The Monthly Journal

Kurukshetra
MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Vol. 58 No. 2 Pages 52
December 2009

CHIEF EDITOR
NEETA PRASAD
EDITOR
KAPIL KUMAR

CONTENTS
NREGA: POTENTIAL AND CHALLENGES

Jogender Sharma

NREGA: Transforming Rural India

Anupam Hazra

NEED TO SHARPEN NREGA

Dr. M.S. Tomar,

Dr. B.S. Yadav

11

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J.K. CHANDRA

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NREGA Driver of Rural Economy

D.Muthamizh Vendan
Murugavel

15

Meet your Minister

19

TSC/NREGA Campaign in Nubra District 21

NREGA : A study in Andaman &

Nicobar Islands

Hema Bannerjee

23

IMPACT OF NREGA ON THE

VILLAGERS IN TRIPURA - Field study

Dr. Sanjoy Roy

27

NREGA FACET OF RURAL WOMEN

EMPOWERMENT
A STUDY IN KARIMNAGAR DISTRICT
IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Gundeti Ramesh,
Dr. T. Krishna Kumar

29

NREGA IN WEST BENGAL : SUCCESS

AND CHALLENGES

Dr. Subhabrata Dutta

31

Implications of NREGA District

Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh :
A Case Study

Barna Maulick

35

IMPACT OF NREGA IN UDANGUDI

PANCHAYAT UNION, TAMIL NADU -
A Case Study

V.Sankari,
C.Siva Murugan

39

Path to prosperity in Kutch lined

with grass

Haresh Parmar

42

WILD LEAVES : POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN

CONSUMPTION AND NUTRITIONAL
PROFILE

Shanta Badaik &

Dr Reshma xalxo

44

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Kurukshetra

December 2009

Inside

REGA, recently renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act (MGREGA), is one of the largest rights-based social protection
initiatives in the world. NREGA is the first ever law, internationally, that
guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. The programme has also
initiated the worlds largest financial inclusion measure for providing poor people
access to the formal banking system.NREGA is therefore different from the earlier
government employment schemes, since it treats employment as a right and is
intended to be demand - driven
Launched on February 2006, NREGA covers all the 614 districts across the country.
The objective of the Act is to provide to every rural household a guarantee of at least
100 days of employment during a financial year by providing unskilled manual work in
rural areas to those members of the rural household who volunteer to do such work.
Since its inception the program has benefited over 10 crore rural households and it
is being recognized that NREGA has the potential to transform rural economic and
social relations at many levels.
One of the criticisms of the big ticket program is that the it is not creating
permanent and durable assets and is not upgrading rural skills. The Prime Minister
Dr. Manmohan Singh in his address to the nation on Independence Day had said that
NREGA will be improved by bringing in more transparency and accountability into
it. Also, new types of works would be identified to be taken up under the program in
addition to the existing ones.
The Rural Development Ministry has since initiated action in making the program
more transparent and effective. District Level Ombudsmen are to be appointed who
will receive complaints from NREGA workers and facilitate their disposal in accordance
with the law. NREGA partnership with Unique Identification Development Authority
of India (UIDA) has been initiated. It has also been decided that Social Audit
procedures will be amended to enhance the quality of implementation of the
programme.
To understand how NREGA has performed on the ground, this issue of Kurukshetra
carries field studies from Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, West Bengal, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Andhra Pradesh.

Kurukshetra December 2009

POTENTIAL AND CHALLENGES

NREGA

Jogender Sharma
The programme reverses the way the Indian State has traditionally dealt with issues and envisages
a complete change in the manner of interaction of the state, the local power elites and the local
working classes in rural India.

he National Rural Employment Gaurantee act

(NREGA) has now been in operation for over
three years, and is extended to all the rural
areas of the country. In a relatively short span of
time, it has already become one of the most avidly
studied programmes of the Central Government.

of the programme. In fact, the huge potential of

the NREGS has already been evident particularly
in the enthusiastic response of the local people,
landless, the marginal farmers and women workers
in particular, wherever information about the
programme has been properly disseminated.

The National Rural Employment Scheme

(NREGS) is an important strategy in the current
economic context of global economic crisis and
national economic slowdown, where raising
aggregate demand is a major task for the government.
Fiscal policy that provides more wage income directly
to unskilled workers in the rural areas is likely to be
much more effective in increasing aggregate incomes
than other forms of public spending.

The programme reverses the way the Indian

State has traditionally dealt with issues and envisages
a complete change in the manner of interaction of
the state, the local power elites and the local working
classes in rural India.

POTENTIAL : It is also increasingly recognised

that the NREGS has the potential to transform rural
economic and social relations at many levels. It is
this capacity to engender change that is a source
of strength and a weakness for the implementation

The NREGS is therefore completely different

in conception from the earlier government
employment schemes since it treats employment
as a right and the programme is intended to
be demand-driven. Furthermore, the Act and
Guidelines anticipate substantial participation of
the local people in the planning and monitoring
of the specific schemes, to a degree which has not
been at all common.

Kurukshetra

December 2009

Obviously, all this will take time to permeate

down to the local levels. So, to start with, it is only
to be expected that there will be an uneven record
of implementation as well as the presence of a large
number of problems that require correction. There
are bound to be difficulties and time-lags in making
local officials and others responsive to this different
approach. And of course, the NREGS challenges the
prevailing power structures, in some cases quite
substantially.
Therefore, attempts to oppose or subvert the
correct and full implementation of the scheme in
rural areas are only to be expected.

CHALLENGES AHEAD
Few employment generation programmes
have created as much buzz as the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme. The NREGS makes
it mandatory for jobseekers to have a job card, for
which they have to apply to the panchayat The
panchayats in their turn are required to provide
applicants with job cards within 15 days. The
application for the work and dated receipt act as
job trigger mechanism. The system is still rough
around the edges with many of the states unable
to keep pace with the demand for the job cards and
provision of the dated receipts.
According to the NREGA website, as on March
2009, out of total 99 million households that
demanded employment, the number of households
working under NREGA is only 14 million and the
cumulative number of households that have
completed 100 days of employment is about 4
million. Although there is considerable lag in meeting
the set target, the fact that the NREGA has been able
to provide jobs and employment to millions of rural
households in some of the poorest states in the
country is a major achievement. More significantly, it
promises to serve millions of households, especially
those who are poor.
Many analysts feel that the programme is
boosting the purchasing power of the rural poor
and it has led to a stable income for the rural
population.
The most eligible rural families that the NREGA
hope to benefit are those of the landless-labours as
well as the small and marginal farmers.
4

Kurukshetra December 2009

SHORTCOMINGS
NREGA, as it currently exists, suffers from a
couple of major drawbacks. First, there is no focus
on guaranteeing a minimum quality of assets that
are sought to be created through the programme.
Labour-intensive employment programmes are
notorious for creating low-quality output.
It is not surprising that village roads that are
built by unskilled workers under such schemes are
often washed away during a heavy downpour. Thus,
the entire programme has no lasting value other
than providing employment for a specified number
of man-days. Second, the emphasis seems to be on
providing work opportunities to unskilled labour
and no attempt is being made to upgrade the skills
of rural youth and enable them to earn more.
NREGA needs to be a support-system for the
desperately poor and should enable, encourage and
empower them to stand on their own feet.
In its present format, NREGA could become
yet another subsidy programme that runs the risk
of becoming a burden on the national exchequer.
NREGA offers an opportunity of introducing the
target households to a saving and investing culture
that has major implications for future economic
growth of the country as well as for the financial
security of these households
About 34% households do have a bank account
but the fact is that most of these accounts are inactive.
Less than 9% of such households own a life insurance
product. NREGA would do well to encourage saving
and investing among the households and tie it up
with education-related and healthcare benefits. In
the final analysis, the challenge for NREGA would be
to transform itself into a self sustaining programme
that benefits the poorest of the poor without
becoming yet another subsidy driven programme
that is a drain on taxpayers as well as a logistic and
administrative nightmare.

GETTING YOUR Moneys WORTH ?

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India
(CAG) has pointed out a number of anomalies in the
governments flagship National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act(NREGA). Still, the scheme has managed
to touch and improve the lives of close to 5 crore
rural people more effectively than most of the anti-

poverty programmes in the country. Providing at least

100 days of wage payment to around 3 crore eligible
families, NREGA has achieved moderate success in
two of Indias largest states - Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Along with successes elsewhere, it has put the country
on its way to eradicating acute poverty by 2015, as
envisaged under the Millennium Development Goals.
According to data compiled by Ministry of Rural
Development, in states like Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Orissa, there has been a significant rise
in prescribed daily wage rates given to agricultural
labourers, following the introduction of NREGA.
The average daily manual wage has risen from Rs.
65 two years back to Rs. 85 at present. The states
are forced to revise the prescribed daily wage rate
as there has been acute shortage of labour in taking
up agricultural activities specially during sowing
and harvesting periods. CAG , which a few months
back had slammed the manner in which NREGA was
being implemented in the country, had categorically
accused it of poor record maintenance, delayed
payments and nonpayment of unemployment
allowance. NREGA has since taken corrective steps
towards stopping implementation malpractices.
NREGA has also initiated the worlds largest
financial inclusion measure by providing poor
people access to the formal banking system. The
impact of this has yet to be assessed by experts in
the field of financial management. Close to 5 crore
savings bank accounts have been opened with post
offices and banks across the country just for the
payment of wages under NREGA States like Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Kerala, Himachal
Pradesh have opened saving bank accounts for all the
NREGA workers while others like Orissa, Jharkhand,
Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have
made substantial progress in providing banking
services to poor rural folks.
While the world debates the adverse impact
of climate change, many rural development experts
have been describing NREGA as a tool that can
help mitigate this problem. According to the latest
data, an amazing 20.44 lakh works mostly related
to water conservation have been taken up under
NREGA, out of which 7.16 lakh works have been
completed. With such huge number of works
focusing on conserving and preserving water, NREGA
would definitely impact agricultural productivity in
the long run, Richard Mahapatra, a Delhi based
development writer said.

On its part the Ministry of Rural Development

has stated that an independent grievance
redressal mechanism through Lok Adalats is under
consideration. A national helpline to lodge complaints
against corrupt practices is also operational. More
than 83 lakh muster rolls have been verified and put
in the dedicated website for the programme - www.
nrega.nic.in, thus ensuring transparency. About 2
lakh independent social audits have been conducted
across the country for ensuring that malpractices are
minimized.

INCREASE IN WORKDAYS
The Central Government is set to significantly
expand the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme widely. The Ministry of Rural Development is
said to be working towards increasing the number of
days of guaranteed employment under the scheme
from the present threshold of 100 days a year.
Rajya Sabha MP and former governor of RBI Shri
Bimal Jalan had also suggested that the number of
guaranteed days of employment under the scheme
be increased to 120.
Experience shows that rural workers seek
employment only in the agricultural lean season or
in drought-prone states.
In 2008-09, the average duration of employment
per household under NREGS was a mere 47 days.
While workers in Rajasthan were employed for the
longest duration under the scheme at an average of
76 days, those in Kerala sought employment for an
average of only 22 days . NREGS, launched in 2006,
guarantees 100 days of wage employment every fiscal
to each household whose adult member volunteers
to do unskilled manual work. For 2009-10, the centre
has allocated Rs. 30,100 crore to the scheme, which
currently covers 4.5 crore households. The scheme
was expanded to cover all 615 districts of the country
in 2008-09.

HAS NREGS RUN OUT OF STEAM ?

At the risk of stating the obvious, a major antipoverty intervention such as the NREGS failure
or success depends on the indicators used. Many
have debunked this nation-wide programme while
others have given a strong endorsement on the
grounds that it is beginning to transform the lives
of the poor and making them better aware of their
entitlements.
Kurukshetra

December 2009

Analysis
We have analyzed data on NREGS for 2007-08
and 2008-09.
We have grouped( the common 142 districts in
2007-08 and 2008-09) into four categories : where
excess supply persisted, where excess demand
persisted, where excess demand in 2007-08 turned
into excess supply in 2008-09, and where excess supply
in 2007-08 turned into excess demand in 2008-09.
The results point to significant changes. Supply
exceeded demand in a majority of districts in
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In sharp
contrast is Bihar where not even one district had
more supply than demand. A vast majority of districts
in Bihar(about 83%) recorded persistent excess
demand, illustrating under-provision of NREGS jobs.
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh also had well over one quarter of the
districts in this category.
Yet another indicator of how these states
performed is the proportion of districts where
excess demand in 2007-08 turned into excess supply
in 2008-09. Interestingly, about 17% of the districts
in Bihar are grouped in this category and about
11% in Andhra Pradesh, implying that no negligible
proportions registered an improvement in the sense
that there was a positive response to prevailing excess
demand. But a considerably higher proportion of
districts in the aggregate sample recorded reversal of
excess supply in 2007-08 to excess demand in 200809. In this category, the largest proportion was found
in Uttar Pradesh, followed by Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The mean excess demand in 2007-08 was
8020 and it doubled in 2008-09, implying that the gap
in (absolute value) rose considerably. This suggests
that NREGS became less responsive to demand
in 2008-09. Also, the range of excess demand (the
difference between the maximum and minimum
values) was wider in 2008-09. Thus there was a
relative deterioration in the performance of NREGS.
Moreover, in all six states, the gaps widened.
let us now examine whether excess demand for
NREGS is responsive to head-count index of poverty,
based on the 61st round of the NSS. If this is so then
it implies that more poor people are demanding work
under this scheme than supplied. This is corroborated by
our econometric analysis. However, the responsiveness
of demand to poverty increases but at a diminishing
6

Kurukshetra December 2009

rate. So the policy insight is to ensure that supply

adjusts to demand - especially in districts with higher
incidence of poverty - at a faster rate.

HIGH WAGE WONT HELP THE RURAL

POOR
The Rs. 39,000 crore allocation to NREGS in
the budget for the year 2009-10 may be the largest
allocation to a poverty reduction programme since
independence. If taxes are the price to pay for
civilisation and NREGS-type programmes are the cost
of getting reformist governments elected then so be
it NREGS, till now, has little to do with employment,
job creation or skill development and its primary
purpose was to create a safety net for the desperate
rural poor. So far so good. But the budget increase
in the wages under NREGS from Rs. 60 per day to
Rs. 100 per day takes it to dangerous territory.
Wages in dry land agriculture today are far
below this level and no employer would or should
(given current productivity) be willing to match
this. This means that the government has created
an above market and above productivity wage
rate that could distort labour markets by creating
incentives to move away from non-NREGS work in
rural areas to NREGS work. This could not only retard
non-farm job creation but sabotage incentives to
upgrade skills and work hard. The safety net could
easily become a hammock. This may not happen in
next year and the decision could be reviewed but
that is unlikely given the labour market programme
optics that make them political one-way streets.
If the objective of the new NREGS wages is
to accelerate the farm to non-farm transition then
it is welcome because of our pathetic agricultural
productivity. India is the largest producer of milk in
the world but 75 million people produce 100 million
tones. In, the United States farmers produces 60
million tones with 100,000 people. But does the
government really want to be the largest rural nonfarm employment ? Is NREGS creating a bridge to
sustainable employment or a massive make-work
scheme ? There are two fundamental and closely
related issues here. How are wages set and why are
they so low in rural India ? Can NREGS-II combine higher
wages with capability and ecosystem building ? It not
only can but it must.


q
(The author is a social worker.
e -mail : jogendar_sharma@yahoo.com)

Transforming Rural India

NREGA
Anupam Hazra

NREGA is the first ever law internationally, that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented
scale.

ational Rural Employment Guarantee Act

(NREGA), with its rights-based framework, is
a paradigm shift from all other development
programs that were traditionally supply led. NREGA is
one of the largest single rights-based social protection
initiatives in the world. NREGA is the first ever law
internationally, that guarantees wage employment
at an unprecedented scale. The potential of NREGA
spans a range of possibilities. The primary objective
of the Act is augmenting wage employment. The
choice of works suggested in the Act addresses
causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation
and soil erosion, so that the process of employment
generation is maintained on a sustainable basis.
NREGA essentially guarantees employment for
the unemployed in rural areas for 100 days in a year,
through work such as building roads, improving water
supply and works that are necessary to improve the
village infrastructure. The uniqueness of this act is in
the fact that it carries emphasis on issues like equality

of wages for men and women, elimination of work

contracting/middlemen, payment of wages only
through bank and post office accounts to prevent
corruption, creating transparency in workers muster
rolls etc. Any individual, irrespective of his socioeconomic status can ask for employment (either in
writing or verbally) with the Gram Panchayat. The act
guarantees that if work is not provided within a 15
day time frame (including the eligibility verification
and issuing of the job cards) then the applicant is
eligible for unemployment allowance. Work to be
done is decided by the Gram Panchayat. Emphasis is
given to unskilled manual labor focusing on building
roads and other public village infrastructural facilities,
water conservation, afforestation, land development
& drought proofing. All adults in a house hold are
eligible to work. If the work site is not within 5
kilometers from the applicants residence then the
applicant is eligible for an additional 10% of the
wage. This law can be a big boost for nomadic tribal
communities since locally domiciled but migrant
population is also eligible for employment.

Kurukshetra

December 2009

As successive social audits of the NREGA have

revealed, there are standout success stories. Wages
are rising, migration is slowing down, productive

become a significant vehicle for regeneration of Indias

depleting natural resource base. And it seems that
in the long term, NR net through NREGSEGA might
have a huge impact on our countries environment
and gross agricultural output as it emphasizes on
works that target water conservation, afforestation
and drought proofing.
Preventing Migration: By securing livelihood
and creating employment opportunities at the village
level itself - NREGA mitigates seasonal/distress
migration which has been a significant source of
employment and income for a large proportion of
rural population.

assets are being created and the power equations are

changing too. In Rajasthan, where public awareness
of the programme is high, 77 days of employment
per rural household were provided in 2006-2007.
In Tamil Nadu, the participation of women was as
high as 81 per cent. In both States, social audits in
different districts have shown that embezzlement
of funds, irregularities in the muster rolls, and other
types of corruption have declined substantially. In
Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand, the NREGA has created
positive changes in the implementation of public
works programmes. A recent delegation of the Central
Employment Guarantee Council to Sonebhadra
district in U.P. found the scale of employment has
increased, minimum wages are being paid, delays
in wage payments have been sharply reduced, and
the exploitative practices of private contractors are
a thing of the past.

The Potentialities & Possibilities

Strengthening Democracy: NREGA visualizes
the involvement of local people in every decision
whether it be the selection of works and work-sites,
the implementation of projects or their social audit. It
strengthens the democratic decentralization processes
at the grassroot-level by incorporating Gram Sabha in
the entire planning and decision-making process. It
also infuses transparency and accountability in grass
root democratic processes through social audits.
Encouraging Natural Resource Management:
Focusing on strengthening natural resource
management such as afforestation, drought proofing,
flood proofing, water conservation - the Act has
8

Kurukshetra December 2009

Controlling Spread of HIV/AIDS: NREGA also

has the potential to address other major sociological
issues like the spread of AIDS, stop farmers suicides
etc. since migration of rural population is one of the
leading causes for the spread of AIDS.
Transforming rural economic and social
relations: It is also increasingly recognized that the
NREGA has the potential to transform rural economic
and social relations at many levels. The legislation
is having a positive impact on the socio-economic
empowerment of women (as the Act mandates at
least 33 percent participation for women).Where the
NREGA has led to a significant increase in womens
paid work, there are likely to be substantial social
changes as well. These would be in addition to other
changes such as the decline in distress migration and
the improvement in food consumption among certain
families. Not only does the NREGA provide money
incomes directly to those women participating in
it, in many states the wage delivery mechanism is
linked to the opening of post office or bank accounts.
This involves the access of a much greater number
of women in institutional finance from which they
have been largely excluded. Intra-household gender
relations are also likely to be affected, but these
changes will occur over a longer time and would
require more extensive sociological study to identify.
Nonetheless, This greater participation of women in
the NREGA, particularly in some states, is clearly a
positive indicator that shows the inclusive potential
of the program in unanticipated ways.

Women at work under NREGA

Potentiality to improve Health status: The
village health status of the village is likely to improve

through proper implementation of NREGA due

to (1) regular availability of clean potable drinking
water, (2) construction of drainage that will improve
the cleanliness in the village, and thereby reduce the
chances of occurrence of diseases, (3) construction
of toilets will also improve the level of cleanliness
in the village and public health status, (4) reduction
in unpaid drudgery of women will reduce their time
stress and provide them more time to relax or to
work and (5) construction of child care center will
improve general health of children, who will receive
nutritious food and clean environment. This will
reduce their expenditure on health (which is usually
private expenditure) and improve their productivity
at work. Considering the fact that ill health is one
of the major risks that throws people in poverty,
the improved status of health will go a long way in
reducing vulnerability and poverty of people.
Improvement of Rural Educational Status:
Many children in school-going-age in the village are
engaged in collection of fodder, fuel wood, water etc
or in animal grazing. Assuring water supply at the
door step, regeneration of common lands for fuel
and fodder as well as child care centers will reduce
unpaid work of children. This will enable them to
attend the school regularly. This will particularly be
beneficial to girl children, who stay back at home
either to take care of younger siblings or to help in
collection of water, fodder etc and other household
work. Moreover, improved economic condition will
encourage parents to send their children to school

Emerging issues & debates

When the act was passed, there was a fairly
strong consensus that this was an initiative that

would have the potential to transform rural India. The

national coalition government described NREGA as
revolutionary, and maintained that it would impact
on poverty in a major way by building infrastructure
and enhancing growth in rural areas. The National
Advisory Council, which prepared the draft bill, was
also convinced that the act would cause a major decline
in rural poverty. Many development professionals and
writers on rural development and decentralisation
referred to the act as a historic piece of legislation. A
large part of civil society, including the Right to Food
Campaign, welcomed NREGA because the rights-based
platform of the programme could make a difference
to rural livelihood security by guaranteeing 100 days
of employment. NREGA was also internationally
recognised as an outstanding initiative seeking to
safeguard the right to work, which forms a part of the
Indian Constitution. However, as the programme has
unfolded, certain questions are being raised. Many,
including some of those involved in drafting the bill,
now recognise that much still needs to be done to
support the rights of the poor, and to defend them
against corrupt officials. The financing of the scheme
continues to be an issue of debate. Criticism is also
mounting from civil society: many argue that the poor
implementation of NREGA makes beneficiaries believe
that it is no better than other government schemes
that have had little impact on poverty.
From a poverty-reduction point of view, one of
the most fundamental criticisms of NREGA is that the
types of activities for which work can be funded e.g.
water conservation, land development, afforestation,
provision of irrigation systems, construction of roads,
or flood control are prone to being taken over
by wealthier sections of society. Complaints about
payment delays and even inadequate payment, lack
of facilities at the work site such as shade and safe
drinking water are piling up. In some States, notably
Orissa, corruption is very much in evidence. There
are also programmatic concerns such as the absence
of worksite facilities for women with children and
the need for a fair revision of the schedule of rates.
These issues need to be addressed swiftly. None of
them must be allowed to deter the wholehearted
implementation of an Act that has become a lifeline
for millions of Indians who have been left out in the
cold by high economic growth.
NREGA is already making a difference to the
lives of the people. Yet there is a long way to go.
Kurukshetra

December 2009

schemes, through Gram Sabhas, social audit,

participatory planning and other activities. In fact,
the huge potential of the NREGA has already been
evident particularly in the enthusiastic response
of local people, landless and marginal farmers and
women workers in particular, wherever information
about the program has been properly disseminated.

There are some issues in terms of the benefits

to be drawn from the assets created by the
scheme. Also, the menial nature and the lack of
encouragement for both skilled labor and further
training is something that is of concern in the long
run. Implementation issues like issuance of jobcards on time is also a concern. Facilities for workers
would also have to be improved over time. From the
labor market point of view, it would be important to
create a safety net through NREGA for poor people
without damaging the labor market and employment
prospects.
Without a doubt, NREGA has the potential to
change the socio-economic landscape in rural India
in the long term. But as with any other legislation,
it is practically impossible to make it foolproof.
Middlemen coming into Illegal nexuses with corrupt
govt. officials to swig away the NREGA funds are
to be expected. The only way corruption can be
stemmed is by proactive peoples involvement in
the implementation process. People should start
questioning the officials for transparency in the
process and get proper information about creation of
muster rolls and disbursement of funds. And as such,
it feels like RTI (Right to Information Act) should and
will become the primary weapon for people.

Conclusion
The NREGA is an important step towards
realisation of the right to work. It is expected
to enhance peoples livelihood security on a
sustained basis, by developing economic and
social infrastructure in rural areas. One of the most
distinguishing features of the NREGA is its approach
towards empowering citizens to play an active role
in the implementation of employment guarantee
10 Kurukshetra December 2009

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of NREGA,

making a decisive break with the past, is the complete
ban on contractors. Ever since independence, most
government programmes in rural areas have been
implemented through the agency of local contractors,
who have emerged as major agents of exploitation
of the rural poor, especially women. They have run
roughshod over basic human rights, paid workers
a pittance and used labour-displacing machinery.
NREGA bans the use of such machines, mandates
payment of statutory minimum wages and provides
various legal entitlements to workers. All of this is
obviously incompatible with programmes where the
main goal becomes maximization of profits of the
contractor.
It is a very interesting time in the history of
independent India, when the government is taking
steps to provide its citizens with rights that it has
never given before. I am speaking of Acts like
Right to Education, Right to Information, Right to
Employment (NREGA) and Right to Food. But given
our semi-socialist and semi-capitalist governance
structure, proactive participation of people is of
prime importance to make sure these laws are
q
implemented properly.

(The
author is Assistant Professor,
Department of Social Work, Assam (Central)
University,
Silchar
788011;
Assam
e-mail:anupam688@yahoo.co.in)

NEED TO SHARPEN NREGA

Dr. M.S. Tomar, Dr. B.S. Yadav
Earlier wage employment programmes were allocation based. However, NREGA is not supply
driven but demand driven.

age employment programmes have been

important elements of public policy in
India to provide unskilled workers with
short-term employment on public works. They
provide income transfers to poor households during
periods when they suffer on account of absence of
opportunities of employment. Under the directive
principles, it has been laid down that the state
shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by
securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, social
order in which social justice, economic and political
freedom shall in all the institutions of national life.
With this motto, the strategy of direct assault on
poverty and inequality through rural development
and rural employment programme has been adopted
in different five year plan periods.
Since independence, many schemes for the
welfare of the weaker sections of the society have
been started in India. So, India has a long history

and experience in implementing wage employment

programmes such as Community Development
Programme, Small Farmers Development Agency,
Drought Prone Area Programme, Minimum Needs
Programme, Twenty Point Economic Programme,
Desert Development Programme, Training of
Rural Youth for Self Employment, National
Rural Development Programme, Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme, Integrated Rural
Development Programme, Antodya Yojna, Jawahar
Rojgar Yojna, Employment Insurance Scheme,
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, Jawahar
gram Smridhi Yojna, Pradhan Mantri Gramalaya
yojana, etc. implemented by state governments
with central assistance. These programmes are selftargeting, and the objective is to provide enhanced
livelihood security, especially to those dependent on
casual manual labour. Beginning with Community
Development Programme in 1952, the outreach
of these programmes increased significantly,

Kurukshetra

December 2009

11

culminating in National Rural Employment Guarantee

Scheme which was implemented by the enactment
of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(NREGA), 2005.

Rural Employment
In the rural sector, most of the employment is in
agriculture and allied activities. Rural unemployment
has sharply increased in India in recent years. Rural
unemployment increased at the annual rate of 0.58
percent between 1993-94 and 1999-2000 while
the rate of growth of rural labour force was much
higher. Due to non-availability of gainful employment
opportunities in rural areas, an increasing number
of rural households have faced complete collapse
of their incomes. This miserable plight of the rural
households has driven an unprecedented number of
farmers to commit suicide. Addressing the challenge
of unemployment in the rural areas of the country
is central to the development of rural sector for
ameliorating the economic condition of the people.
Taking in consideration this humanitarian crisis
seriously, the government of the United Progressive
Alliance at the centre made a commitment in its
common minimum programme, that it would
immediately enact an Employment guarantee Act.
The draft proposed by the National Advisory Council
envisaged legal guarantee to every household in rural
areas for 100 days for doing casual manual work.
Thus, NREGA was notified on September 7, 2005. The
Act came into force on February 2, 2006 when 200
selected districts of the country were brought under
its purview (Phase I, 2006-07). NREGA was extended
to additional 130 districts in phase II during 2007-08.
The remaining rural areas were notified with effect
from April 1, 2008. NREGA now covers all rural areas
of the country.

Performance of NREGA
This is a historic and unique legislation
reiterating governments commitment towards
livelihood security of people in rural areas. The
Act provides at least 100 days of guaranteed wage
employment in a financial year to every house hold
whose adult member volunteer to do unskilled
manual work. Earlier wage employment programmes
were allocation based. However, NREGA is not supply
driven but demand driven.
12 Kurukshetra December 2009

According to C.P. Chandrasekhar and Jayati

Ghosh, The NREGA is necessarily inclusive at
the most basic level in economic terms, because
it self targets those who are willing to engage
in arduous physical work for a daily wage, in
other words, the poorest sections of society.
But it is also emerging that the NERGA tends
to be more socially inclusive as well, that is, it
disproportionately involves women, SCs and STs
as workers in the scheme. Thus, the impressive
participation of women in NREGA is a harbinger of
social change and it will lead to decline in distress
migration and improvement in food consumption
among certain families.

Criticism
Various reports and surveys conducted by
different organizations, researchers and institutions
have pointed out various flaws in the working of
NREGA. Some of the indicated criticisms are as
follows :
1.

The Comptroller and Auditor General Report,

2007 underlined the fact that the guidelines
indicated in the NREGA have not been
followed effectively. The glaring deficiencies
found in the working of NREGA include lack
of manpower, inadequate professional and
administrative staff, lack of proper project
planning and monitoring, bureaucratic
resistance, lack of transparency and absence
of social audit, inappropriate rates of payment,
poor maintenance of records, etc.

2.

A study carried out by the centre for

Environment and Food Security (CEFS) on the
progress of NREGA in Orissa has revealed that
out of Rs. 733 crores spent under NREGA,
more than Rs. 500 crores was unaccounted for,
probably siphoned off and misappropriated
by government officials. The research team
also found that not a single family in the 100
sample villages was able to secure 100 days of
wage employment. Very few families got 20-40
days, the rest mostly between 5-20 days, if at
all. Fake job cards and fabricated muster rolls
exaggerated the benefits of the scheme. The
social audit was non-existent. Thus, the ground
reality was highly distressing despite tall claims

getting work done under NREGA is tantamount

to going to jail and that the unemployment
allowance will have to be given out of the
sarpanchs pocket. The study conducted by
the NGO further reveals that Employment
Guarantee Assistants (EGAs) employed by
panchayats themselves work as contractors.
Besides this, in Chattisgarh, the study of 50
percent of NREGA works supposed to be
implemented by rural labourers and other
staff are invariably found using machinery.
Likewise, in some states like Madhya Pradesh,
the unemployment allowance was paid,
but only to a few workers and after a long
struggle. Even this was charged to the central
Government.

of the government of the success about NREGAs

implementation.
3.

K.S. Gopal, the Director of Center for

Environmental Concerns has also pointed out
the all the assets being built under scheme are
waste and by and large, unproductive.

4.

Siddartha and Anish Vanaik pointing towards

delayed payments of wages have mentioned
that for those who come to NREGA worksites,
the consequences of not receiving wages on
time are often cycles of debt or migration.
Apart from delayed wages, labourers were
some times paid wages at outdated rates.

5.

There is enough tampering of muster rolls by

using white fluid and marking absent as present
and also overwriting the numbers of days
worked. In some cases, the names of workers
who have already migrated to other places,
were also found on the muster rolls. Moreover,
names of dead persons were also found on the
muster rolls.

6.

7.

Lack of adequate and devoted administrative

and technical staff for NREGA is the main
impediment responsible for procedural lapses.
Appointments of programme officers and gram
rojgar sevaks have not been carried out in
some states. There is no provision for proper
maintenance of job cards and muster rolls.
The mandatory biannual social audits are not
taking place at many places. Similarly, staff
shortages have become a common excuse for
non-compliance with the guidelines.
Under the stipulations of the Act, the state
government will be responsible for the
payment of the unemployment allowance.
The provision is considered as an incentive to
the states to provide employment since the
central government bears 90% of the cost of
employment. However, a number of states
have not taken any interest in the disbursement
of unemployment allowance or have tried
to effectively scuttle it. In Rajnandgaon
district, Chhattisgarh, according to, National
Consortium of Civil Society Organizations
(CSOs), NGO Reports, Sarpanches fear that

8.

Widespread irregularities in its implementation

and misappropriation of allotted funds have
also been found on a large scale in Sitapur,
Kaushambi, Bhadohi, Mirzapur, unnao districts
and Bundelkhand region of U.P. Bribes and
paybacks are common. It indicates absolute
non-seriousness and indifferent attitude of
implementing agencies towards NREGA.

Suggestive measures :
1.

Dedicated and fully trained full-time

professionals should be appointed for the
effective implementation of the scheme.

2.

Concerted efforts should be made to reduce

the time-gap between work done and payment
received by rural labourers in NREGA.

3.

Full-time trained employment guarantee

assistants should be appointed at the panchayat
level. Their presence would be helpful in
making rural people aware of the benefits
of the programme and initiate them to take
advantage of the scheme.

4.

A shelf of projects undertaken should be

prepared at the district level with the help
of programme officers, technical staff and
representatives of panchayati raj institutions
so that projects cleared at the district level may
be implemented effectively at the grassroots
levels.
Kurukshetra

December 2009

13

5.

Management Information System should

be used in order to improve the system of
monitoring of the programme as also to check
leakages and misappropriation of funds.

6.

Schedule of wage rates should be revised

periodically, so that changes in statutory
minimum rates of wages may be made
consistent with their revision.

7.

Role of panchayats in proper planning,

implementation and monitoring of NREGA
through preparation of perspective plans,
approval of shelf of projects and execution
should be encouraged. There must be enough
transparency in the process of implementation
of the scheme and social audit should be strictly
followed.

should be strictly established. Similarly, those

who violate the norms of the scheme, should
be severely punished for their acts.
10. A massive programme of generating public
awareness about the programme with the help
of information technology should be initiated
at a large scale.
11. Public accountability for ensuring proper choice
of beneficiaries and proper use of funds should
be imposed.
12. Some institutional mechanisms for making
complaints or seeking redressal of grievances
must be evolved.

8.

Proper maintenance of job cards, muster rolls

and other records relating to the scheme at the
block and panchayat level should be ensured.

13. Peoples development councils at the village

level should be created to break the present
nexus among the various implementing
authorities of the scheme for its effective
q
implementation.

9.

Accountability of the implementing authorities

engaged in the process of implementation of
this scheme from village level to district level

(The authors are Principal and Reader & Head,

D.N.P.G. College, Gulaothi, (Bulandshahr) U.P.,
e-mail : balbirsinghyadav@yahoo.com)

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14 Kurukshetra December 2009

Driver of Rural Economy

healthy economy requires a strong rural

base. The primary objective of National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act, which has been
under implementation since August 25, 2005, is to
augment wage employment besides strengthening
the natural resource management through works
that address causes of chronic poverty including
drought, deforestation and soil erosion and to
encourage sustainable development.

Performance of NREGS in India

The pioneering programme saw its budget outlay
increase to Rs 30,100 crore in the interim budget for
2009-10. In the last fiscal, the same stood at Rs 16,000
crore. The NREGS aimed at generating jobs in the
rural areas, provided employment to over 4.47 crore
households in the previous fiscal. During the first
year of implementation (FY 2006-07) in 200 districts,

NREGA

D.Muthamizh Vendan Murugavel

more than 2.10 crore households were employed and
90.5 crore persondays were employed. In 2007-08,
3.39 crore households were provided employment
and 143.59 crore person days were generated in
330 districts. In 2008-2009, 4.5 crore households
have been provided employment and 215.63 crore
persondays have been generated across the country.
NREGS has already created half-a-million assets
and provided jobs to around 3% of Indias population.
About 4.5 crore households in the country benefited
from the pioneering National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme in the financial year 2008-09, an
increase of 32 per cent over the previous year. This
is a significant jump over the 3.39 crore households
covered under the scheme during 2007-08.
At the National Level, average wage paid
under NREGA has increased from Rs.65 in 2006-07

Kurukshetra

December 2009

15

to Rs.84 in 08-09 (provisional).The enhanced wage

earnings have led to a strengthening of the livelihood
resource base of the rural poor in India. In 20072008, more than 68% of funds utilised (Rs.10,738.47
crore as wage expenditure) were in the form of
wages paid to the labourers. In 2008-2009, 67% of
the funds have been utilized in the form of wages
(Rs.18146.63 crore as wage expenditure in 2008-09).
The Central Government has been encouraging the
state governments to make wage payment through
bank and post office accounts of wage seekers and
over 7 crore accounts have been opened in banks
and post offices throughout the country to disburse
the wages.

Monitoring mechanism through National Level

Monitors (NLMs). These NLMs visit various districts
to assess the implementation of the Act. In cases
of complaints of serious nature, the NLMs are
deputed to enquire into the matter. A grievance
redressal mechanism has been set up. National tollfree telephone Helpline under NREGA has been
established which receives complaints and queries
relating to NREGS. State Governments have also been
requested to set up similar helplines at the State and
district levels. Helplines have been set up in Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
West Bengal, Goa and A&N islands.

COMPLAINTS

NREGS has been the most successful in

Rajasthan. The state created 77 person-days of work
per household, with women doing 68 % of the work.
The Act has also been a success in the states of Assam
and Madhya Pradesh. The ostensible objectives of
the NREGA Act were to create rural employment,
build rural infrastructure and check migration to
urban areas from drought affected districts.

The Ministry of Rural Development has received

674 complaints regarding the implementation of
NREGS till date since its launch in 2006. The maximum
number of complaints have been registered from
Uttar Pradesh at 204 while Madhya Pradesh comes
next with 128 complaints. Implementation of NREGS
is done by the State Governments in accordance with
the Employment Guarantee Scheme formulated by
each State. Therefore, all complaints received in the
Ministry are sent to the concerned State Government
for taking appropriate action in accordance with the
provisions of the Act. The Ministry has an independent

In Rajasthan 64 % of the works done were water

related. States like Tamil Nadu and Kerala had a very
high involvement of women, 81 and 86 % respectively.
These are states known for their greater empowerment
of women. In a state like Rajasthan, where women

Table-2 Status of NREGS

Particulars

2008-09

2007-08

2006-07

Employment demanded
by households(in crore)

4.54

3.43

2.12

Employment provided
to households(in crore)

4.5

3.39

2.1

216.04

143.68

90.51

Total available fund (including OB in crore)

36263.46

19278.78

12073.56

Expenditure(in crore)

27180.63

15858.44

8823.36

Works completed
(in Lakhs)

12.11

8.2

3.97

Works in progress
(in Lakhs)

15.11

9.61

4.45

Persondays(in crore)

Source: NREGA Bulletin; OB-Outstanding Balance

16 Kurukshetra December 2009

are still not empowered, the scheme seems to have

provided a stage for women to come forward and
assert themselves. So, large interventions from a state
that is theoretically pro-women can become a means
for womens rights groups, NGOs and individual
women to initiate change. Unfortunately, by failing
to realise the potential of the NREGS, advanced states
like Gujarat, Punjab and Maharashtra are missing out
on substantial social gains.

Social Audit under NREGS

The basic objective of social audit is to ensure
public accountability the implementation of projects,
laws and policies. It is a process in which details
of the resources, both financial and non-financial,
used by public agencies for development initiatives
are shared with the people, often through a public
platform such as the gram sabha in rural India.
Social Audits allow people to enforce accountability
and transparency, providing the ultimate users an
opportunity to scrutinise development initiatives.
The process of Social Audit involves the following
components:
l

Availability of information/details of the

resource, financial and non-financial, used by
public agencies for development initiatives
Organising the ultimate users/beneficiaries/
people and
Scrutiny of the information by the end users

Social Audit is equally necessary for the effective

implementation of NREGS. Social audits are a process
where teams visit NREGS work sites in every gram
panchayat and physically cross check the work done
with the records. Each team is led by district resource
person and consists of 4-5 people drawn from civil
society organisations. The point of an audit is that
it should be conducted by people from outside the
Government. Social auditing involves consolidating
the muster roll - the register that records the amount
of work done by each person and feeding it into
software that verifies it with the pay order to detect
discrepancies. The social auditing process has brought
down fraud at the muster roll level and ensured that
the rural poor receive money for work done.

Convergence of the Scheme

NREGS projects included digging ponds and
building, but does now include asset building schemes
like constructing schools and hospitals. The NREGS
will no longer be a simple job guarantee scheme
but would now encompass building rural hospitals,
schools in villages and canals for irrigation projects.
This would not only give employment to the poor
villagers but also help in building assets. The draft
policy looks for dovetailing of funds and convergence
of schemes run by different ministries like health,
education and water resources as the budget for this
scheme has been increased by over 144 per cent.
The new scheme will have twin benefits - by building
hospitals it will help the National Rural Health Mission
but also save money on wages. This could be true for
the education, forest and fisheries departments.

Highlights of NREGS
l

The transition to a rights-based framework has

led to a major decline in labour exploitation on
rural public works.

Wages are higher than they used to be.

Delays in wage payments are shorter.

Productivity norms more reasonable.

Complaints of worksite harassment rare.

NREGS is a valuable and valued opportunity for

the rural poor, and particularly for women, to
earn a living wage in a dignified manner.

Finance Minister has promised in his budget

speech that the real wage rate paid under
NREGS will be Rs 100 per day.

Transparency and accountability to the poorest

and the weakest is in fact the biggest potential
contribution of the NREGS to the entire
governance system.

NREGA is also an outstanding example of how

the RTI Act can be woven into the fabric of
Kurukshetra

December 2009

17

the delivery system and the whole legal and

governance paradigm.
l

NREGS has found enthusiastic supporters in the

rural areas and has been responsible for better
wages for the poor in general.

NREGS places a ban on contractors and their

machines. It mandates payment of statutory
minimum wages and provides various legal
entitlements to workers. It visualises the
involvement of local people in every decision
whether it be the selection of works and worksites, the implementation of projects or their
social audit.

In recent Budget an allocation of Rs 39,100

crore (Rs. 391 billion) for NREGA for 2009-10
was made, which is an increase of 144 per cent
over 2008-09.
Table-5 Budget allocation for NREGS

Recommendations of Centre for Science

and Environment (CSE) for effective
implementation of NREGS
According to a comprehensive new report
by the Centre for Science and Environment, the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
must be strengthened and revamped to provide not
just wages for work done but work that will make
ecological regeneration possible. It further says that
the scheme has huge potential for regenerating the
village economy in India, but only if its focus remains
on the creation of productive assets and focus on the
following :
l

Not just the wage provided but also the asset

created and its effectiveness. This will make
village development, through productive assetcreation, the primary objective.

Make
wage
payment
people
and
development-friendly; provide a premium
wage for development programmes that will
ensure that the work done is completed and
is useful.

Year

Amount (in crores)

Growth (%)

2007-08

12000

2008-09

16000

33(over previous
year)

2009-10

39100

144(over previous
year)

Continue emphasising water conservation

works under the NREGS by providing additional
incentives.

Budget also proposed convergence of NREGS

with other schemes relating to agriculture, forest,
water resources, land resources and rural roads.

Make the completion and maintenance of

works under the NREGA mandatory.

Give importance to forestation under the NREGA

by linking it to other forestry programmes.

Do more to strengthen village-level planning

and decision-making by revamping current
operational structures.

Equip Panchayats with the necessary personnel

and funds for effective implementation of
the scheme.


q

Source: Indian Export Import Portal

The NREGA stresses transparency, through

Social Audits and integration with the RTI act. Thus
the act provides a platform for grass-root activists,
NGOs and individuals to take on Indias peopleunfriendly bureaucracy.
Several initiatives taken by the Rural
Development ministry like taking cooperation of
IITs, IIMs and Universities in the process of creating
awareness as well as the efforts of legal fraternity in
the country for the cause of empowering the rural
people in getting their legal rights so far reaping the
benefits of NREGS are concerned.
18 Kurukshetra December 2009

(The author is Lecturer, PG & Research

Department of Commerce, Gobi Arts & Science
College, Gobichettipalayam, Erode district,
Tamil Nadu, e-mail: mvm_gasc@rediffmail.com)

Meet your Minister

The youngest Minister of State in the Indian Parliament, Ms. Agatha Sangma who views the Ministry
of Rural Development as the gateway to our country and wants the youth of our country to go
green, granted us an interview for the Grameen Bharat newsletter. Given below are excerpts from
the interview.
Q1. Congratulations on being the youngest
Minister of State in the 15th Lok Sabha. Can
you tell us how coming from a political family
influenced you?
Ans. Since I belong to a political family, a lot has come
very naturally to me because I have seen this
ever since I was growing up, so the kind of life a
politician leads has not taken me by surprise. I
did not have much to adapt to, as I was already
so much a part of that whole system. I saw the
kind of life my father leads and even interacted
with people who came to meet him, so there
has always been a very adaptable feeling. It
was also an inspiration to see how my father
works and how his work is changing the lives
of many people around him. He inspired me to
be politically active. Personally, when I was a
student, I was not at all into politics, I was never
directly involved in the student movements or
even in my fathers political party issues as I
was more of a silent spectator.
Q2. We hear that you are a lawyer, an
environmentalist and an amateur photographer
as well. Please tell us which of these you like
the most and why?
Ans. There are no second thoughts to it, I would
defi nitely work in the fi eld of environment
as I believe in it passionately. In fact, be that
politics, law or anything else, I would take
environmental issues as an integral part of any
career that I pursue. There is huge potential for
including environmental issues in development
and for this reason it is imperative that we
consider environmental issues.

Rural Development programmes for ensuring

that there is sustainable development. The entire
rural economy is the most environmentally
sustainable economy; rural lifestyle is the most
environmentally sustainable lifestyle. It is very
important to strike a balance between providing
basic amenities to people and at the same time
making them understand that urbanization is not
the answer for a happy life. You can have a rural
life and you can have a contented life at the same
time. For example, I take care of Drinking Water
and Sanitation and there are a lot of environment
issues to that. Total Sanitation Campaign is one
of our campaigns. I really want to promote EcoSanitation, but we cannot start it at one go. I
want to use the system to actually create viable
environment solutions in the coming times
because sanitation is an issue which plays a very
important role. We need to ensure that there is
sanitation and also that there is a sustainable
way of disposing waste.
Q4. Coming from Meghalaya, do you have any
special plans to better implement the Rural
Development programmes in the North
Eastern States?
Ans. Yes. I have a very soft corner for the North East.
I feel that the North East of India does need

Q3. Howwouldyouproposetointegrateenvironmental
issues with Rural Development programmes?
Ans. What I am most excited about is the huge potential
I see for integrating environmental issues with
Kurukshetra

December 2009

19

development from the Centre specifi cally. I

feel that there is a huge potential in the NE to
contribute towards national growth. Infact
in the NE, I see tourism as the main potential,
especially eco-tourism. I believe that we in the
NE must be able to bring about development
in our region without having to compromise on
our natural heritage and ethnicity. The youngest
Minister of State in the Indian Parliament, Ms.
Agatha Sangma who views the Ministry of Rural
Development as the gateway to our country
and wants the youth of our country to go green,
granted us an interview for the Grameen Bharat
newsletter. Given below are excerpts from
the interview. We should make good quality
educational institutions more accessible to the
people. Then, defi nitely, we can make progress.

I also feel that NE boys and girls are very talented,

sports and music come very naturally to them
and this must be tapped. The traditional music
and dance is very rich, they take pride in that.

The north east is organic by default, the only

thing we lack is certifi cation. If we can certify
the NE region as organic, then there is a huge
potential in the international market. This
could be a signifi cant way to preserve the biodiversity and crop variety.

The inclusion of the North-East in the history

books, from basic elementary education
onwards could help in building positive attitudes
from a young age.

Q5. What, in your mind, are the biggest challenges

that face Rural Development today? And how
would you plan to overcome them?
Ans. The biggest challenge we face is the effective
implementation of the schemes that are
already in place. There are plenty of schemes
within the Ministry of Rural Development with
ample funds and they address all the needs
that the rural people would want but eventually
the implementation is not effective enough
to address the problems that they have. The
key challenge is to ensure that there is a much
more drastic improvement in implementation
which is very diffi cult of course because India is
such a large country. The Ministry is the funding
agency and the States are the executing agency.
20 Kurukshetra December 2009

They need to ensure aggressively that the

implementation takes place. We do not lack
funds, neither do we have a lack of policies. The
priority is implementation. The States should
be held to be more accountable in ensuring
transparency, monitoring and accountability.
Q6. What are your learnings from the Ministry till
date?
Ans. I am excited about having this amazing
opportunity to interact with intellectuals and
activists and just listen to them because for me
it is all a learning process. It is very humbling for
me, infact, to interact and I really try to become
a sponge and absorb so much from them and
deliver it in my work as time comes. One gets
holistic knowledge about different aspects that
affect rural life. It is very encouraging. I am
very fascinated with this Ministry, and even if I
had the choice to, I would not have picked any
other Ministry as I feel the Ministry of Rural
Development is like a gateway to our country.
Q7. You are a youth icon, what is your message to
the rural youth of India?
Ans. As Former President Abdul Kalamji had said,
youth are ignited minds. We are the future
we are the ones who will shape what becomes
of this planet. This generation really has to
prioritise on what they want to do. On the
environmental side, we have to change many
things in our system, our personal habits,
mitigate climate change with our personal
habits, have sustainable jobs and go for self
satisfaction in jobs rather than being too money
minded. One message for the youth is that we
need to be really green people.
Q8. Would you like to convey something to the
readers of Grameen Bharat Newsletter through
this interview?
Ans. Grameen Bharat deals with grass-root issues of
the Ministry of Rural Development, so readers can
bring forth their experiences, whether positive
or negative, and make others aware. People
should feel encouraged to inform other people
through this newsletter.

q
(Courtesy : Grameen Bharat)

Success Story

TSC/NREGA Campaign in Nubra District

This success story was sent to us by B.D.O. Mr.Ashraf Dijoo from Nubra district of Leh in Jammu
and Kashmir. Nubra is the only district in the State where a joint initiative of TSC/NREGA was
undertaken for the benefit of the local rural population.

TSC/NREGA campaign was conducted on a

large scale at both the blocks of Nubra, namely
Disket and Panamik (Leh) over a period of ten
days in July 2009 and ended on 5th of August 2009,
covering all the 20 panchayats of the blocks.

On the 27th of July, as part of the campaign

the offi ce staff of Nubra Block Development Office
cleaned all the streets, streams, nallahs, hospitals,
bus and taxi stands, markets, offi ces of the area and
households of the district. For two days, continuous
announcements were made from moving vehicles,
to keep the area clean and to dump all the garbage
at the selected places. All the garbage was collected
from all the selected places and dumped in an
already made deep pit, for away from the town and
burnt. This collective approach was appreciated by
all.
During this campaign, methods such as
pasting of posters, conducting debates among
schools, wide publicity for the eradication of
polythene and plastics, displaying of hoardings,
sign boards etc. at the prominent places of the
area were used.

On the spot
workshops
and
awareness camps
for the people
of Nubra were
organised, in which
prominent citizens
i.e., Numbardars,
SHGs,
District
and Block officers
participated
W o m e n
participated
in
awareness
the
campaign in large numbers.
The grand day was inaugurated by the Honble
Chairman/Chief Executive Councillor (Ladakh
Autonomous Hill Development Council) Sh. Chering
Durjey. On the same day the booklet written and
published by the B.D.O. (M. Ashraf Dijoo) on TSC/
NREGA was launched.
It is hoped that these innovative and sincere
efforts in this tough terrain area are recognised and
replicated elsewhere in the country.
(Courtesy : Grameen Bharat)

Kurukshetra

December 2009

21

22 Kurukshetra December 2009

FIELD STUDY
NREGA

A study in Andaman &

Nicobar Islands
HEMA BANNERJEE
A number of Centrally Sponsored Schemes have been implemented under Rural Development
Mission and welfare of the poor. But NERGA is one of the greatest experiments undertaken in
India to eradicate rural poverty. The scheme has been launched to supplement the error and gaps
of all previous schemes with the involvement of Panchayats, civil society and local administration.
Poor families were targeted to give benefits of employments and livelihood to supplement their
family income.

mpowerment of the poor encompass three

basic tasks reduction of poverty, creation of
employment and minimizing inequality. It has
been realized by the policy makers that development
needs to be people based and participation oriented.
Poverty Alleviation has thus assumed a new thinking
and new practices have emerged through integrated
community participation of the poor. In the
seventies and eighties as many as 12 different types

of Area Development schemes were undertaken

by the government. These are Command Area
Development programmes, Drought Prone Area
Programmes, Hill Area Development Programme,
Modified Area Development Programme, Small
Marginal farmers Development Agency, Fish
Farmers Development Agency, large Agricultural
Multi Purpose society, Economic Rehabilitation
of Rural poor, Massive Assistance Programme,

Kurukshetra

December 2009

23

Special Assistance Programme, Development of

women and children in Rural Area and Scheduled
Caste Action plan etc were launched under a single
banner of Poverty Alleviation Programmes. Rural
poor, small and marginal farmers, fish farmers,
vulnerable community, tribals, women children
and weaker sections were covered under these
schemes.
Further in the nineties three more important
schemes were implemented for rural urban poor
sections and tribal community. The schemes
were Integrated Rural Development Agency and
Twenty Point Economical Programme. However,
the government had launched different types of
schemes under different headings and purposes
to give partial employment to the rural poor to
support their family economy. These programmes
were National Rural Employment Programme, Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Programme,
and Food for Work, Jawahar Rojgar Yojana, and
Ensured Employment Scheme. During the year
2000 and 2004 three more programmes namely
Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana, Rastriya Sram
Vikas Yojana and National Food for Work. These
programmes could have provide some relief to
the rural poor through short duration casual
wage earning employment and food security, but
these could not provide any guarantee of regular

employment or durable public assets towards

sustainable development.
The National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (NREGS) has offered manifold opportunities
and prosperity to rural poor in particular and
national reconstruction in general. The objective
of this scheme is to enhance livelihood, security
in rural areas by way for guaranteed wage
employment, generating productive assets,
protecting environment, empowering rural women,
fostering social equality and reducing rural urban
migration.

Official Agencies under the scheme in

the Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands launched
the scheme on 1st April 2008. For accelerating the
scheme, a set of officials under district administration
have been deputed headed by Deputy Commissioner
of three districts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
along with the Gram Panchayat headed by Gram
Pradhan and other staff . The Deputy Commissioner
(DC) has been designated as District Programme Cocoordinator. To assist the work of the DPC, Additional
District Programm Officers in the rank of Assistant
Commissioners will coordinate the scheme in addition
to their routine jobs in their respective area. At
every Panchayat, the post of Gram Rozgar Sevak was

District- wise-Scheme implementation reports

Achievement 2008-2009 and 2009-2010 (up to June 2009)
Districts
South Andaman
2008-2009
2009-2010
Total
North & Middle
Andaman 200809&2009-10
Total
Nicobar ,200809&2009-10
total
Grand total

Total Household
Registered

No. of Job and

card issued

No. of Household
Provided Emp.

Mandays
generate

Total No. of
works taken up

22711
No. Change

13343
525

1186
182

11636
2492

19
18

22711

13686

1368

14128

37

23732
No. Change

9180
1641

6018
2506

79324
36630

93
43

23732

10821

8524

115954

136

8075
No. Change

4054
2961

1030
612

8635
6768

28
19

8075

7015

1642

15403

47

56518

31704

11534

145485

220

(3) Sources: Directorate of Rural Development & PRI. A & N Islands.

24 Kurukshetra December 2009

generated within a short period. Within this period

created to look after the NREGS programme. Sewak
220, numbers of works have been undertaken or
maintains all official correspondences i.e. keeps job
completed.
cards records, muster roll and mandays of each work,
distribution of works, supervising the work progress,
For Andaman group of Islands, Rs. 156/- per
bank account of each worker, disbursing of payment
day
per
wage was fixed. But in case of Nicobar
and maintains an official link with Panchayat officials
Islands, the wage was fixed at the rate Rs. 167/and district. Apart from these officials, many technical
which is highest in all Indian average. On an
and non-technical staff are engaged at various levels
average 40% jobs have been given to women
to make the scheme a success. At the block level the
workers. Payment is made through Banks / Post
staff members are Accountant, Engineers/Technical
Offices. Payment is made on regular basis. The rural
Assistants (AE), Programme officer and Computer
householders are eligible for the jobs. But priority
Assistant. At the district level, Works Manager and
has been given to the families below the poverty
Technical Assistants (A E), I
line (BPL). In mainland India,
T Manager and Computer
the state like Maharashtra
Assistant, Account Manager,
the wage is fixed at
In South Andaman only 10%
Training Coordinator or
Rs.
72/- . In Uttar Pradesh it is
Programme Officer and
households got the jobs
Rs. 100/-. In Bihar wage
Coordinator for Social Audit
among the cardholders.
rates
is Rs. 77/-, Karnataka is
and Grievances Redressal
However, in Middle & North
Rs. 74 /-, West Bengal is
are
the
coordinating
Andaman
80%
card
holder
Rs. 70/- , Madhya Pradesh is
hands of NERGA scheme
received
jobs.
But
in
Nicobar
Rs. 67/-, Himachal Pradesh
in the islands. All 67 Gram
is Rs. 75; Nagaland is
only 15% have been provided
Panchayats in two districts
Rs. 100/- etc. (Singh)..
of Andaman and 10 Tribal
job
councils in Nicobar district
have started the scheme.

PERFORMANCE
The new employment scheme has evoked
tremendous response among rural people of the
Islands. Within a very short period, more than
50 thousands households have registered their
names in the scheme. But only 60% individuals
have received the job cards. However in Middle
and North Andaman district only 40% applicants
have received job cards. Whereas, in Nicobar 90%
people have received the job card. In proportion
to the cardholders, less number of them had got
job opportunities. On an average only 30% card
holders have been engaged in the scheme. In
South Andaman only 10% households got the
jobs among the cardholders. However, in Middle
& North Andaman 80% card holder received jobs.
But in Nicobar only 15% have been provided job.
Around 1.45 lakh man days have already been

Under the scheme

the works undertaken in
Andaman Islands included
construction of Kaccua Road / Footpaths, proper
drainage system in water logging areas, small
check dams, digging of ponds, wells, renovation
of traditional tanks & ponds, land developments
for socially useful purposes. Both the districts
have completed 23 numbers of works at the cost
of Rs.28.64 lakhs. In the current year both the
districts have undertaken as many as 42 projects.
An amount of Rs.43.58 lakhs has been sanctioned
against of the works so far. All these works have
been taken up as on priority basis and need based
system. In Nicobar district the priority has given to
the works like creation of play ground, construction
of wells etc. In the last financial year an amount of
Rs. 2.10 lakhs was spent against of 3 numbers of
works. But in the current year 21 new works have
been undertaken against an estimated amount of
Rs.13.14 lakhs. After the massive earthquake and
Kurukshetra

December 2009

25

tsunami, in December, 2004 many of the schools

grounds, drinking water wells were washed out
near sea shore belt. Therefore, the administration
as well as the people of the Nicobar district has
decided to go with these two works urgently.

Social Audit and Vigilance activities

The report available on social audit both at
the Panchayat level and Tribal Council Level is
unexpectedly very negative. In south Andaman
district there are 29 Panchayats. No panchayat
has conducted social audit to activate the value of
the NREGA.In case of Middle and North Andaman
district, out of 35 Panchayats only 3 Panchayats
have completed their Social Audit. In Nicobar
district only 3 Tribal Councils have started social
audits out of 10 Council. So far as the work
vigilance and inspection is concerned, the output
is unsatisfactory. All the 64 numbers of works have
been taken up in both districts of Andaman but no
inspection was conducted on any of the work so far.
In Nicobar district , total 42 numbers of works have
been taken up, but only 4 works were inspected .
The involvement of Gram Sabha in the scheme
was mandatory to approve every work of the village
for the material benefits of the rural people. But out
of 64 Panchayats in Andaman Islands, only 14 times
Gram Sabha meeting was held. The performance of
the Village Monitory Committee in all three districts
is very poor. No VMC meeting was conducted in both
districts of Andaman. However, only on 4 occasions
when VMC meeting was held in the 10 Tribal Councils
of Nicobar District.

4)

Absence of NGOs and civil society for keeping

an active role in the scheme.

5)

Social Audit system is ineffective / absent.

6)

Interference of government official is more than

the public representatives.

7)

Wages is higher compared to all India average,

but the cost of living is very high.

8)

No provision to give unemployment allowance

in case of denial of job to the card holders in a
specific time.

9)

Due to non-availability of land and specific area,

many Panchayat, did not start work in time.

10) Workers are not ready to discharge their duties

as per guidelines of the scheme.
11) The performance of the VMC is poor and
absent.
12) More funds are expending for administrative
maintenance than actual scheme benefits.
13) Staff engaged are mostly contract workers
discharging maximum responsibility.

Conclusion

1)

Response of the people to register their name

is very enthusiastic.

2)

In respect to registration of the number of

household, the issuance of job card is less in
number.

A number of Centrally Sponsored Schemes

have been implemented under Rural Development
Mission and welfare of the poor. But NERGA is
one of the greatest experiments undertaken in
India to eradicate rural poverty. The scheme has
been launched to supplement the error and gaps
of all previous schemes with the involvement of
Panchayats, civil society and local administration.
Poor families were targeted to get benefits
of employment and livelihood to supplement
q
their family income.

3)

On an average only 20% registered households

have engaged in the scheme.

(The author is HOD. , Dept. of Economics, JNRM

College, Port Blair, e- mail: jeet06123@rediffmail.com)

Observation:

26 Kurukshetra December 2009

FIELD STUDY

NREGA

IMPACT ON THE
VILLAGERS IN TRIPURA - Field study

Dr. Sanjoy Roy

n Tripura , the NREGA was introduced in Dhalai

district along with 200 most backward districts of
the country and gradually by 2008 ,the remaining
three districts had been brought under this scheme.
The introduction of the NREGA (or NREGS) in Tripura
is worth mentioning from many viewpoints. Tripura is
a small state inhabited by 32 lakh people comprising
31% Scheduled Tribe population and 17% Scheduled
Caste population. About 83% of the total population
live in the rural areas and 55% of the total population
is below poverty line. The economy of the state is
agrarian with a low land holding of 0.97 hectare.
Geographical isolation, poor transportation network,
dearth of industries, soaring unemployment problem
inhibited economic growth rate and consequently
hindered the economic development of the state.

Given the circumstances, the NREGS has been

introduced in the state with an expectation that it
will give a new lease of life to the rural poor and
bring dynamism in the nature of rural livelihood and
energize the state economy in particular.

OUTCOMES
Available information shows that the poor are
happy to work in the NREGS and they are getting
employment in various projects. Due to NREGS, the
agony of income uncertainty of the tribal people has
withered and both Tribals and non-Tribal rural poor
get regular and assured flow of income commensurate
with the labour and time involved. According to Heads

Kurukshetra

December 2009

27

of village panchayat (Gram Pradhan) the NREGS is

giving hope to the Construction of road under the
NREGA has given immense satisfaction to the villagers.

Impact
The impact of NREGS on villagers of Tripura are
immense and multidimensional. On one hand , it has
lessened the incidence of poverty among the villagers
, on the other hand it has emboldened the confidence
of rural- unskilled labours and women and most
particularly the aged women and widows who could
hardly go out of villages for searching a work and have
it . In a true sense NREGS is a means of survival to this
section of hapless old, aged unskilled labourers in rural
areas. The NREGS has regenerated self-belief amongst
the poor that they can earn money for their family.
NREGS has instilled confidence in the rural
women. Women dig water tanks, carry head-loads.

Work under NREGS in Hrishyamukh Block, South Tripura

District, Tripura.

Photograph of a work under NREGS in Mohanpur

Block,West Tripura District, Tripura
28 Kurukshetra December 2009

Field study shows that 10% of women

participating in NREGS have been subscribing to LIC
policies/ recurring deposits. Majority of women have
reported that NREGS has enabled them to be health
cautious.

CREATING ASSETS
Creation of durable community assets like
rural roads , water bodies, tanks, market sheds for
the unemployed youths have brought a shift in the
livelihood of rural people and given a fresh impetus
to the tottering hope of common people. As Tripura is
a hilly state and geographically isolated, construction
of various rural roads have opened an opportunity
of good transportation and facilitated marketing of
agricultural and minor forest produces leading to
increased flow of income.
The study shows that land-leveling activities
undertaken in Lankagram GP under West Tripura
District has brought more than 10 hectares of barren
and unproductive lands to a cultivable stage. Land
leveling works under Narsingarh GP in West Tripura
District have led to the establishment of a big banana
orchard by some poor SC group people. Land leveling
works undertaken by Banspadua GP in South Tripura
District have enabled the establishment of 4-hectare
mango plantation as well as guava plantation in
those lands besides settling some minority families
displaced during the construction of Indo- Bangladesh
Border Road. Establishment of rubber nursery,
practice of floriculture and horticultural activities by
Sarasima GP are not only worth mentioning but they
are also income-generating.
Development of agricultural lands held by ST/
SC and BPL families under the Anaganagar GP and
West Gandhigram GP under Mohanpur Block of
West Tripura District, reclamation of land of ST/SC
people residing in Kanchanagar GP under Bagafa
Block of South Tripura District have helped many
poor cultivators to see their barren land converted to
fertile land. Micro irrigation projects have helped the
rice cultivators under Gardhang GP avail of irrigation
facility and improve rice production. A classic
example of tribal and non-tribal amity can be seen
in the Garhang and Kanchannagar GP where tribals
and non-tribals are jointly doing land reclamation
and engage in excavation of tank and construction
of rural roads.
(The author is Principal, Belonia College,
Belonia , Tripura , e-mail: sr_bpukur@yahoo.co.in )

FIELD STUDY

NREGA

FACET OF RURAL
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

A STUDY IN KARIMNAGAR DISTRICT IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Gundeti Ramesh, Dr. T. Krishna Kumar
The Study finds that NREGP has become a beacon of light in the empowerment of rural women,
and contributed substantially for the increased living and economic conditions by creating equal
wages to male and female workers and increasing the minimum wages.

ajority of the rural women depend on

the wages they earn through unskilled,
casual and manual labour. Inadequate
labour demand adversely affect their employment
opportunities. In general, empowerment is a social
action process that promotes participation of
peoples organization and communities in gaining
control over their lives in their communities.
In India majority of rural woman live in virtual
isolation, have little access to even the most basic
services. Andhra Pradesh is one of the success states

in the country in implementing the project especially

empowering women. Under NREGS, in Karimnagar
district 2 lakh 63 thousand households are covered
which has created 1 lach 4 thousand 5 hundred
works by spending 1234 crores

Methodology and Objectives :

A study has been conducted in the year 200910 in Karimnagar district Andhra Pradesh by selecting
500 women beneficiaries of the programme. The
present study also covers economic conditions like

Kurukshetra

December 2009

29

income and expenditure levels along with saving

pattern of the families.

that NREGS is providing opportunities to all the

skilled and unskilled professions.

Out of 670 NREGP workers, 74.62 per cent

are women, and the rest of the workers are men.
This programme helped reducing the seasonal and
disguised unemployment in the agriculture sector,
and also empowered the women folk.

To know the impact of NREGP programme

a question was asked to elicit the views on the
programme before and after the launch of the
programme in the area. It is found that the income
levels of the workers have increased substantially,
and daily wage income has increased two folds.
The study also reveals that the expenditure levels
before implementation of this programme was met
by the workers through debt to meet their minimum
needs expenditure. Further they expressed that this
programme helped in easing out the debt burden
to some extent after the implementation of the
NREGP.

The study reveals that 51.6% of the workers

are from backward class communities, and 46.6% of
workers are from S.C Category and the rest are from
ST and O.C communities.

S.
No.
01
02

Table-1: Occupation details / distribution of

beneficiaries
Name of the
No of
Percentoccupation
respondents
age to
total
Agriculture labors
335
67
Small farmers
50
11

03
04
05

Artisans
Beedi rollers
Daily wise labors
Total

30
35
50
500

06
07
11
100

As far as age-wise distribution of participant

workers in the programme is concerned, 39% of the
workers are from the age group of 30-40 years, 35%
are from 20-30 years of age, and the rest of them
S.No.

01
02
03
04
05

Before NREGP
Monthly
Montly
Income (Y) Expenditure
(C)
Agriculture labour
1000
1500
Small farmers
1125
1800
Artisans
875
1650
Beedi rollers
750
1500
Daily wise labours
1500
1950
Occupation

The study reveals that the beneficiaries

expressed the following changes in the programme:
Wages should be paid to workers on time. Health
and life insurance is required not only during the
working days but other days and there should be
better communication between beneficiaries and
officials. The Nature of the work should be amicable
to all the workers and beneficial to the community.
Effective social audit is necessary to eliminate bogus
beneficiaries. At the field level, qualified persons
are required to maintain accurate records of the
beneficiaries. In spite of the few shortfalls in the

Net Surplus/
deficits
S=YC
-500
-675
-775
-750
-450

Monthly *
Income
(Y)
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000

After NREGP
Monthly
Net surplus /
Expenditure
deficits
(C)
S=Y-c
1800
1200
1950
1050
1800
1200
1950
1050
2100
900

are in the age group of 40-50 years. This shows that

majority of the workers are below 40 years of age.

programme, the programme is successful but it

requires more transparency in its implementation. q

Table-1 reveals that out the participant workers,

66% of the workers are agricultural laborers, and
11% are from the small farmer category, and 10%
are from the daily wage earners, and rest of them
belongs to the artisans and beedi rollers. This shows

(The authors are Faculty Members,

Department of Economics, Commerce and
Business Management, Shatavahana University,
Karimnagar. e-mail:gundeti_ramesh@yahoo.com,
and krishnatphd@gmail.com)

30 Kurukshetra December 2009

FIELD STUDY

NREGA

NREGA IN WEST BENGAL : SUCCESS

AND CHALLENGES
Dr. Subhabrata Dutta
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, now renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guaranteed Scheme/Act has now emerged as one of the important tools
for rural development and for combating hunger and unemployment. After three years of its
completion, many states have achieved moderate or minimum success. The scheme now faces
various implementational challenges. This paper discusses some of the important challenges that
plague the scheme.

REGS has been a subject of controversy

since its inception. The programme has
both admirers and critics. The programme
had been sometimes been derisively called a
programme guaranteed to flop. It has sometimes
been pilloried as an expensive gravy train by critics.
As the scheme is being sandwiched between two
extreme positions, it would be relevant to examine
the ground realities.

Case Study of North 24 Parganas District

(West Bengal):
North 24 Parganas presents an inspiring tale
of successful implementation of NREGA. North
24-Parganas, a district in West Bengal is now
on the national map. This district with higher
concentration of BPL families (about 33,335) and
critical gaps in infrastructure has been adopted as

Kurukshetra

December 2009

31

a model for implementation of NREGS. Keeping

things in mind a study has been conducted in this
district with an objective to know and understand
the allocation of fund, projects, man-days and
beneficiaries participation and their perception
on this scheme.

The level of satisfaction found among the

beneficiaries of NREGS at this district is expressed in
the following charts :
Whether NREGS providing
Sufficient Employment (?)

Methods of Increasing Participation

No
23%
69

Pamphlets were distributed and road-dramas

were organized apart from announcements at
the village markets (hats) so that the message
of NREGA reached everywhere. Many projects
are being implemented through self-help groups
(SHGs) to create a sense of ownership. Hundreds
of volunteers from different areas of the district
walked through villages to check master rolls,
payment records etc. The district has also
adopted a good technique by including the
beneficiaries of NREGA in the Rastria Swasthya
Bima Yojana (RSBY) to provide better health care
services.

Yes

231

No
Yes
77%

Chart: 1
NREGS Benefecieries Getting Payment
Timely & Properly (?)
No
27%

81

No
Yes
73%

Results and Discussions:

Table No. 1 depicts that in North 24Parganas, the NREGA schemes has increased
man-days, employment, created durable assets
and strengthened infrastructure. Distress
migration has reduced. Many innovative projects,
afforestation, road-construction, digging of
ponds, renovation of water tanks and many other
labour oriented schemes have been undertaken.
Barren lands had been irrigated with an innovative
siphon project.

Yes

219

Chart: 2

Both the Chart (1 & 2) show that the majority

under survey had expressed their satisfaction over
the implementation of the NREGS and also the
process of providing payment.

Limitations and Challenges of NREGA

The programme has generated a great hope
among the rural population but it has its own
problems.

Table No. 1: NREGS Performance Record of North-24 Parganas (Year 2007-08 & 2008 09)
Fiscal
Year

Total
Expenditure
(In crore)

Total projects
completed

Ongoing
Projects

Average
Man-days

Total number of
persons demanding
jobs

Total number of
persons provided
with jobs

2007-08

3597

1065

2671

22

--

--

2008-09

6083

1873

3780

41

1,92,452

1,53,648

(Source: ZP Office of the District)

32 Kurukshetra December 2009

The first relates to corruption and leakages.

Fudging of muster rolls and embezzlement of
government funds are rampant. Nexus between
contractors, officials, panchayat bodies and
growing influence of middleman in extracting the
payment are some of the the ills that plague the
scheme. Pervasive corruption is also observed
in the selection of beneficiaries and distribution
of job-cards. Hundreds of thousands are neither
getting work nor unemployment allowance (as
found in different News papers, government
reports and the expression of the beneficiaries
not only in West Bengal but also in other states in
country).
Second problem relates to variation
in wages. The Act stipulates that labourer
under the NREGA is entitled to minimum
wages, (i.e. Rs.73). However, major interstate variations are noticeable in average
wage-cost per man-day i.e. average wage
rate in rupees per day.
NREGA Act clearly states that preference
should be given to development works that have
long-standing resource-building objective. To this
end, it specifies a number of environment related
works that can help to build the resource-base of
the poorest, for example, droughtproof or floodproof vulnerable areas. Watershed development
through the construction of small, local-level
bunds, revival of water bodies, water-harvesting
structures, afforestation and other measures to
check soil erosion and improvement of soil quality
in different ways should be some of the focus
areas.
Social audit of NREGA should be
mandatory. Social audit of NREGA employment
in some blocks like Bagydora of Rajasthan ,
Surguja and Koriaya districts of Chattisgarh
and North 24 Parganas of West Bengal shows

encouraging results. It enhances the quality of

performance, minimizes corruption, nepotism
and eliminates contractors and middleman.
Musterolls are properly maintained and are
always available for public scrutiny. Wages
were paid in accordance with the musterolls
and genuinely received by the beneficiaries.
The social audit has made the job-card holders
aware of his entitlement.
NREGA in the existing frame has a great
potential of transforming rural India, if it
is sincerely and effectively implemented.
The launching of the programme has
generated a lot of hope in building
rural society on a Strong foundation for
employment
generation,
empowerment
of women and creation of much-needed
infrastructure. By introducing NREGS, India has
acquired the distinction of having the worlds
largest employment guarantee scheme and
public works programme in place.
It is true that corruption and lack of adequate
preparation in implementing NREGS have led
to some setbacks. But these slippages do not
reduce the landmark legislation to irrelevance.
The message drawn from the success-story is
that if the legislation is properly and sincerely
implemented, it can have a positive impact. It could
help to keep away hunger for up to 10 crore poor
households. For this reason as well as for its wider
linkages to sustainable development, NREGS needs
q
wider support but this support.

[The
author
is
a
Former
Ph.D
Scholar of Panchayati Raj and Rural
Development, Visva-Bharati University, and
is at present a Reader in the Dept of Social Work,
Assam (Central) University, Silchar-11, Assam.
e-mail : dutta_sub@yahoo.com]
Kurukshetra

December 2009

33

34 Kurukshetra December 2009

FIELD STUDY

Implications of NREGA
District Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh :
A Case Study
Barna Maulick
NREGA has encouraged the transfer of local solutions and best practices through the Online
Knowledge Network. Initial experiments in the use of smart cards for wage payment to NREGA
workers in remote villages are being supported by these networks.

he National Rural Employment Guarantee

Scheme (NREGS) is possibly the most
ambitious income security programme for
Indias rural poor in post independence era. Around
30% of Indians live in absolute poverty. Most of the
vulnerable are from the schedule caste, schedule
tribes, the minorities and the other backward classes.
The rural poor principally comprise of landless
laborers, who are not even assured of finding work
on a daily basis. It is in this context that the NREGS

assumes importance since it guarantees 100 days of

work to anyone desirous of it at the minimum wage.
The purpose of the scheme is to employ labour to
create rural assets. NREGS is a ray of hope for the
rural poor and unskilled laborers who are in the
clutches of poverty, deprivation and discrimination,
particularly on economic and social fronts.
The NREGA works are intended to create
permanent assets in the rural areas for future

Kurukshetra

December 2009

35

needs. These includewater conservation and water

harvesting, drought proofing (including afforestation
and tree plantation); irrigation canals including micro
and minor irrigation works; provision of irrigation
facility, horticulture plantation and land development
facilities on land owned by households belonging
to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes or
to Below Poverty Line Families or to beneficiaries
of land reforms or to the beneficiaries under the
Indira Awas Yojna of the Government;renovation of
traditional water bodies including desilting of tanks;
land development; flood control and protection
works including drainage in water logged areas;rural
connectivity to provide all-weather access; and
any other work which may be notified by the
Central Government inconsultation with the State
Governments.

leakages. (Outlook 2007) Other loopholes are:(i) lack of professionals, (ii) under-staffing (iii)
administrative delays (iv) lack of peoples planning
(v) poor quality of work undertaken (vi) poor social
audit process.

Employment Generation under NREGA

Under the employment guarantee scheme, it
is required to identify various jobs in the identified
districts of the State. The employment opportunities
are created in the works like water conservation,
water harvesting, drought proofing, flood control,
renovation of traditional water bodies, land
development and rural connectivity. The jobs
are mainly by the major social groups including
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, landless labourers and
Other Backward Classes.

During the current financial year (2009-2010)

the following activities have been undertaken under
NREGA so far

44177

46980

9830

Water Conservation and Water

Harvesting

442125

57959

Drought Proofing

143945

9991

Percentage

ad
ad
es
h
hy
a Bih
P
ra ar
de
O sh
r
R is
W aj a sa
es st
t h
C Be a n
hh n
at ga
t
l
Jh is ga
a
r
U rkh h
t
U ta r a nd
tta an
r P ch
ra al
d
Al es h
l- I
nd
ia

335873

Major Ten States

112677

15638

Provisions of Irrigation facility to

Land Owned by farmers

394223

72053

Renovation of Traditional Water

Bodies

209049

24953

Source: Status Report, NREGA2005, NREGA Web Portal (http://

nrega.nic.in) Ministry of Rural Development, Government of
India.

Land Development works

258345

31658

17478

1270

Works approved by the Ministry

of Rural Development

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

Some of the positive features of NREGA

are: (i) a high share of female employment (ii)
the benefits are reflected in greater economic
security, higher farm wages, lower migration and
building of infrastructure. (Jha & Others 2008)
On the other hand, failures are recorded in the
distribution of job cards and large numbers of
needy households are in queue and the selection
of design and execution of projects, results in
36 Kurukshetra December 2009

Micro Irrigation Works

Flood Control& Protection works

SC
ST
Non-SC-ST

Pr

Road Connectivity

No.of Works No.of Works

Undertaken Completed

nd
hr
a

Works Under NREGA

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

So, the available data reveals that more than

half of households belong to Scheduled Castes,
forming 56.85% in the state. The share of other
community and the Tribes has been 40.04% and
3.11% respectively.
The present paper studies shows the
implication of NREGA in the Barabanki district of
Uttar Pradesh. Barabanki is about 29 kms from
Lucknow, the capital of U.P. SC population forms
27% of the total population of this district. Out of
the total households, 47.21% households, having
a population of 3.14 lakh are from below poverty
line families.

NREGS Performance in Barabanki DistrictNREGS Report of Barabanki dated 8-12-2006

shows that total fund available stands Rs 5175.36
lakhs i.e. 68.39% has been spent on implementation
of the scheme. The number of applications received
for registration were 326521 and there were 326314
households registered. The distribution of job cards
has been 100% and of the 110510 labourers to
whom employment was provided, 62.29% were
among the SCs while the participation of women
stood at 1.30% only. The extent of employment
demanded was for 3846320 mandays but total
number of mandays generated were 3685215 i.e.
95.81% achievement. The contribution of SCs in
the total man days generated has been 64.82% and
0.08% was the contribution of women. It is laudable
that all the labourers demanding work, i.e. 110510,
got employment opportunities. There were 68841
labourers, i.e. 62.3% from among SCs and the
number of women being 1442, remained restricted
to 1.30%. In reality, out of registered households,
326314, the employment opportunities could be
availed of by 94119 households i.e. 28.84%. Lastly,
934 projects have been completed and 4374 projects
of various kinds have been started under NREGA in
the district. This district includes four villages namely,
Alapur & Piprauli under Banki block and Kasimganj &
Khajurgaon under Dewa block.

BPL households. The number registered for working

in the scheme is 16845. All these households were
issued job cards and have 16945 eligible members.
The number of works stated at Gram Panchayat
level in Dewa Block is 96. The number of households
demanding work is only 2805 i.e.16.65% out of 16845
households. Out of 2805, only 2795 households
were provided work. So the achievement is 99.64%
to generate 34778 man days. Moreover, out of 2840
members demanding work, 2822 i.e.99.30% were
provided work in which 69.41% workers were from
Scheduled Castes. The participation of women in
the work was negligible. Only, 38.38% of total funds
could be utilized since 1-4-2006. (Development Block
Office, Dewa)
The survey results highlights the following
points:l

Majority of the beneficiary workers were in the

age group of 18-35 years.

The beneficiaries came from scheduled castes

households .

Women participation is very low.

Material cost is on higher side and average day

of employment is one-fifth of the specified days
i.e. 22 days against 100 days.

There has been no involvement of the contractor

and the machines in the works relate to the
schemes.

According to Banki Blocks Report dated 9-122006, there are 62 Gram Panchayats under Banki
Block having 14718 BPL households. Job cards
issued were 16465 including 17117 members from
the registered households. The number registered
for working in the scheme stood at 16480. The
number of households demand for work was 2258;
the number of members from these households
demanding work was 2470 generating 47668 man
days. Womans contribution was only 93 days. Out of
47668 man days generated, 60% were contributed
by SCs, 35% by others and less than 1% by women.
Further, out of 2452 workers, 70% were from SCs
and 30% belonged to other castes. In this block, 139
works have been started at Gram Panchayat level
under NREGA indicating 78.30% expenditure from
the available funds since 1-4-2006.(Development
Block Office, Banki)

Ever since its launch, NREGA is playing

the role of a catalyst in rural economy. NREGA
has also encouraged the transfer of local
solutions and best practices through the online
Knowledge Network. Initial experiments in the
use of smart cards for wage payment to NREGA
workers in remote villages are being supported
by these networks. NREGA is poised to progress
from a mere wage employment to sustainable
development program.

q

According to Dewa Blocks Report dated 10-122006, there are 76 Gram Panchayats having 13423

(The author is Research Scholar, Patna University,

Patna , Bihar, e-mail: barnaganguli@yahoo.in )

Conclusion-

Kurukshetra

December 2009

37

38 Kurukshetra December 2009

FIELD STUDY

NREGA

IMPACT IN UDANGUDI
PANCHAYAT UNION,
TAMIL NADU - A Case Study

V.Sankari , C.Siva Murugan

NREGP can have a positive impact on the social and economic well-being of rural labourers and
their families. In particular, it holds the powerful prospect of bringing major changes in the lives of
women. This is especially true in a state like Tamil Nadu, where women constitute an overwhelming
proportion (more than 80 percent) of NREGP workers.

he present study is related to NREGP on

employment generation in Udangudi
Panchayat Union, Thoothukudi District, Tamil
Nadu. This study covered 16 villages. The primarily
data were collected during the month of March 2009
and a total of 80 beneficiaries were interviewed by

random sampling method to assess the impact of

NREGP as a facet of inclusive growth.

Hypothesis
The present study is carried out with the
following hypothesis.

Kurukshetra

December 2009

39

1.

There is a high degree of correlation between

income and expenditure.

2.

There is a low degree of correlation between

income and saving.

Out of the 80 NREGP workers, 78 per cent

are women and the rest of the workers are men.
The NREGP programme helped a lot in reducing
the seasonal and disguised unemployment in the
agriculture sector and also contributed to empower
the women folk in the rural areas. Further this also
reduced the wage dissimilarity between men and
women workers by increasing the minimum wages.
Among the workers 59 per cent are from backward
class communities, 34 per cent of workers are from
SC category and rest are from ST communities. This
study shows that majority of the workers are below
35 years of age and this is making use of the utilization
of the youth force in generating employment.
Income levels is accepted as an appropriate
yard stack of economic well being. The behavior of
income levels explains about the economic status
of the different sub groups of workers participated
in this programme. It is observed that the income
levels of the workers have increased substantially.
Table 1 reveals that after joining the
NREGP, the family income of the workers had
increased. The incremental income not only
enhanced the expenditure of the family but
also promoted the savings of the family after
joining the NREGP. Thus, the objective of the
NREGP was fulfilled.

S.No

Income

1
2
3
4

Upto 15000
15000 - 30000
30,000 - 45000
45000 - 60000
Total
Source : Primary Data

40 Kurukshetra December 2009

Summary of Findings
l

The study reveals that most of the beneficiaries

belong to the age group ranging from 26years
to 35 years (40 percent).

The study reveals that, 48 respondents have

larger family size i.e., (4 - 6) 60 per cent.

The study reveals that, out of 80 respondents,

39 respondents have studied at the primary
level, 24 respondents at the Secondary level
and 17 respondents were illiterate.

There is reduction of wage difference in various

works by creating equal wages to male and
female workers.

The study reveals that most of the beneficiaries

are married (78 percent).

In Udangudi panchayat Union, out of 80

respondents, 35 respondent households had
income between Rs.15000-30,000 (43 percent),
only 11 respondents belonged the income
group between Rs.45000-60,000 (13 percent)
respectively.

There is increase in living and economic

conditions.

The study reveals that majority of the

beneficiaries have savings in the post office
i.e., 35 percent.

Table 1
Family Income of the NREGP Respondents
Before Joining NREGP
After Joining NREGP
No. of Respondents
Percentage
No. of Respondents
Percentage
26
32.50
9
11.25
28
35.00
35
43.75
19
23.75
25
31.25
7
8.75
11
13.75
80
100.00
80
100.00

Suggestions

The following suggestions are offered to

improve the welfare of the workers and effective
implementations of other measures.

The role of Gram Panchayat and programme

officer for providing employment needs to be
clearly demarcated.

100 days offer of employment to a family in one

financial year is in no way sufficient to sustain a
family. There should have been some weightage
for Below Poverty Line (BPL), landless families
in providing job opportunities.

A large portion of mothers of children over

the age of three years reported sending their
children either to the anganwadi or to schools.
As things stand, women workers are not entitled
to child-care facilities (male / female) at the
NREGP worksites.

Capacity building of the village Panchayat and

the gram sabha is required for the planning and
effective implementation of NREGP.

There should be better co-ordination between

the block level bureaucracy and Panchayat
providing technical support to the gram
Panchayat in the formulation, implementation
and monitoring of the scheme:

Community participation through PRA is

essential for the successful implementation
of the scheme. Gram Sabha (the village
assembly) must play an important role in the
implementation of the scheme.

A Technical assistant (preferably diploma

in civil engineering) must be placed at the
Panchayat for providing technical support in
the formulation of projects, identification and
estimation of expenditures to be incurred in
the watershed and minor irrigation project
activities.

Conclusion
NREGP depends on the acceptability of
the people, which further rests on the level of
awareness among various stake holders and the
desire among them to implement it. Therefore the
government should launch an intensive awareness
programme through different media and make
the masses aware of the objectives and provisions
of the scheme. The government should appoint
public information officers at the central and
state levels specifically for the purpose of NREGP.
Print media, small media like, folk, street theater,
group radio, Doordarshan / Video, or internet etc
can play a catalytic role in changing the mindset /
behavior of the people.
For the success of the scheme, it is imperative
that a village level micro plan is prepared and the
works taken-up under the NREGP form part of the
village area plan. Lastly, PRIs should be made solely
responsible for the implementation of the NREGP
q
successfully.

NREGP Defiling of pond, udangudi

panchayat union

(The authors are M.Phil Scholar and Lecturer,

Research Centre in Economics. Aditanar College of
Arts and Science, Tiruchendur, Tamil Nadu 628 216,
e-mail : mrcsm5678@rediffmail.com)
Kurukshetra

December 2009

41

FIELD STUDY

Path to prosperity in Kutch

lined with grass
Haresh Parmar
The emphasis was on collective conservation and a respect for nature and the environment that
sustained them. This carefully evolved pattern of social responsibility however began to change.
And that began when the responsibility shifted from the local community to the government. It
marked the beginning of the decline.

s the saying goes in Kutch the BanniPacchaam area has grass growing in such
abundance that if a man stood in between,
he could not be seen. The lush greenery pulled
people from far and near, coming to first graze their
cattle and eventually settling down there. In times
of drought, the contrast between Baani-Pacchaam
and other areas became even more sharp and tales
of clashes between aspiring settlers abound in the
region.

42 Kurukshetra December 2009

Once settled, the sheer luxuriant growth had

a sobering effect on the villagers. Realising the
enormous value they devised a set of rules for
protecting the grass on which their lives depended.
While in times of plenty, these were followed in a
more easy-going way, in times of drought, adherence
to these was even more strict. Farming practices
were put into practice to ensure no wastage. Grains
were harvested while grass was preserved as cattle
fodder. The grazing area also maintained its sanctity

and was out of bounds for all cattle till the grass
became soft and ready for the grazing animals. Each
village had its demarcated area and cattle of each
village stayed within those boundaries.
The emphasis was on collective conservation
and a respect for nature and the environment that
sustained them. This carefully evolved pattern of
social responsibility however began to change. And
that began when the responsibility shifted from the
local community to the government. It marked the
beginning of the decline.
Unconcerned with this delicate network of
relationships between human beings and the
environment, the government planted Gando
Baval, ostensibly to prevent the salinity of land and
the march of the desert which surrounded the area.
This had a converse effect. The pointed roots of
the Gando Baval prevented grass from growing near
it. Gradually the land which was covered by swaying
green grass turned saline. The worst nightmare of
the local communities began to take shape.
The grass which drew people like a magnet
from all over Kutch was now forcing them to move
out. The grass which danced with breeze in the
grounds could be seen packed in bundles and stored
at government depots, out of reach of the villagers
who had once reveled in its bounty.
While communities struggled to cope with
this ugly scenario, they were also struggling to find
answers, a way out of this road to disaster. Their issue
and the way of resolving it lays open a fundamental
question to all such situations not only in Kutch but
across the country. Can rural communities continue
with traditional occupations and use modern
technological advancement to enhance it? Can they
take steps to uplift and upgrade such practices so that
they do not suffer at the hands of outside agencies,
even it be the government. Can they aspire to have
access to such technical and scientific inputs?
This question has been answered by the people
of Tindlava village of Rapar taluka in Kutch with
some innovative interventions from Yuva Institute
which first began its operations after the terrible
earthquake in the region. Through its Farming and
Land improvement project, it began a process of

regeneration. A plot of land was demarcated for

growing grass which was only 2 kilometers from the
village. Then came the challenge of actually growing
grass and replicating the intricate web of social
equations which sustained it previously. The Mahila
Mandal and the Gram Samiti of the village jointly
planned the process guided by the Institute.
The 2 acre grazing field was then fenced in
with iron wires and to add a touch of colour flowers
planted in profusion. The destructive Baval plant was
uprooted and with the help of another organization
Sahyog trust, useful grass varieties like dhaman
and dilo planted.
While the Trust met expenditure related to
grass seeds, wages of laborers and fencing, the
process drew its strength from the collective effort
of the community. A supervisor was appointed in
the village. The villagers displayed a rare maturity
in crafting their new project perhaps having learnt
the bitter lessons of the past. They now paid utmost
attention to protecting the quality of the land
and the sustained source of water for their newly
inaugurated grass plot.
To ensure that the land does not get washed
away, a 500 feet gully has been constructed , plugging
it where such a threat exists. Trenches have been dug
to preserve the flowing water. Structures now dot the
grass plot where water gathers to quench the thirst
of cattle. This attention to detail and involvement
with all aspects of the grass plot has paid off. Even in
times of drought and scarcity the 1700 strong village
community has adequate supplies.
Mithiben Koli, resident of the village eyes light
up as she says, With this grassplot, ample grass will
be available to the cattle. Packed and stored grass
will be used as per need during scarcity. No more
will villagers despair over saline lands and worry
about how to tide over the drought. Now they are
confident that the grass will remain in their hands
and have developed the will to stand up to any
government moves to the contrary.
The famed grasses of Kutch now continue
to sway providing hope and succor to all those
connected with the land


q
(Courtesy Charkha Features)
Kurukshetra

December 2009

43

WILD LEAVES : POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN

CONSUMPTION AND NUTRITIONAL PROFILE
Shanta Badaik & Dr Reshma xalxo
Wild leaves play an important role in the diet of rural people in India. These leaves tend to be
drought - resistant and are gathered both in times of abundance and times of need. Used in
everyday cooking, these leaves may be an important source of nutrients.

or thousands of years, ecosystems and

indigenous populations have evolved in
symbiosis.

Human societies have gradually moved, at their

respective pace, from dependence on wild food
and particularly upon forest food to a dependence
on domesticated plants and animals on the one
hand, and from a subsistence economy to a market
economy on the other.

44 Kurukshetra December 2009

Millions of people in many developing

countries do not have enough food to meet their
daily requirements and some are deficient in one
or more micronutrients. Thus, in most cases rural
communities depend on wild resources including
wild edible plants to meet their food need in periods
of food crisis. The diversity in wild species offer
variety in family diet and contributes to household
food security.

Throughout history, edible wild leaves have

sustained nutrition for human population in each
of the inhabitant. The agricultural revolution
that began more than 10,000 years ago created
a dramatic shift in the human food supply. As
human focused more on domesticated cultivars
and gave less attention to wild species, plants
that once offered important flavour and texture
satisfaction and supplied essential nutrients to the
diet declined in popularity. As human, changed,
economically and technologically from huntergatherer encampments to settlements, diet
changed significantly.

support, agriculture research programmes,

biodiversity conservation initiatives,nutrition
research. Raising recognition and awareness
at the rural grassroot level is equally required,
as wild leaves have been loosing value and use
among rural people themselves. Thus promoting
awareness and use around wild leaves at the
community

Socio-economic significance
In addition to food value, some species of
leaves are marketable and provide the opportunity to
supplement household income. The promotion of wild

Wild leaves play a vital role in the livelihood

leaves resource management, so to ensure sustainable

of many communities in India. Consumption

use and facilitate equitable access. In fact, the issue

of green is a major

of wild leaves falls on

source

the interface between

of

vitamins

micronutrients

Consumption of green is a major

the conservation and

for people using only

source of vitamins and micronutrients

the use of biodiversity.

vegetarian

rich

for people using only vegetarian diets

In addition, some highly

carbohydrates. In

rich in carbohydrates. In rural area

valuable

rural area where proper

where proper cultivation of vegetable

may be considered for

cultivation of vegetable

is not practiced and market supplies

cultivation,

is not practiced and

are not organized,local rural people

in home gardens (in

market supplies are not

rely on these leafy vegetables of their

fact, crops historically

organized,local

vicinity.

evolved

and

in

diets

rural

wild

leaves

such

from

as

the

people rely on these

domestication of certain

leafy vegetables of their

wild plants that had

vicinity.

specific values and uses).

Recognition, promotion and sustainable

use of wild Leaves
The increased use of wild leaves represents
a useful strategy for household food security
and nutrition, especially as rural communities
confront

hunger,

malnutrition,

and

food

shortage. This strategy requires the agricultural

development sector to recognise their value and
potential, hence redefining agricultural extension

Traditional preservation techniques of wild leaves are

inexpensive, labour-sensitive, and effective means to
enhance their roles in household food security and
nutrition. The improvement would further enhance
the contribution of wild leaves to household nutrition
and improve their marketing prospects.

Value and potential of wild food plants

Wild

leaves

represent

versatile

agrobiodiversity resource, providing different

Kurukshetra

December 2009

45

benefits and opportunities depending on

the agroecological conditions, food security

dynamics,

nutritional

needs,

cultural

Conservation Status

dimensions, and other circumstances. The most

relevant and distinctive values of wild leaves

Wild leaves play a critical food security role

in arid and semi-arid environment. Since in these
areas dry and rainy seasons are sharply separated,
agriculture is restricted to specific periods in the year,
thus leaving wide time lapses with limited options
for food production. Wild edible leaves are facing
threats in their natural habitat from various human
activities. The level of impact of these activities varies
from place to place.

are as follows:
l

Supplementary food source, adding nutritional

quality and food variety to local diets.

Excellent supply of micronutrients (vitamins

and minerals).

Critical food source during seasonal food

shortage periods, which are recurrent among
the rural poor dwelling in arid lands.

Factors threatening wild edible plant species

include :-

Inexpensive and easy food source, often

requiring low labour inputs.

Vital ingredient in food habits and culinary

practices in some areas of especially for the socalled relishes that accompany main meals.

Source of income, as some wild leaves may

access specific market niches.

Emergency food source, for instance in cases of

food shortage, enduring drought, crop failure,
and civil conflict.

1-

Overstocking/Over grazing,

2-

Selective cutting
technology

3-

Agricultural land expansion,

4-

Fuel wood collection and

5-

Uncontrolled fire setting

for

construction

and

THE NUTRIENT COMPOSITION PER 100 gm EDIBLE PORTION

SCIENTIFIC NAME

1-Marselea minuta

LOCAL NAME

Sunsunia saag

PROTIE-N
(gm)

CALO-RIE
(kcal)

CARB
(gm)

MIN
(mg)

CAL
(gm)

PHOS
(mg)

IRON
(mg)

VIt.
A(mc.
gm)

Vit.
C(mg)

3.7

46

4.7

2.1

53

91

2-Hibiscus cannabinus Kudrum saag

1.7

56

99

0.9

172

40

2.3

2898

20

3-Cassia tora

Chakor saag

8.0

49

5.5

1.7

520

39

12.4

10152

82

4- Antidesma
diandrem

Matha saag

72

303

5.5

57.8

1717

80

28.4

5- Euphorbia hitra

Laal Dudhi
saag

4.7

83

12.3

3.2

456

106

21.1

44

6-Peusedanum
graveolens

Sua saag

3.0

37

5.2

2.2

190

42

17.4

7182

7-Amaranthus virdis

Choulai saag

4.0

45

6.1

2.7

397

83

3.49

1380

99

8-Bauhinia purpurea

Koinaar saag

3.6

62

9.7

2.1

312

92

9- Ipomoea repans

Karmee saag

2.9

28

3.1

2.1

110

46

3.9

1980

37

10-Cleome viscoca

Hurhuria saag

5.6

73

3.8

8.3

881

73

24.4

11-Polygonum
plebejum

Chimti saag

3.2

46

6.9

3.9

194

48

Source:unicef,child and maternal nutrition(2003)

46 Kurukshetra December 2009

Wild leaves act as food resource system

and nutrition security
Many wild vegetables are important sources
of micronutrients and play an important role in
nutrition, especially for women and children.As
women have high demands for micronutrients
Women in low-income households are more
vulnerable to nutritional deficiencies where the
food budget is limited and the diet is restricted.
Diversifying the family diet through the use of wild
leaves enables women in poor households comes
at no additional cost. A significant proportion of the
diverse wild leaves available in our environment have
been progressively neglected in spite of modern and
improved agricultural practices, thereby narrowing
the base of global food security.
This has resulted over the years in food supply
crises, hunger and malnutrition. Despite strides
made in reducing global hunger through increases
in cereal productivity, the world is still hungry, and
the availability of cheap cereal foods has coincided
with the erosion of agricultural biodiversity and a
reduction in dietary diversity.
Furthermore, strategies adopted to address the
ongoing food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition,
particularly in developing countries, continue to
narrow the food supply base through technological
options that neglect indigenous and traditional food
systems while focussing on a few staple crops.
Increased availability , and intake of cereal and
cereal products in developing countries have been
linked to decreased intakes of iron, and increased
incidences of iron deficiency anemia. Enormous
resources have been invested globally in the fight
against iron and other micronutrient deficiencies,
yet, there remains formidable health challenges
posed by the continuing high prevalence rates
of micronutrient deficiencies, increasing rates of

obesity and non-communicable diseases linked to

a lack of dietary diversity . These are some of the
consequences of the nutrition transition with its
attendant simplification of diets.

Nutritional Value
Malnutrition, such as vitamin A deficiency can
be greatly alleviated by consumption of dark green
leafy vegetables, which are an excellent source of
proteins, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres. When
compared to exotic vegetables, many indigenous
vegetables have equal or higher nutritional value.
Boiled leaves are recommended for pregnant
women since their consumption is believed to result
in birth of children with dark eyes and smooth skin.
Moreover, pregnant women who eat these leaves
are believed to recuperate well after delivery. It is
also believed that children eating vegetables do
not get marasmas or kwashiorkor especially if
the vegetable is cooked with milk or groundnuts.
(Edmund and Chweya, 1997).
Indias flora comprises 6000 species of
plants used for consumption, one third of which
are green leafy vegetables. Wild leaves are very
good source of minerals and vitamins and when
consumed regularly they can substantially improve
micronutrient status of the Indian population.
However, Wild leaves are highly perishable due to
their high water activity, therefore methods involving
removal of this moisture helps in their preservation.
Sun drying is the cheapest and simplest method of
preservation.
The nutritive value of greens remains
underutilized due to lack of awareness and promotion
of appropriate technologies for their effective
q
utilization.



(The author is Research Scholar, P.G. Dept.
of Home Science, Ranchi University, Ranchi.
e-mail : shantabaraik606@gmail.com)
Kurukshetra

December 2009

47

48 Kurukshetra December 2009

Printed and Published by Veena Jain, Additional Director General (Incharge), Publications Division, Ministry of I&B,Govt. of India
Soochna Bhawan, New Delhi-110 003 on behalf of Publications Division, Soochna Bhawan, New Delhi-110003, Printed at Chandu Press,
D-97, Shakarpur, Delhi-110092 and Published from Soochna Bhawan, New Delhi-110003. Editor : Kapil Kumar