Chpt. 2 Final 7/30/99 4:59 PM Page 2.

Introduction to Gaussian Beam Optics

Fundamental Optics

In most laser applications it is necessary to focus, modify, or
shape the laser beam by using lenses and other optical elements. In
general, laser-beam propagation can be approximated by assum-
ing that the laser beam has an ideal Gaussian intensity profile,
corresponding to the theoretical TEM00 mode. Coherent Gaussian
beams have peculiar transformation properties that require special
consideration. In order to select the best optics for a particular laser
application, it is important to understand the basic properties of
Gaussian Beam Optics
In order to gain an appreciation of the principles and limitations
of Gaussian beam optics, it is necessary to understand the nature of
the laser output beam. In TEM00 mode, the beam emitted from a laser
is a perfect plane wave with a Gaussian transverse irradiance profile
as shown in figure 2.1. The Gaussian shape is truncated at some
diameter either by the internal dimensions of the laser or by some
limiting aperture in the optical train. To specify and discuss propa-
gation characteristics of a laser beam, we must define its diameter

Gaussian beams. Unfortunately, the output from real-life lasers is
not truly Gaussian (although helium neon lasers and argon-ion
lasers are a very close approximation). To accommodate this variance,
a quality factor, M2 (called the “M-square” factor), has been defined
to describe the deviation of the laser beam from a theoretical
Gaussian. For a theoretical Gaussian, M2=1; for a real laser beam,
M2>1. Helium neon lasers typically have an M2 factor that is less
than 1.1. For ion lasers, the M2 factor is typically between 1.1 and
1.3. Collimated TEM00 diode laser beams usually have an M2 factor
ranging from 1.1 to 1.7. For high-energy multimode lasers, the M2
factor can be as high as 3 or 4. In all cases, the M2 factor, which
varies significantly, affects the characteristics of a laser beam and
cannot be neglected in optical designs.
Optical Specifications
in some way. The commonly adopted definition is the diameter at
which the beam irradiance (intensity) has fallen to 1/e2 (13.5%) of its
peak, or axial, value.
BEAM WAIST AND DIVERGENCE
Diffraction causes light waves to spread transversely as they
propagate, and it is therefore impossible to have a perfectly collimated
beam. The spreading of a laser beam is in precise accord with the
predictions of pure diffraction theory; aberration is totally insignif-
icant in the present context. Under quite ordinary circumstances,
the beam spreading can be so small it can go unnoticed. The fol-
lowing formulas accurately describe beam spreading, making it
easy to see the capabilities and limitations of laser beams. The

notation is consistent with much of the laser literature, particularly

In the following discussion, we will first treat the characteristics
with Siegman’s excellent Introduction to Lasers and Masers
of a theoretical Gaussian beam (M2 = 1) and then show how these
(McGraw-Hill).
characteristics change as the beam deviates from the theoretical. In
all cases, a circularly symmetric wavefront is assumed, as would be
the case for a helium neon laser or an argon-ion laser. Diode laser
beams are asymmetric and often astigmatic, which causes their
transformation to be more complex.

Although in some respects component design and tolerancing

for lasers are more critical than they are for conventional optical
components, the designs often tend to be simpler since many of
the constants associated with imaging systems are not present. For
instance, laser beams are nearly always used on axis, which eliminates
Material Properties

the need to correct asymmetric aberration. Chromatic aberrations 100

are of no concern in single-wavelength lasers, although they are
critical for some tunable and multiline laser applications. In fact, the
80
only significant aberration in most single-wavelength applications
PERCENT IRRADIANCE

is primary (third-order) spherical aberration.

60
Scatter from surface defects, inclusions, dust, or damaged coat-
ings is of greater concern in laser-based systems than in incoherent
systems. Speckle content arising from surface texture and beam 40
coherence can limit system performance.

Because laser light is generated coherently, it is not subject to 20

13.5
some of the limitations normally associated with incoherent sources.
All parts of the wavefront act as if they originate from the same
point, and consequently the emergent wavefront can be precisely
Optical Coatings

41.5w 4w 0 w 1.5w
defined. Starting out with a well-defined wavefront permits more CONTOUR RADIUS
precise focusing and control of the beam than would otherwise be
possible. Figure 2.1 Irradiance profile of a Gaussian TEM00 mode

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Chpt. 2 Final 9/2/99 4:07 PM Page 2.3

Fundamental Optics
Even if a Gaussian TEM00 laser-beam wavefront were made This value is the far-field angular radius of the Gaussian TEM00
perfectly flat at some plane, with all elements moving in precisely beam. The vertex of the cone lies at the center of the waist (see
parallel directions, it would quickly acquire curvature and begin figure 2.2).
spreading in accordance with It is important to note that, for a given value of l, variations of
 2 beam diameter and divergence with distance z are functions of a
 p w 20 
R(z) = z 1 +  
 (2.1)
single parameter. This is often chosen to be w0, or the beam waist
 
  lz  
radius.
The direct relationship between beam waist and divergence

Gaussian Beam Optics

and
(v ∝ 1/w0) must always be considered when focusing a TEM00 laser
1/ 2
  lz  
2 beam. Because of this relationship, the spectrally selective coating

w(z) = w 0 1 +  
2
(2.2) of the spherical output mirror of a Melles Griot laser is actually sup-
  p w0  
  ported on the concave inner surface of a weak meniscus lens. In
where z is the distance propagated from the plane where the wavefront this paraxial, high f-number configuration, the lens introduces no
is flat, l is the wavelength of light, w0 is the radius of significant aberration. A new beam waist, larger than the intra-
the 1/e2 irradiance contour at the plane where the wavefront is flat, w(z) cavity beam waist, is formed by this lens near its output pupil. The
is the radius of the 1/e2 contour after the wave has propagated a transformed beam has greatly reduced divergence, which is
distance z, and R(z) is the wavefront radius of curvature after advantageous for most applications. Note that it is the 1/e2 beam
propagating a distance z. R(z) is infinite at z = 0, passes through diameter of this extracavity waist that is published in this catalog.
a minimum at some finite z, and rises again toward infinity as As an example to illustrate the relationship between beam waist
z is further increased, asymptotically approaching the value of z itself. and divergence, let us consider the real case of a Melles Griot red
5-mW HeNe laser, 05 LHR 151, with a specified beam diameter of

Optical Specifications
The plane z = 0 marks the location of a Gaussian waist, or a place
where the wavefront is flat, and w0 is called the beam waist radius. 0.8 mm (i.e., w0 = 0.4 mm). In the far-field region,
A waist occurs naturally at the midplane of a symmetric confocal
cavity. Another waist occurs at the surface of the planar mirror l 632.8 × 1056
v = = = 5.04 × 1054 rad.
of the quasi-hemispherical cavity used in many Melles Griot lasers. pw0 (p)(0.4)
The irradiance distribution of the Gaussian TEM00 beam,
Using the asymptotic approximation, at a distance of z = 100 m,
namely,

2 2 2P 2
/ w2 (2.3) w(z) = zv
I (r) = I 0e42r /w
= e42r ,
pw2 = (10 5 )(5.04 × 1044 )
where w = w(z) and P is the total power in the beam, is the same = 50.4 mm
at all cross sections of the beam. The invariance of the form of the
which is approximately 126 times larger than w0.
distribution is a special consequence of the presumed Gaussian
Material Properties

distribution at z = 0. If a uniform irradiance distribution had been

presumed at z = 0, the pattern at z = ∞ would have been the familiar
Airy disc pattern given by a Bessel function, while the pattern at
intermediate z values would have been enormously complicated. (See
Born and Wolf, Principles of Optics, 2d ed, Pergamon/ Macmillan).
Simultaneously, as R(z) asymptotically approaches z for large
z, w(z) asymptotically approaches the value

1
lz irradiance surface
w(z) ≅ (2.4) w e2
ne
p w0 w0 ic co
ptot
asym
where z is presumed to be much larger than pw0/l so that the 1/e2 w0 v
irradiance contours asymptotically approach a cone of angular z
w0
Optical Coatings

radius

w(z) l
v = = . (2.5) Figure 2.2 Growth in 1/e2 contour radius with distance
z p w0 propagated away from Gaussian waist

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Chpt. 2 Final 7/30/99 4:59 PM Page 2.4
Fundamental Optics

Suppose instead that we decide to reduce the divergence
by directing the laser into a beam expander (reversed telescope)
of angular magnification m = 10, such as Melles Griot model
09 LBM 013 (figure 2.3). Consider the case in which the expander
is focused to form a waist of radius w0 = 4.0 mm at the expander
output lens. Since v ∝ 1/w0, by definition, v is reduced by a factor
of 10; therefore, for z = 100 m,
Gaussian Beam Optics
graphically in figure 2.4. If we put this value for w0 (optimum) back
into the expression for w(z), w(z) = √}} 2 w0. Thus, for this example,
w(100) = √}}
2 (4.48) = 6.3 mm.
By turning this previous equation around, we can define a
distance, called the Rayleigh range (zR), over which the beam radius
spreads by a factor of √}}2 as
p w 20

zR = (2.7)
(10 )(5.04 × 10
5 54
) l
w(z) = = 5.04 mm.
10 with

For the expanded beam, the ratio w(z)/w0 is only a factor of 12.6
for a distance of 100 m, but it is a factor of 126 for the same distance
when the laser is used alone.
OPTIMUM COLLIMATION
Typically, one has a fixed value for w0 and uses the previously given
expression to calculate w(z) for an input value of z. However, one can
also utilize this equation to see how final beam radius varies with start-
ing beam radius at a fixed distance, z. Figure 2.4 shows the Gaussian
beam propagation equation plotted as a function of w0, with the
Optical Specifications
w(z R ) = 2w0 .
If we use beam-expanding optics (such as the 09 LBC, 09 LBX,
09 LBZ, or 09 LCM series), which allow us to adjust the position
of the beam waist, we can actually double the distance over which
beam divergence is minimized. Figure 2.5 illustrates this situation,
in which the beam starts off at a value of w(zR) = (2lz /p)1/2, goes
through a minimum value of w0 = w(zR)/√}} 2 , and then returns to
w(zR). By focusing the beam-expanding optics to place the beam
waist at the midpoint, we can restrict beam spread to a factor of √}}
2
over a distance of 2zR, as opposed to just zR.

particular values of l = 632.8 nm and z = 100 m.

The beam radius at 100 m reaches a minimum value for a starting
beam radius of about 4.5 mm. Therefore, if we wanted to achieve
the best combination of minimum beam diameter and minimum
beam spread (or best collimation) over a distance of 100 m, our
optimum starting beam radius would be 4.5 mm. Any other starting
value would result in a larger beam at z = 100 m.
We can find the general expression for the optimum starting
beam radius for a given distance, z. Doing so yields
1/2
 lz 
w 0 (optimum) =   . (2.6)
 p
Material Properties
This result can now be used in the problem of finding the starting
beam radius that yields the minimum beam diameter and beam
spread over 100 m. Using 2zR = 100, or zR = 50, and l = 632.8 nm,
we get a value of w(zR) = (2lz /p)1/2 = 4.5 mm, and w0 = 3.2 mm.
Thus, the optimum starting beam radius is the same as previously
calculated. However, by focusing the expander we achieve a final
beam radius that is no larger than our starting beam radius, while
still maintaining the √}}
2 factor in overall variation.
Alternately, if we started off with a beam radius of 6.3 mm
(√}}
2 w0 ), we could focus the expander to provide a beam waist of
w0 = 4.5 mm at 100 m, and a final beam radius of 6.3 mm at 200 m.

Using this optimum value of w0 will provide the best combina-

tion of minimum starting beam diameter and minimum beam
spread (ratio of w(z)/w0) over the distance z. The previous example 100
FINAL BEAM RADIUS (mm)

of z = 100 and l=632.8 nm gives w0 (optimum) = 4.48 mm, shown

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
STARTING BEAM RADIUS w0 (mm)
Optical Coatings

Figure 2.3 Laser beam expander 09 LBM 013 (reversed Figure 2.4 Beam radius at 100 m as a function of starting
telescope) beam radius for a HeNe laser at 632.8 nm

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Chpt. 2 Final 9/2/99 4:05 PM Page 2.5

Fundamental Optics
LASERS AND LASER SYSTEMS
w0
beam expander

w(–zR) = √2w0
w(zR) = √2w0

Gaussian Beam Optics

zR zR

Figure 2.5 Focusing a beam expander to minimize beam

radius and spread over a specified distance

INCORPORATING M2 INTO THE BASIC EQUATIONS

The following discussion is taken from the analysis by Sun [Haiyin
Sun, “Thin Lens Equation for a Real Laser Beam with Weak Lens
Aperture Truncation,” Opt. Eng. 37, no. 11 (November 1998)]. From
equation 2.5 we see that, for a theoretical Gaussian beam, the small-
Melles Griot manufactures many types of lasers and
laser systems for laboratory and OEM applications.
These, along with a wide variety of laser accessories, are
found in Chapter 41 through 47. Laser types include

Optical Specifications
est possible value of the radius-divergence product is
helium neon (HeNe) and helium cadmium (HeCd) lasers;
w0v = l/p. argon, krypton, and mixed gas (argon/krypton) ion
lasers; diode lasers, and diode-pumped solid-state
For a real laser beam, we have (DPSS) lasers.

(2.8)
w0MvM = M2l/p >l/p

where w0M and vM are the 1/e2 intensity waist radius and the far-
field half-divergent angle of the real laser beam, respectively, and
M2 factors into equations 2.1 and 2.2 as follows:

wM(z) = w0M[1+(zlM2/pw0M2)2]1/2 (2.9)

Material Properties

RM(z) = z[1+(pw0M2/zlM2)2] (2.10)

where wM and RM are the 1/e2 intensity radius of the beam and the
beam wavefront radius at z, respectively.
The definition for the Rayleigh range (equation 2.7) remains
the same for a real laser beam and becomes

zR = pw0R2/l. (2.11)

Together, equations 2.9, 2.10, and 2.11 form a complete set to

denote the input of a real laser beam into a thin lens.
Optical Coatings

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