2.5.

1
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Module 2.5
Heat Transfer
2.5.2
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
(150 - 80) C
Hoat translor rato 70 W m C x (0.3 x 0.5) m x
0.025 m
=


Hcat transcr ratc = 29 400 W (29.4 kW)
Equation 2.5.1
7
N$

Heat Transfer
In a steam heating system, the sole purpose of the generation and distribution of steam is to
provide heat at the process heat transfer surface. If the required heat input rate and steam pressure
are known, then the necessary steam consumption rate may be determined. This will allow the
size of the boiler and the steam distribution system to be established.
Modes of heat transfer
Whenever a temperature gradient exists, either within a medium or between media, the transfer
of heat will occur. This may take the form of either conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction
When a temperature gradient exists in either a solid or stationary fluid medium, the heat transfer
which takes place is known as conduction. When neighbouring molecules in a fluid collide,
energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher
temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, conduction must occur in the direction
of decreasing temperature.
This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids the molecular
interactions are stronger and more frequent, as the molecules are closer together. In solids,
conduction is caused by the atomic activity of lattice vibrations as explained in Module 2.2.
The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fouriers Law. Where there
is a linear temperature distribution under steady-state conditions, for a one-dimensional plane
wall it may be written as:
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC)
DT = Temperature difference across the material (K or C)
= Material thickness (m)
Example 2.5.1
Consider a plane wall constructed of solid iron with a thermal conductivity of 70 W/mC, and a
thickness of 25 mm. It has a surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m, with a temperature of 150C on one
side and 80C on the other.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the wall material and is dependent on temperature.
Table 2.5.1 shows the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various common
metals.
2.5.3
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Hoat translor rato 1 600 W m C x (0.4 x 0.9) m x (50 - 20) C =
Hcat transcr ratc = 17 280 W (17.28 kW)
Radiation
The heat transfer due to the emission of energy from surfaces in the form of electromagnetic
waves is known as thermal radiation. In the absence of an intervening medium, there is a net heat
transfer between two surfaces of different temperatures. This form of heat transfer does not rely
on a material medium, and is actually most efficient in a vacuum.
Equation 2.5.2 K$ 7 =
Table 2.5.1 Thermal conductivity (W/m C)
Material
Thermal conductivity (W/mC)
At 25C At 125C At 225C
Iron 80 68 60
Low carbon steel 54 51 47
Stainless steel 16 17.5 19
Tungsten 180 160 150
Platinum 70 71 72
Aluminium 250 255 250
Gold 310 312 310
Silver 420 418 415
Copper 401 400 398
Considering the mechanism of heat transfer in conduction, in general the thermal conductivity of
a solid will be much greater than of a liquid, and the thermal conductivity of a liquid will be
greater than of a gas. Air has a particularly low thermal conductivity and this is why insulating
materials often have lots of air spaces.
Convection
The transfer of heat energy between a surface and a moving fluid at different temperatures is
known as convection. It is actually a combination of the mechanisms of diffusion and the bulk
motion of molecules.
Near the surface where the fluid velocity is low, diffusion (or random molecular motion) dominates.
However, moving away from the surface, bulk motion holds an increasing influence. Convective
heat transfer may take the form of either forced convection or natural convection. Forced
convection occurs when fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump or an agitator.
Conversely, natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces, due to the density differences arising
from the temperature variations in the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy caused by a phase change, such as boiling or condensing, is also
referred to as a convective heat transfer process.
The equation for convection is expressed by Equation 2.5.2 which is a derivation of Newtons
Law of Cooling:
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m K or W/mC)
DT = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or C)
Example 2.5.2
Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m at a temperature of 20C.
A fluid flows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 1 600 W/mC.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
2.5.4
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Equation 2.5.3 8$ 7
The general heat transfer equation
In most practical examples, it is very unusual for all energy to be transferred by one mode of heat
transfer alone. More often the overall heat transfer process will be a combination of two or more
of these different mechanisms.
The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface in the design procedure and
theory of heat exchangers is:
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W ( J /s))
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m K or W/mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
DT = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or C)
Note:
Q will be a mean heat transfer rate (Q
M
) if DT is a mean temperature difference (DT
LM
or DT
AM
).
The overall heat transfer coefficient
This takes into account both conductive and convective resistance between two fluids separated
by a solid wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to
heat transfer, which is the sum of the individual resistances.
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also take into account the degree of fouling in the heat
transfer process. The deposition of a film or scale on the heat transfer surface will greatly reduce
the rate of heat transfer. The fouling factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused by
fluid impurities, rust formation or other reactions between the fluid and the wall.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer process,
the physical properties of the fluids, the fluid flowrates and on the physical layout of the heat
transfer surface.
As the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has been determined, the
design of a heat exchanger is by necessity, an iterative procedure. A starting point for this procedure
usually involves selecting typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of various types of
heat exchanger.
An accurate calculation for the individual heat transfer coefficients is a complicated procedure, and
in many cases it is not possible due to some of the parameters being unknown. Therefore, the use
of established typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient will be suitable for our purposes.
Temperature difference
Newtons law of cooling states that the heat transfer rate is related to the instantaneous temperature
difference between the hot and the cold media. In a heat transfer process, this temperature
difference will vary either with position or with time. The general heat transfer equation was thus
developed as an extension to Newtons law of cooling, where the mean temperature difference
is used to establish the heat transfer area required for a given heat duty.
Mean temperature difference
The determination of the mean temperature difference in a flow type process like a heat exchanger
will be dependent upon the direction of flow. The primary and secondary fluids may flow in the
same direction (parallel flow/co-current flow), in the opposite direction (countercurrent flow), or
perpendicular to each other (crossflow). When saturated steam is used the primary fluid
temperature can be taken as a constant, because heat is transferred as a result of a change of
phase only. The result is that the temperature profile is no longer dependent on the direction
of flow.
2.5.5
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
t
2
t
1
Product temperature rise
Inlet Outlet
Fluid passing through a heat exchanger
Steam temperature
Fig. 2.5.2 Product temperature rise (AMTD)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and is best represented by a logarithmic
calculation. For this purpose the mean temperature difference chosen is termed the
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference or LMTD or DT
LM
.
An easier (but less accurate) way to calculate the mean temperature difference is to consider the
Arithmatic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD or DT
AM
. This considers a linear increase in
the secondary fluid temperature and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory
approximation of the mean temperature difference to be used in Equation 2.5.3. The AMTD
temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2.
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
t
2
Product temperature rise
Inlet Outlet
Fluid passing through a heat exchanger
Steam temperature
Fig. 2.5.1 Product temperature rise (LMTD)
However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the highest rate of heat
transfer occurs at the inlet and progressively decays along its travel to the outlet. This is simply
because the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the rise
in secondary temperature.
The resulting temperature profile of the steam and secondary fluid is typically as shown
in Figure 2.5.1.
t
1
2.5.6
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Equation 2.5.4
7 7
7 7

$0 V
( ) ( ) 7 7 7 7
7
7 7
,Q
7 7

V V
/0
V
V
7 7 7 7
7

S S V V
$0
Equation 2.5.5
7 7
7
7 7
,Q
7 7

/0
V
V
Where:
T
s
= Steam temperature (C)
T
1
= Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T
2
= Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD normally provides a
satisfactory analysis of the heat transfer process, which is easy to manipulate in manual calculations.
However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which accounts for the non-linear
change in temperature of the secondary fluid.
The log mean temperature difference (LMTD):
Where:
T
s
= Steam temperature (C)
T
1
= Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T
2
= Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
ln = A mathematical function known as natural logarithm
Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 assume that there is no change in the specific heat capacity or the
overall heat transfer coefficient, and that there are no heat losses.
In reality the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature variations. The overall
heat transfer coefficient may also change because of variations in fluid properties and flow
conditions. However, in most applications the deviations will be almost negligible and the use of
mean values will be perfectly acceptable.
In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its surroundings, but the
insulation will not be 100% efficient. Therefore, the energy transferred between the steam and
the secondary fluid may not represent all of the heat lost from the primary fluid.
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:
The arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD):
Where:
T
p1
= Primary fluid in temperature
T
p2
= Primary fluid out temperature
T
s1
= Secondary fluid in temperature
T
s2
= Secondary fluid out temperature
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:
2.5.7
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
( )
20 50
1 ~134 -
2
50 - 20 30 30 30
1 ~ ~ ~ ~
ln 1.3571 0.3053 134 - 20 114
ln ln
134 - 50 84

AM
AM
tM
tM
T =99C
T =98.24C

In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is because the secondary fluid
temperature rise is small in comparison with the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Example 2.5.4
Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10C to 120C using steam at
4.0 bar g. The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0 bar g is 152C.
Determine the arithmetic and log mean temperature differences:
( )
10 120
1 ~152 -
2
120 - 10 110 110 110
1 ~ ~ ~ ~
ln 4.4375 1.49 152 - 10 142
ln ln
152 - 120 32

AM
AM
tM
tM
T =87C
T =73.8C

Example 2.5.3
Steam at 2 bar g is used to heat water from 20C to 50C.
The saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 134C.
Determine the arithmetic and the log mean temperature differences:
Because the secondary fluid temperature rise is large in comparison with the temperature difference
between the two fluids, the discrepancy between the two results is more significant.
By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area would be almost 15%
smaller than that required.
Barriers to heat transfer
The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a film
of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the product side there may also be baked-on
product or scale, and a stagnant film of product.
Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst regular cleaning on
the product side should reduce the scale.
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat transfer by
reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be possible. This layer
may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation of the boiler, and the removal
of water droplets carrying impurities from the boiler.
2.5.8
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Fig. 2.5.3 Heat transfer layers
Steam
A
i
r

f
i
l
m
S
c
a
l
e
M
e
t
a
l

h
e
a
t
i
n
g

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
S
c
a
l
e
P
r
o
d
u
c
t

f
i
l
m
Product
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
a
t
e

f
i
l
m
Heat
flow
Filmwise condensation
The elimination of the condensate film, is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give
up its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These
may then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may
be between 100 and 150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and
500 to 600 times more resistant than copper.
Dropwise condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous
condensate film is formed, dropwise condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can be
achieved during dropwise condensation, are generally much higher than those achieved during
filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation, heat
transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal resistance
it produces is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining
the appropriate conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain
dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as
Silicones, PTFE and an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in
a heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings will gradually
lose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film condensation will
eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more
resistant than copper. This means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat
transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.
2.5.9
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Figure 2.5.4 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process. These
barriers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also
greatly reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be. This
means that to achieve the same desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need to be
significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or space
heating applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations, a high
heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films on the condensing
surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency, and
its removal from the supply steam will increase heating performance.
Fig. 2.5.4 Temperature gradients across heat transfer layers
Steam at 1 bar g
S
c
a
l
e
M
e
t
a
l

h
e
a
t
i
n
g

s
u
r
f
a
c
e
S
c
a
l
e
P
r
o
d
u
c
t

f
i
l
m
Product
C
o
n
d
e
n
s
a
t
e

f
i
l
m
A
i
r

f
i
l
m
Steam
temperature
121C
99C
Product
temperature
2.5.10
Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Questions
1. What is the conductive heat transfer rate per unit area across a copper wall 5 mm thick,
if the temperature on one side is 100C and the temperature on the other is 40C ?
a| 21 000 W/m
b| 120 kW
c| 4 800 kW/m
d| 33.3 W/mm
2. The rate of convective heat transfer from a plane surface with an area of 1.5 m to a
fluid in motion is 40 kW. If the surface temperature is 15C and the fluid temperature
is 40C, what is the convective heat transfer coefficient ?
a| 1 067 W/mC
b| 667 kW C/m
c| 1 500 kW mC
d| 2 400 kW/mC
3. According to the heat transfer equation, the heat transfer rate varies with:
a| The flowrate of the secondary fluid
b| The mass flowrate of steam
c| The temperature rise of the secondary fluid
d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids
4. Steam at 3 bar g is used to heat water from 10C to 80C. What is the difference between
the AMTD and the LMTD in this case ?
a| 70C
b| 4.3C
c| 99C
d| 10C
5. The temperature gradient across a heat transfer layer is an indication of:
a| The thickness of the heat transfer layer
b| The steam pressure
c| The thermal conductivity of the heat transfer layer
d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids
6. One side of a plane surface is at 25C. A fluid at 70C flows across the other surface. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is 1 600 W/mC. What surface area is required to
transfer 68 kW ?
a| 0.944 m
b| 0.447 m
c| 0.894 m
d| 1.888 m
1 : c , 2 : a , 3 : d , 4 : b , 5 : c , 6 : a
Answers