Causs' Law

knlghL: ChapLer 28: 1 - 6

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2
Cb[ecuves:
CalculaLe Lhe elecLrlc ux Lhrough a surface,
use Causs' Law Lo calculaLe Lhe elecLrlc eld
of symmeLrlc charge dlsLrlbuuons,
undersLand how Lo recognlse and use
symmeLry ln Causs' Law calculauons,
use Causs' Law Lo undersLand Lhe properues
of conducLors ln an elecLrlc eld.
Electric Flux and Gauss' Law:28.3
Gauss' law ! method for calculating E-field for even
quite complex charge distributions, provided they have
reasonable degree of symmetry. Gauss' law relies on
concept of electric flux.
Define Electric Flux "
through surface S:
is vector normal to surface with
magnitude equal to area of A
= # of field lines passing
through area A

!
!
A

!
!
E
!
"
!
"

!
!
A

!
"=
!
E .
!
A = EAcos#
Electric Flux and Gauss' Law:28.3

!
!
A

!
!
E
!
" = 0

!
"=
!
E .
!
A = EAcos#
!
"= EAcos# = EA

!
!
A

!
!
E

!
" = 90
!
!
"= EAcos# = 0
For an arbitrary surface:
For a closed surface which
does not enclose any
charges:
# of field lines in is equal to
# of field lines out
so net flux " = 0.
(surface normal points outwards everywhere)

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#

!
d
!
A

!
!
E

!
d
!
A
1

!
d
!
A
2

!
!
E

!
!
E
!ve flux
components
+ve flux
components
For a closed surface that
does not enclose any
charges:
Negative flux contributions
from field lines entering
surface must exactly
balance positive flux
contributions from field
lines exiting surface.

!
d
!
A
1

!
d
!
A
2

!
!
E

!
!
E
-ve "
+ve "
ConcepL 1esL:
A buuery neL ls ln a
unlform elecLrlc eld, !,
a s s h o w n l n L h e
accompanyl ng gure.
1he rlm, a clrcle of radlus
a , l s a l l g n e d
perpendlcular Lo Lhe
elecLrlc eld. llnd an
ex pr es s l on f or L he
elecLrlc ux, !, "#$%&'#
(&)" "#* +*,+'-
Gauss' Law: 28.4
Electric flux, " , through arbitrary closed mathematical
surface with charge q within is:
For charge q enclosed within
surface, # of field lines emerging thru
surface is q / #
0
Charges outside volume
contribute no net flux
(integral over closed surface)
(NB. use signed value for q so that
" can be +ve or -ve)

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
!
q
+
+
!
q
Applying Gauss' Law: 28.5
E-field for -ve point charge:
-
Choose spherical surface (Gaussian
surface) of radius r with point charge at
centre:
(- sign since E and dA opposite in direction)
NB. Problems usually simplified by careful choice of Gaussian surface, i.e.
choose one for which field lines parallel or perpendicular to surface normal(s).

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
= $E d
!
A =
#
$q
%
0
!
"q
!
" #E4$r
2
=
#q
%
0
" E =
1
4$%
0
q
r
2

!
d
!
A
!
!
E
ConcepL 1esL:
A polnL charge ls placed aL
one corner of a cube of slde
lengLh , as shown ln Lhe
accompanylng dlagram. use
Causs' law and symmeLry
argumenLs Lo nd Lhe "%"./
*/*0"$10 2&3 "#$%&'# "#*
0&4*. !
a
!
+q
!
a
!
+q
4 cubes behind and 4 in front will
completely surround charge q
E-field for line of charge:
linear charge density $ C/m

!
d
!
A
end 2

!
d
!
A
side

!
d
!
A
end1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

!
!
E
E perpendicular to dA for ends of
Gaussian surface so they do not
contribution to flux.
Choose cylindrical Gaussian
surface to match symmetry of
charge distribution (radial field).
!
r
!
h

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
!
" E2#rh =
$h
%
0
" E =
1
2#%
0
$
r
Side area of cylinder
Charge in cylinder
E-field for large flat insulating sheet of charge:
Choose cylinder with axis perpendicular to plane of charge:
Fig.28.27 Knight, Physics for Scientists and
Engineers, 2
nd
Ed.

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
E perpendicular to
dA for side of
Gaussian surface
so only ends
contribution to flux.
!
" EA+ EA =
#A
$
0
" E =
#
2$
0
Areal charge density %
Gauss' Law and Symmetry: 28.1
Gauss' Law can be directly applied in situations that
have sufficient symmetry:
!
Cylindrical (e.g. Wire)
!
Spherical
!
Planar (e.g. Sheet of charge)
Fig.28.6 Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2
nd
Ed.
Gauss' Law and Symmetry:
NB. It is desirable if possible to find a Gaussian
surface in which the surface normal is either
perpendicular to or parallel to the electric field vector
at each point on the surface:

!
!
E
!
" = 0

!
!
A

!
!
E

!
" = 90
!

!
!
A
Gauss' Law and Symmetry:
Gauss' Law gives the electric field at a Gaussian
surface arising from the charge, q , enclosed within
the surface.
To get the resultant E-field at some point P in space,
need to consider influence of all charge distributions,
both inside and outside the Gaussian surface
chosen, e.g. "
E =

20

sheet A

20

sheet B
= 0
For asymmetric distributions:
Gauss' Law + Superposition
can sometimes be applied.
+
+
+
+
+
Sheet A
+
+
+
+
+
Sheet B
P
Gauss A
Gauss B
+
+
+
+
+
Sheet A
+
+
+
+
+
Sheet B
P
Symmetric Case with Two Charged Sheets:

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
% EA + EA =
&A+&A
$
0
% E =
&
$
0
E.g. solid sphere with uniform charge density & C/m
3

throughout volume (total charge Q)
sphere
Spherical Gaussian surface
!
r " R: q =
Q
4
3
#R
3
4
3
#r
3
= Q
r
3
R
3

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
!
" E4#r
2
=
Q
$
0
r
3
R
3
" E =
Q
4#$
0
r
R
3
(linear with r )
R
r
E.g. solid sphere with uniform charge density & C/m
3

throughout volume (total charge Q)
sphere
Gaussian surface
!
r " R: q = Q

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
!
" E4#r
2
=
Q
$
0
" E =
1
4#$
0
Q
r
2
(same as for field vs r for point charge Q)
i.e. inverse square dependence as for point
charge.
R
r
For concentric spherical cavity in sphere, E = 0
within empty interior volume. Why?
!
" r # R: E =
Q
4$%
0
r
R
3
=
1
4$%
0
q(r)
r
2
!
r " R: q = Q
r
3
R
3
#q r ( ) = Q
r
3
R
3
q as function of r
Same form as expression for r > R now.
E at r only depends on q inside radius r and if q is zero then so is E.
NB. Need to invoke symmetry arguments to show that the spherical shell
cannot contribute to an electric field anywhere inside the cavity.
Exercise: Applying Superposition:
E.g. +ve charge Q distributed uniformly over volume of solid sphere of radius R.
Then spherical cavity, radius R/2, cut from sphere and associated material/charge
discarded.
Use superposition arguments to show that
E-field at P is given by:
!
E =
Q
4"#
0
1
r
2
$
1
8 r $ R/2 ( )
2
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
* R
R/2
Superposition ! field at P given by:
R
R/2
Conductors in Electric Fields: 28.6
In conductor, large # of free electrons available ! when
conductor placed in E-field, free electrons move in
opposite direction to field leaving one surface +vely
charged and other -vely charged:
conductor
- -
-
-
-

!
!
E
ext
- - - - -
+ + + + +
Charge separation generates internal E-field E
int
opposite
in direction to the external field.
Separation of charge
continues until:
- - - - -
+ + + + + +
-
At equilibrium E
net
= 0
everywhere inside
conductor

!
!
E
int

!
!
E
ext

!
!
E
int
=
!
E
ext

!
!
E
net
= 0
Similarly, excess charge on conductor resides at the
surface:
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+ + +
+
+
(same equilibrium condition
applies)
This is also what we would expect based on charge
repulsion and minimisation of potential energy (see
later).

!
!
E
net
= 0
+
+
+
+
+
+
Also, at equilibrium, field lines at
surface of conductor are
perpendicular to the surface at
every point
(otherwise there would be net lateral force on
charges and they would move)
E-field Outside Large Flat Conducting Plate:
+
+
+ +
+ +
Charge density % C.m
-2
E = 0 inside conductor
! only non-zero flux is that
through external end of
cylinder:
E-field is double that of insulating sheet with same
charge density. (Same # of charges per unit area !
same # of field lines BUT all field lines directed
outwards for conductor) OR consider that field outside
conductor has contributions from charges on top and
bottom surfaces.
!
" EA+ 0 =
#A
$
0
" E =
#
$
0

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0

!
!
E
= 0
!
!
E
E-field Outside Large Flat Conducting Plate:
Or, if you want to apply Gauss law in a symmetrical
manner:
!
" EA+ EA =
2#A
$
0
" E =
#
$
0

!
"=
!
E .d
!
A
#
=
q
$
0
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +

!
!
E

!
!
E
!
"
!
"
Charge on top and bottom surfaces
Hollow Conductor :
+
+
+
+
+
+
cavity
Since excess charge resides
on surface and E =0
everywhere inside conductor,
must also be true for cavity
anywhere inside conductor.
no net charge inside Gaussian surface
! metal shell or cage "shields" interior from electric field
! Faraday Cage
NB. The electrostatic potential will give us a better way of arguing that there
can be no electric field lines within an empty cavity in a conductor.
Faraday Cage:
Conductors shield their interior from E-field:
( Fig 25-19, Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals Of Physics, Wiley
2001)
Conductors shield their interior from E-field:
Conductors shield their interior from E-field:
E=0 inside metal cage
Charge Transfer in van der Graaf generator
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
!
!
!
!
Introduce charge into cavity of
conducting shell.
+
Charge Transfer in van der Graaf generator
+
+
+ +
+
!
!
!
!
Connect inner conductor to shell.
Transfer charge to shell.
+ +
+
Charge Transfer in van der Graaf generator
+
+ +
+
To add more charge start the whole
process over again.
+
Charge Transfer in van der Graaf generator
Three Minute Quiz:
R
1
R
2
R
3
+Q
A solid conducting sphere of radius R
1
is
enclosed within a concentric spherical
conducting shell of inner radius R
2
and outer
radius R
3
, as shown. If charge +Q is
deposited on the central sphere:
(a) Sketch the equilibrium charge
distribution on the conductors and the
electric-field line distribution for all regions of
space.
(b) Use Gauss' law to find expressions for
the electric-field in each region and hence
plot a graph of E vs radial distance r.
Lightning:
When E-field exceeds 3 x 10
6
N/C (V/m) molecules in
air can become ionised (neutral molecules broken into
+vely and -vely charged ions):
+
-
these ions collide with neutral molecules ! more ions
created ! collision cascade ! spark.

!
!
E
E-Field of Earth:
Dry air E-Field of Earth ~ 100-200 V/m (N/C) pointing
downwards:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
- - -
-
-
-
Earth = Giant Spherical Capacitor
Lightning = discharge through volume of capacitor
Sources of Mobile Charges:
Upper Atmosphere: Cosmic Rays (very swift particles
from space, mostly protons) enter atmosphere and
produce dense collision cascades of charged particles
(+ve and -ve).
Terrestrial: Ions produced by natural radioactive decay
and other ionisation processes including induced
charge on droplets of water spray:
E
+
+ +
+
-
+
-
-
Thunder Clouds
(From: http://littleswitzerlandweather.info/lightinfo/abtlightning.html)
Current understanding is that:
Small ice particles are being
charged positively and rapidly
transported upward.
~ +40 C
~ 40 C
Possible Charging Mechanisms
Ice particle polarised in E-field
+ charge exchange with water
droplet or another ice particle.
E
-
+
e-
Or -ve ions attracted towards
ice particle and captured.
E
-
+
-
ground strike
Lightning Strike:
( Figs 24-13, 24-14, Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals Of Physics,
Wiley 2001)

Once column bridges gap, e- rapidly

transported:
" current
"e- collisions with air molecules
" ionisation
" further current
e- + air molecules
atom excitation
spontaneous decay
photons
flash
- - -
-
+ + + + +
Lightning:
Just prior to flash, electron avalanche descends to ground
Charge density in column $ ~ -1 x 10
-3
C.m
-1
and for line of charge
but visible region has radius ~ 0.5 m
!
" =1#10
$3
C/ m
!
E =
1
2"#
0
$
r
!
" r =
1
2#$
0
%
E
=
1
2#$
0
1&10
'3
3&10
6
= 6m
Discharge occurs first wherever E-field greatest:
+ + +
+
+
+
+ + +
so hit the deck if this happens
to you!
( Fig 25-24, Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals Of Physics,
Wiley 2001)
Concept Test
A cylindrical piece of insulating material is placed in an external electric
field, as shown. The net electric flux passing through the surface
of the cylinder is
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Zero
Summary:
LlecLrlc llux.
Causs' Law.
SymmeLry and superposluon.
ConducLor ln elecLrlc eld.
LlghLnlng and sLaylng allve.
8ead knlghL: ChapLer 28