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Hydraulic engineering
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Hydraulic Flood Retention
Basin (HFRB)
View from Church Span
Bridge, Bern, Switzerland
Riprap lining a lake shore
This article is about civil engineering. For the mechanical engineering
discipline see Hydraulic machinery
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned
with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One
feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to
cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately
related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees, and to
both sanitary and environmental engineering.
Hydraulic engineering is the application of fluid mechanics principles to
problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation,
measurement, and use of water.
[1]
Before beginning a hydraulic engineering
project, one must figure out how much water is involved. The hydraulic
engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the
interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour
Hydraulic engineering - Wikipedia, the free encycl... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering
1 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
and deposition.
[1]
"The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual
designs for the various features which interact with water such as spillways
and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures
for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power plants."
[2]
Contents
1 Fundamental principles
1.1 Fluid mechanics
1.2 Behavior of real fluids
1.2.1 Real and ideal fluids
1.2.2 Viscous flow
1.2.3 Laminar flow and turbulence
1.2.4 Boundary layer
2 Applications
3 History
4 Modern times
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
[edit] Fundamental principles
A few examples of the fundamental principles of hydraulic engineering include
fluid mechanics, fluid flow, behavior of real fluids, hydrology, pipelines, open
channel hydraulics, mechanics of sediment transport, physical modeling,
hydraulic machines, and drainage hydraulics.
[edit] Fluid mechanics
Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of
fluids at rest.
[1]
Fluids at rest indicate that there exists a force, known as
pressure, that acts upon its surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m
2
, is
not constant throughout the body of fluid. Pressure, p, in a given body of fluid,
increases with an increase in depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on
the base and can be found by equation:
p=\rho gy
2 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
where,
= density of water
g = specific gravity
y = depth of the body of liquid
Rearranging this equation gives you the pressure head p/g = y. Four basic
devices for pressure measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential
manometer, Bourdon gauge, as well as an inclined manometer.
[1]
As Prasuhn states:
On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a
body in a liquid, causing equal perpendicular forces in the body to act
against the pressure of the liquid. This reaction is known as equilibrium.
More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces,
curved surfaces, dams, and quadrant gates, just to name a few.
[1]
[edit] Behavior of real fluids
[edit] Real and ideal fluids
The main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow
p
1
= p
2
and for real flow p
1
> p
2
.
[edit] Viscous flow
A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a shear force, whereas an ideal
fluid doesn't deform.
[edit] Laminar flow and turbulence
The various effects of disturbance on a viscous flow are stable, transition and
unstable.
==== Bernoulli's equation ===eal fluid, Bernoulli's equation holds along
streamlines.
p/g + u/2g = p1/g + u1/2g = p2/g + u2/2g
[edit] Boundary layer
Assuming a flow is bounded on one side only, and that a rectilinear flow
passing over a stationary flat plate which lies parallel to the flow, the flow just
3 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
upstream of the plate has a uniform velocity. As the flow comes into contact
with the plate, the layer of fluid actually 'adheres' to a solid surface. There is
then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the plate
surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to
decelerate (though it is not quite brought to rest), creating a shearing action
with the third layer of fluid, and so on. As the fluid passes further along the
plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further
outwards. This zone is known as the 'boundary layer'. The flow outside the
boundary layer is free of shear and viscous-related forces so it is assumed to
act like an ideal fluid. "The intermolecular cohesive forces in a fluid are not
great enough to hold fluid together. Hence a fluid will flow under the action of
the slightest street and flow will continue as long as the stress is present.
[3]
The flow inside the layer can be either viscous or turbulent, depending on
Reynolds number.
[1]
[edit] Applications
Common topics of design for hydraulic engineers include hydraulic structures
such as dams, levees, water distribution networks, water collection networks,
sewage collection networks, storm water management, sediment transport, and
various other topics related to transportation engineering and geotechnical
engineering. Equations developed from the principles of fluid dynamics and
fluid mechanics are widely utilized by other engineering disciplines such as
mechanical, aeronautical and even traffic engineers.
Related branches include hydrology and rheology while related applications
include hydraulic modeling, flood mapping, catchment flood management
plans, shoreline management plans, estuarine strategies, coastal protection,
and flood alleviation.
[edit] History
Earliest uses of hydraulic engineering were to irrigate crops and dates back to
the Middle East and Africa. Controlling the movement and supply of water for
growing food has been used for many thousands of years. One of the earliest
hydraulic machines, the water clock was used in the early 2nd millennium
BC.
[4]
Other early examples of using gravity to move water include the Qanat
system in ancient Persia and the very similar Turpan water system in ancient
China as well as irrigation canals in Peru.
[5]
In ancient China, hydraulic engineering was highly developed, and engineers
constructed massive canals with levees and dams to channel the flow of water
4 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
for irrigation, as well as locks to allow ships to pass through. Sunshu Ao is
considered the first Chinese hydraulic engineer. Another important Hydraulic
Engineer in China, Ximen Bao was credited of starting the practice of large
scale canal irrigation during the Warring States Period (481 BC-221 BC), even
today hydraulic engineers remain a respectable position in China. Before
becoming President, Hu Jintao was a hydraulic engineer and holds an
engineering degree from Tsinghua University
Eupalinos of Megara, was an ancient Greek engineer who built the Tunnel of
Eupalinos on Samos in the 6th century BC, an important feat of both civil and
hydraulic engineering. The civil engineering aspect of this tunnel was the fact
that it was dug from both ends which required the diggers to maintain an
accurate path so that the two tunnels met and that the entire effort maintained
a sufficient slope to allow the water to flow.
Hydraulic engineering was highly developed in Europe under the aegis of the
Roman Empire where it was especially applied to the construction and
maintenance of aqueducts to supply water to and remove sewage from their
cities.
[3]
In addition to supplying the needs of their citizens they used
hydraulic mining methods to prospect and extract alluvial gold deposits in a
technique known as hushing, and applied the methods to other ores such as
those of tin and lead.
Further advances in hydraulic engineering occurred in the Muslim world
between the 8th to 16th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden
Age. Of particular importance was the 'water management technological
complex' which was central to the Islamic Green Revolution and,
[6]
by
extension, a precondition for the emergence of modern technology.
[7]
The
various components of this 'toolkit' were developed in different parts of the
Afro-Eurasian landmass, both within and beyond the Islamic world. However, it
was in the medieval Islamic lands where the technological complex was
assembled and standardized, and subsequently diffused to the rest of the Old
World.
[8]
Under the rule of a single Islamic Caliphate, different regional
hydraulic technologies were assembled into "an identifiable water management
technological complex that was to have a global impact." The various
components of this complex included canals, dams, the qanat system from
Persia, regional water-lifting devices such as the noria, shaduf and screwpump
from Egypt, and the windmill from Islamic Afghanistan.
[8]
Other original
Islamic developments included the saqiya with a flywheel effect from Islamic
Spain,
[9]
the reciprocating suction pump
[10][11][12]
and crankshaft-connecting
rod mechanism from Iraq,
[13][14]
the geared and hydropowered water supply
system from Syria,
[15]
and the water purification methods of Islamic
5 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
chemists.
[16]
[edit] Modern times
In many respects the fundamentals of hydraulic engineering haven't changed
since ancient times. Liquids are still moved for the most part by gravity
through systems of canals and aqueducts, though the supply reservoirs may
now be filled using pumps. The need for water has steadily increased from
ancient times and the role of the hydraulic engineer is a critical one in
supplying it. For example, without the efforts of people like William Mulholland
the Los Angeles area would not have been able to grow as it has because it
simply doesn't have enough local water to support its population. The same is
true for many of our world's largest cities. In much the same way, the central
valley of California could not have become such an important agricultural
region without effective water management and distribution for irrigation.
Leonard Da Vinci (14521519) performed experiments, investigated and
speculated on waves and jets, eddies and streamlining. Isaac Newton
(16421727) by formulating the laws of motion and his law of viscosity, in
addition to developing the calculus, paved the way for many great
developments in uid mechanics. Using Newton's laws of motion, numerous
18th-century mathematicians solved many frictionless (zero-viscosity) ow
problems. However, most ows are dominated by viscous eects, so engineers
of the 17th and 18th centuries found the inviscid ow solutions unsuitable,
and by experimentation they developed empirical equations, thus establishing
the science of hydraulics.
[3]
Late in the 19th century, the importance of dimensionless numbers and their
relationship to turbulence was recognized, and dimensional analysis was born.
In 1904 Ludwig Prandtl published a key paper, proposing that the flow fields
of low-viscosity fluids be divided into two zones, namely a thin, viscosity-
dominated boundary layer near solid surfaces, and an effectively inviscid outer
zone away from the boundaries. This concept explained many former
paradoxes, and enabled subsequent engineers to analyze far more complex
flows. However, we still have no complete theory for the nature of turbulence,
and so modern fluid mechanics continues to be combination of experimental
results and theory.
[17]
In a somewhat parallel way to what happened in
California the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority(TVA) brought work
and prosperity to the South by building dams to generate cheap electricity and
control flooding in the region, making rivers navigable and generally
modernizing life the region.
The modern hydraulic engineer uses the same kinds of computer-aided design
6 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
(CAD) tools as many of the other engineering disciplines while also making use
of technologies like computational fluid dynamics to perform the calculations to
accurately predict flow characteristics, GPS mapping to assist in locating the
best paths for installing a system and laser-based surveying tools to aid in the
actual construction of a system.
[edit] See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Hydraulic engineering
Civil engineering
Eupalinos
HEC-RAS
Henri Pitot
Hydrology
Hydrology (agriculture)
Hydraulic mining
Hydraulic structure
International Association of
Hydraulic Engineering and
Research
Irrigation
Significant modern floods
Sunshu Ao
Ximen Bao
v
t
e
Hydraulics
Concepts
Hydraulics
Hydraulic fluid
Fluid power
Technologies
Machinery
Accumulator
Brake
Circuit
Cylinder
Drive system
Manifold
Motor
Power network
7 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
Press
Pump
Ram
Rescue tools
[edit] References
^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Prasuhn, Alan L. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering.
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston: New York, 1987.
1.
^ Cassidy, John J., Chaudhry, M. Hanif, and Roberson, John A. "Hydraulic
Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, 1998
2.
^
a

b

c
E. John Finnemore, Joseph Franzini "Fluid Mechanics with
Engineering Applications",McGraw-Hill,2002
3.
^ Gascoigne, Bamber. History of Clocks. History World. From 2001,
ongoing. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis
/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=2322&HistoryID=ac08&gtrack=pthc
4.
^ "Qanats" Water History. From 2001, ongoing.
http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/
5.
^ Edmund Burke (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological
Complexes and the Roots of Modernity", Journal of World History
(University of Hawaii Press) 20 (2): 165186 [174],
DOI:10.1353/jwh.0.0045
6.
^ Edmund Burke (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological
(University of Hawaii Press) 20 (2): 165186 [168],
DOI:10.1353/jwh.0.0045
7.
^
a

b
Edmund Burke (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological
(University of Hawaii Press) 20 (2): 165186 [168 & 173],
DOI:10.1353/jwh.0.0045
8.
^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a Saqiya. 9.
^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near
East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 649. (cf. Donald Routledge
Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
10.
^ Ahmad Y Hassan. "The Origin of the Suction Pump: Al-Jazari
1206 A.D.". http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes
/Notes%202.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
11.
^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), A History of Engineering in Classical and
Medieval Times, Routledge, pp. 143 & 150-2
12.
^ Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009), Islam and Science, Medicine, and
Technology, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 41, ISBN 1-4358-5066-1
13.
8 of 16 Friday 13 July 2012 06:19 PM
^ Ahmad Y Hassan, The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously
Rotating Machine
14.
^ Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated
Introduction, p. 181, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0
15.
^ Levey, M. (1973), Early Arabic Pharmacology, E. J. Brill; Leiden 16.
^ Fluid Mechanics 17.
[edit] External links
International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research
Hydraulic Engineering in Prehistoric Mexico
Hydrologic Engineering Center
Chanson, H. (2007). Hydraulic Engineering in the 21st Century : Where
to ?, Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 291301
(ISSN 0022-1686).
v
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