Ans. Glass being bad conductor of heat only that part is heated which comes into
contact with heat while the other parts remain unaffected. This results in unequal
expansion and hence the tension which cracks the glass. On the other hand, metal is a
good conductor of heat and so all its bulk gets uniformly heated and hence no surface
tension.

71. Why does it not hurt when we cut our nails?
Ans. Nails are the parts of the body which are not connected either with the blood
vessels or cartilage and hence having no relation with the nervous system. Therefore
cutting them does not give pain.

72. A hydrogen balloon rises. Why?
Ans. Hydrogen is lighter than air; the weight of the hydrogen balloon is less than the
weight of the air displaced by it.

73. Why is a compass used as an indicator of direction?
Ans. The magnetic needle of the compass due to the influence of the earths magnetic
field always lies in the north south direction. Hence we can know the direction.

74. Why is a country like Ladakh, it may be very hot in sunshine, but bitterly cold
in shade?
Ans. The atmosphere on great heights like Ladakh is rarefied, which offers little
obstacle to the rays of the sun which are therefore, scorching. But the rarefied air
absorbs little heat from the rays of the sun; therefore, the atmosphere remains cold.
Hence it is very cold in the shade.

75. Why does a straight stick look bent when a part of it is immersed in water?
Ans. The rays of the lights passing from a rare medium to a dense medium change their
course due to refraction, where the rays coming from stick in water come in air at
surface they get displaced away from perpendicular as our eyes see straight way so the
stick seems bent.

76. Why does water boil at a lower temperature on the hills than on the plains?
Ans. The higher the pressure, the higher boiling point: the lower the pressure the lower
the boiling point. The atmosphere pressure on the hills is lower than that on the earth.

77. Why does a piece of iron get rusted if left exposed in the open?
Ans. Iron piece rusts if left exposed in the open because it reacts with the oxygen in the air,
forming iron oxidea compound of Iron and oxygen.

78. Why can petrol fire not be put out with water?
Ans. Petrol is a hydro carbon which remains isolated with water and is having less density. So
when water is poured petrol floats on it and keeps on burning. The temperature of the burning
petrol is so high that the water poured on the petrol fire is evaporated before it extinguishes the
fire.

79. Ice packed with salt does not melt quickly. Why?
Ans. Salt is a bad conductor of heat and protects the ice from the external heat; hence from
melting away quickly.

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80. White light passing through a glass prism gives rise to a coloured pattern on the wall.
Why?
Ans. White light is made up of seven colours. Rays of different colours refract or bend along
different paths and fall on different points on the wall forming a coloured pattern known as
spectrum.

81. A boatman pushes the bank with his pole. Why?
Ans. Action and reaction being equal and opposite, the bank will push the boat away from it.

82. A burning candle gets extinguished when covered with a tumbler. Why?
Ans. A burning candle gets extinguished when covered with a tumbler because the supply of
oxygen is cut-off and the flame goes out.

83. Why do you see rainbow after rain?
Ans. The water drops suspended in the atmosphere act as prism and disperse light into seven
colours.

84. A metal tea-pot has an ebony handle. Why?
Ans. Ebony being bad conductor of heat, the handle does not get hot.

85. Why is ones breath visible in winter, but not in summer?
Ans. In winter, the water vapour contained in the breath condenses into small droplets of water,
which become visible. In summer, it is not so.

86. The weight of a man on the surface of the moon will be only about one-sixth of his
weight on the earth. Why?
Ans. The gravity of the moon is one-sixth that of the earth, hence the weight of a person on the
surface of the moon will be one-sixth of his weight on the earth.

87. Why is it easier to roll a barrel than to pull it along the road?
Ans. Slipping resistance is much more than rolling resistance.

88. Why is the flash of lightning seen before the sound of thunder is heard?
Ans. Because light travels faster than sound.

89. How does a soda water straw work?
Ans. When we suck through a soda water straw, low pressure is created inside the straw. The
liquid outside rushes into balance the difference.

90. Small space is left between each set of two rails of a railway line.
Ans. Iron expands when it gets hot. A small space is left between the ends of the rails in order to
allow the expansion of rails due to heat.

91. How does bulb emit light?
Ans. The current passes through a wire of high resistance which becomes red hot, and emits
light.

92. What is an electric fuse? What purpose does it serve?
Ans. A thin wire used in maintaining the condition of the energy; it prevents overloading of
energy.

93. How does a thermos flask keep a hot liquid hot and cold liquid cold?
Ans. It is a double-walled vessel in which the inner surface of the outer vessel and the outer
surface of the inner vessel are silvered so as to prevent radiation of heat. The space between the
walls of the two vessels is made of vacuum to prevent the escape of heat by conduction or
convection.

94. A parachute enables a person to descend in safety in case of an accident to aircraft?
Ans. A man falls to the earth because of the gravitational pull of the earth. The parachute offers
considerable resistance to that gravity, thereby slowing down the speed of the descending man.
The parachute thus enables a person to descend in safety.

77


95. A person in a moving vehicle is thrown forward when the vehicle stops suddenly. Why?
Ans. When a moving vehicle stops suddenly, a passenger will tend to fall forward because the
lower part of his body in contact with the seat comes to stop suddenly but the upper part of his
body is still in motion sharing the movement of the train. So on account of inertia, the passenger
falls forward.

96. A plane approaching at a speed of 1000 m.p.h. is not heard. Why?
Ans. Sound travels at a speed of 760 m.p.h., hence a plane approaching at a speed of 1000 m.p.h.
cannot be heard.

97. Why does an electric bulb make a bang when it is broken?
Ans. An electric bulb has a partial vacuum. When it is broken, air rushes into take the place of
the vacuum, hence it bangs.

98. Why does a ship made of steel float although a steel ball sinks?
Ans. The ship displaces more water then its own weight whereas the weight of the water
displaced by a steel ball is much less than the weight of the steel ball.

99. Why do the stars twinkle?
Ans. The stars seem to twinkle due to two causes. First the light from the stars passes through
several mediums; secondly our vision has a tendency to distract.

100. Why is it easier to swim in a sea than in a river?
Ans. The density of the sea water is higher than the density of the river water.

101. Why is hot soup tastier than the colder one?
Ans. As temperature is increased, surface tension decreases; and the liquid now occupies more
area. Thus the hot soup occupies more area on the tongue and is, therefore, more tasty than the
colder one.

102. Thick glass tumblers often crack when very hot liquids are poured into them. Why?
Ans. The inner layer tends to expand more rapidly than the outer layer thus producing
phenomenon of unequal expansion resulting in cracks due to the resulting pressure.

103. Why does water get cooled in an earthen pitcher?
Ans. Pitchers have pores, through which water percolates which evaporates. During evaporation
heat is taken away and the water gets cooled.

104. Why do the sky and the water of the ocean look blue?
Ans. The blue part of the sunlight is scattered by the particles of the atmosphere around, while
other parts of light pass through it: that is why the sky looks blue because of the refraction of the
blue light only.

105. Which will reach the ground first: a bullet which is shot horizontally from a gun or
similar bullet thrown upward from the ground?
Ans. Obviously horizontally shot bullet is to come down first. Its direction is perpendicular to
that of gravitational force. So, both vectors will not affect each other but in the case of a bullet
shot upward has velocity vector in the opposite direction of gravitation force. So it will take
more time.

106. Why does an iron gain weight on rusting?
Ans. The rusted iron is nothing but iron-oxide. Iron in the presence of moisture absorbs oxygen
from the atmosphere and forms iron oxide. The weight gained is equal to the weight of oxygen
absorbed.

107. Why does hard water not readily form lather with soap?
Ans. Hard water contains the sulphates and chlorides of magnesium and calcium, which form
insoluble compounds with soap. Hence soap does not lather with hard water.

108. Why are mountains cooler than plains?
Ans. It is so because, firstly, the air on the mountains is rare than that on the plains and absorbs

78

less heat than the air on the plains, secondly the heat absorbed during the day on the mountains
radiates away more quickly due to the rarity of the air, thirdly, major portion of the mountains
remains in shade.

109. Why is sea-water saline?
Ans. The rivers in the course of their flow and falling into the sea bring with them deposits of
salt and this process has been going on for lakhs of years, it makes sea-water saline.

110. Glass when heated cracks, while metal does not.
Ans. Glass being bad conductor of heat, only that part is heated which comes into contact with
heat while the other parts remain unaffected. This results in unequal expansion and hence the
tension, which cracks the glass. On the other hand, metal is a good conductor of heat and so all
its bulk gets uniformly heated and hence no surface tension.

111. Why does it not hurt when we cut our nails?
Ans. Nails are the parts of the body which are not connected either with the blood vessels or
cartilage and hence having no relation with the nervous system. Therefore cutting them does not
give pain.

112. A hydrogen balloon rises. Why?
Ans. Hydrogen is lighter than air; the weight of the hydrogen balloon is less than the weight of
the air displaced by it.

113. Why is a compass used as an indicator of direction?
Ans. The magnetic needle of the compass due to the influence of the earths magnetic field
always lies in the north south direction. Hence, we know the direction.

114. Why a country like Ladakh may be very hot in sunshine, but bitterly cold in shade?
Ans. The atmosphere on great heights like Ladakh is rarefied, which offers little obstacle to the
rays of the sun which are therefore, scorching. But the rarefied air absorbs little heat from the
rays of the sun; therefore, the atmosphere remains cold. Hence it is very cold in the shade.

115. Why does a straight stick look bent when a part of it is immersed in water?
Ans. The rays of the light passing from a rare medium to a dense medium change their course
due to refraction, where the rays coming from stick in water come in air at surface they get
displaced away from perpendicular as our eyes see straight way so the stick seems bent.

116. Why does water boil at a lower temperature on the hills than on the plains?
Ans. The higher the pressure, the higher boiling point: the lower the pressure the lower the
boiling point. The atmospheric pressure on the hills is lower than that on the earth.

117. Why does a rider feel a tendency to fall when the horse starts running of stops
suddenly?
Ans. This is caused by inertia. When the horse starts running, the rider, being at rest, falls back.
When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider being in motion has a tendency to fall ahead.

118. Why does a person carrying a bucket full of water in his right hand bend towards the
left?
Ans. He bends towards his left so that the centre of gravity falls within the base. This enables
him to keep up balance, otherwise he may fall.

119. Why does tea cool more rapidly in a saucer than in a cup?
Ans. In a saucer evaporation takes place more rapidly than in a cup. Cooling is caused by
evaporation.

120. Ice packed in sawdust does not melt quickly. Why?
Ans. Ice packed in sawdust does not melt quickly, because sawdust being bad conductor, it cuts
the heat rays.

121. Why do you heat a metal rim before fitting it to a wheel?
Ans. By heating, the rim expands and fits easily over a slightly bigger radius than that of the rim.
On being cooled it contracts and has a firm grip on the wheel.

79


122. Why do wet clothes dry slowly on a rainy day?
Ans. On a rainy day the atmosphere air contains more water vapour than on a dry day and hence
evaporation is slower.

123. Why does a substance thrown up come to the ground?
Ans. Because of the gravitational force of the earth.

124. Why does moisture gather outside of a glass of cold water on a warm day?
Ans. The temperature of the outer surface of glass of cold water is lower than that of its
surroundings. The vapour in the surrounding atmosphere gets condensed on the outer surface of
the water and appears in the form of tiny particles of water.

125. Why are we advised to empty the ink from our fountain pen before going up on
aeroplanes?
Ans. A we go up higher and higher the air becomes rare and atmospheric pressure lower, so that
the volume of the air inside the fountain pen will also increase and the ink will be pushed out
thus spoiling the clothes and hence the advice.

126. What happens to iron when it rusts?
Ans. It reacts with the oxygen of the air and forms iron-oxide which is the rust.

127. How would you distinguish between welding and soldering?
Ans. Welding is the joining of metals by raising the temperature of the metals to fuse them
together by melting their ends. Soldering is the joining of metals with the help of an alloy called
solder.

128. How does a ball which falls down, bounce up?
Ans. It is due to the operation of Newtons Third Law of motion. To every action there is equal
and opposite reaction. A ball falling to the ground is slightly deformed. Due to the elastic force
of the material of which the ball is made, the ball tries to recover its original shape. In doing so it
forces the ground which pushes the ball upward due to reaction and the ball bounces up.

129. An iron nail floats on mercury but sinks in water. Give reasons.
Ans. The specific density of iron is lower than that of mercury, hence it floats on mercury; while
it is higher than that of water, hence it sinks in water.

130. How do you convert Centigrade in to Fahrenheit?
Ans. With the help of the following formula:
C/100 = F 32/180

131. It is advisable to work electric appliances when they are earthed suitably. Why?
Ans. In case of short-circuiting, the current passes to the earth without harming the user, if an
electrical appliance is properly earthed.

132. How does a refrigerator keep food fresh?
Ans. Food is kept fresh so long as fermentation does not set in; refrigerator prevents
fermentation by providing low temperature.

133. Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quickly.
Ans. Blanket being bad conductor of heat prevents the outside heat from creeping inside.

134. Why can a petrol fire not be extinguished by throwing water on it?
Ans. The heat of the petrol fire is so intense that the water thrown on it gets evaporated and
decomposed. Hence it is not effective in extinguishing the petrol fire.

135. A train stops when the chain is pulled. Why?
Ans. When the chain is pulled, one small valve gets opened and air/atmospheric pressure is
admitted to the under side of the piston head of the brake cylinder through pipe connections.
Initially there is vacuum on both top and bottom side of the piston head. When the
air/atmospheric pressure enters the under side of the piston head, the piston raises up due to

80

difference of pressure and pulls the brake rigging to which it is connected with links and levers.
Thus the brakes are applied and the train stops.