1 WEEK-0(INTRODUCTION TO GROUPS) 1

1 Week-0(Introduction to Groups)
A non-empty set G with a binary operation, , called the product, is said to form a group if the following
three conditions hold:
1. a (b c) = (a b) c for all a, b, c G.
2. There is an element e G such that a e = a = e a for all a G. The element e is called the identity
element of G.
3. For every a G, there exists an element b G such that a b = e = b a.
It can be easily veried that the identity element of a group G is unique and for each a G, its inverse
is also a unique element of G and is usually denoted by a
1
. A subset S of G is said to generate G, denoted
G = S, if for each g G, we can nd s
1
, s
2
, . . . , s
k
S such that g = s
1
s
2
s
k
.
Let G

be a non-empty subset of a group G. Then G

is called a subgroup of G if G

is also a group, with

respect to the binary operation inherited from that of G. A group G is said to be abelian if a b = b a, for
all a, b G. If the binary operation of a group G is denoted by the symbol +, then G is called an additive
group and in this case we understand that the group G is abelian. For an additive group G, 0 denotes the
identity element of G and a denotes the additive inverse of the element a G. Also, for a G, the element
a + . . . + a

n-times
is written as na. Similarly, (n)a = (na) and 0a = 0, where the 0 on the left hand side is an
integer and the 0 on the right hand side is the additive identity of G.
For example, let S = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
be a non-empty set with n elements. Then a bijective mapping of
S onto itself is called a permutation. The set of all permutations of S is denoted by o
n
. The permutation
that sends a
i
to a
i+1
, for 1 i k 1, and sends a
k
to a
1
is denoted by (a
1
, . . . , a
k
). It is easy to see
that o
n
is a group with respect to the binary operation, given by composition of two maps. The group o
n
is commonly known as the symmetric group on n elements and is non-abelian, whenever n 3. For n N,
let Z
n
= 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1. Then Z
n
is an abelian group with respect to the operation addition modulo
n. The group Z
n
is known as the additive group of integers modulo n. Dene two maps and on S by
(a
i
) = a
i+1
and (a
i
) = a
i
for i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,
where the subscripts are read modulo n. Then and are permutations of S and they satisfy the relations

n
=
2
= I and =
1
, where I is the identity map of S. The set T
n
= , o
n
is a subgroup. The
subgroup T
n
is called the dihedral group and consists of 2n elements. Further, the permutation and all its
powers are called the rotations of S. Similarly, and all its compositions with are called the reections of
S.
Let G
1
and G
2
be two groups with respect to the binary operations and , respectively. Then a
mapping f : G
1
G
2
is said to be a homomorphism if f(g
1
g
2
) = f(g
1
) f(g
2
) for all g
1
, g
2
G
1
. If f is
also a bijection, then it is called an isomorphism (of groups) and in such a case, we say that G
1
and G
2
are
isomorphic, written G
1

= G
2
. The Cartesian product G
1
G
2
is also a group under the operation dened
by (g
1
, h
1
) (g
2
, h
2
) = (g
1
g
2
, h
1
h
2
), for all (g
1
, h
1
), (g
2
, h
2
) G
1
G
2
. The group G
1
G
2
is called the
external direct product of G
1
and G
2
.
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 2
2 Week-1(Ring, Subring, Integral Domain, Division Ring, Field)
Denition 2.1. A ring is an ordered triple (R, +, ) where R is a set and + and are binary operations on
R satisfying the following properties:
A1 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for all a, b, c in R.
A2 a + b = b + a for all a, b in R.
A3 There is an element 0 R satisfying a + 0 = a for all a in R.
A4 For every a R there is an element b R such that a + b = 0.
M1 a (b c) = (a b) c for all a, b, c in R.
D1 a (b + c) = a b + a c for all a, b, c in R.
D2 (b + c) a = b a + c a for all a, b, c in R.
Terminology
If (R, +, ) is a ring, the binary operation + is called addition and the binary operation is called
multiplication.
In the future we will usually write ab instead of a b.
The element 0 mentioned in A3 is called the zero of the ring. Note that we have not assumed that 0
behaves like a zero, that is, we have not assumed that 0 a = a 0 = 0 for all a R.
What A3 says is that 0 is an identity with respect to addition. Note that negative (as the opposite of
positive) has no meaning for most rings.
We do not assume that multiplication is commutative and we have not assumed that there is an identity
for multiplication, much less that elements have inverses with respect to multiplication.
The element b mentioned in A4 is written a and we call it minus a or the additive inverse of a.
Subtraction in a ring is dened by the rule a b = a + (b) for all a, b in R.
Unless otherwise stated, from now on we will refer to the ring R rather than the ring (R, +, ). Of
course, if we dene a ring, we must say what the binary operations of addition and multiplication are.
Denition 2.2. Let R be a ring. If there is an identity with respect to multiplication, it is called the identity
of the ring and is usually denoted by 1. If such an element exists, we say that R is a ring with identity.
In some cases, the identity of a ring may be denoted by some symbol other than 1 such as e or I.
Denition 2.3. We say that a ring R is commutative if the multiplication is commutative. Otherwise,
the ring is said to be non-commutative.
Note that the addition in a ring is always commutative, but the multiplication may not be commutative.
Denition 2.4. Let R be a ring. A non-zero element a of R is called a zero divisor if there is a
non-zero element b in R such that ab = 0 or ba = 0.
Let R be a ring has an identity 1 ,= 0. An element u of R is called unit in R if there is some v in
R such that uv = vu = 1. We let U(R) denote the set of all units of R. If such a v exists we write
v = u
1
. We sometimes call u
1
the multiplicative inverse of u.
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 3
Denition 2.5. A ring R is said to be an integral domain if the following conditions hold:
1. R is commutative.
2. R contains an identity 1 ,= 0.
3. If a, b R and ab = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0.
Denition 2.6. A ring R is said to be a devision ring (or skew eld) if it satises the following properties.
1. R contains an identity 1 ,= 0.
2. For each x R such that x ,= 0, there is a y R such that xy = 1.
A commutative division ring is called eld
Problem 2.7. Which of the following are rings? If so which have identities, which are commutative, which
are integral domains and which are elds? Also nd U(R) set of units if R is ring.
1. (0, +, ).
2. (N, +, ).
3. (2Z, +, ) where 2Z is the set
of even integers.
4. (R, +, ).
5. (C, +, ).
6. (Q, +, ).
7. (Z, +, ).
8. (Z
2
, +, ).
9. (Z
3
, +, ).
10. (Z
4
, +, ).
11. (M
2
(R), +, ).
12. (M
2
(Z
n
), +, ).
13. (M
n
(R), +, ).
Denition 2.8. If R is a ring, a R and n N we dene a
n
by the following rules:
a
1
= a,
a
n
= aa a (n copies of a) if n 2.
If R has an identity 1 and a is a unit then we can also dene:
a
0
= 1,
a
1
= multiplicative inverse of a,
a
n
= (a
1
)
n
for n 2.
Note that since generally an element a of a ring is not a unit, we cannot expect a
n
to be dened for
negative integers.
Problem 2.9. Which of the following are rings? If so which have identities, which are commutative, which
are integral domains and which are elds? Also nd U(R) set of units if R is ring.
1. Let R be any commutative group (denoting the group operation by +) and dening the multiplication
on R as a b = 0 for all a, b R.
2. (The(real) Hamiltonian Quaternions) Let H = a + bi + bj + dk[a, b, c, d R where
a) addition is dened by component wise i.e., (a
1
+ b
1
i + c
1
j + d
1
k) + (a
2
+ b
2
i + c
2
j + d
2
k) =
(a
1
+ a
2
) + (b
1
+ b
2
)i + (c
1
+ c
2
)j + (d
1
+ d
2
)k
b)Multiplication is dened by expanding (a
1
+b
1
i +c
1
j +d
1
k) (a
2
+b
2
i +c
2
j +d
2
k) using distributive
law and the following relations
i
2
= j
2
= k
2
= 1, ij = jk = ki = 1 and ji = kj = ik = 1
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 4
3. Let X be any non-empty set and A be any ring. Let
R
A
X
= f[f : X A.
That is R
A
X
be the collection of all functions from X to A, where addition and multiplication dened
component wise i.e.,
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) and (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x).
4. Let R
R,cont
[0,1]
be set of all continuous functions from [0, 1] to R, where addition and multiplication dened
component wise.
5. Let R
R,diff
[0,1]
be set of all dierentiable functions from [0, 1] to R, where addition and multiplication
dened component wise.
6. Let R
R,CS
R
be set of all compact functions from R to R, where addition and multiplication dened
component wise.
A function f : R R is said to have compact support if there are real numbers a and b (depending on
f) such that f(x) = 0 for all x / [a, b] (i.e., f is zero outside some bounded interval).
7. Let D be a rational number that is not a perfect square in Q and dene
Q(

D) = a + b

D[a, b Q.
Addition and multiplication dened as
(a + b

D) + (c + d

D) = (a + c) + (b + d)

D.
(a + b

D) (c + d

D) = (ac + Dbd) + (ad + bc)

D.
8. (Gaussian Integers) Z[i] = a +ib[a, b Z. This is similar to complex numbers C but coecients are
taken from integers rather real numbers.
9. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1 ,= 0 and let G = g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
be any nite group operation
written multiplicatively. Dene group ring RG as
RG =
n

i=1
a
i
g
i
[a
i
R
addition and multiplication dened as
(
n

i=1
a
i
g
i
) + (
n

i=1
b
i
g
i
) =
n

i=1
(a
i
+ b
i
)g
i
and
(
n

i=1
a
i
g
i
) (
n

i=1
b
i
g
i
) =
n

k=1

gigj=g
k
(a
i
b
j
)g
k
.
10. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1 ,= 0. Let
R[x] = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
[a
0
, . . . , a
n
R, with n Z
+
0
be the set of all polynomials with coecients from R with usual polynomial addition and multiplication.
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 5
11. Let X be a non-empty set. Let P(X) denote the power set (set of all subsets of X), where addition
(+) is the symmetric dierence of sets and multiplication () is intersection of sets.
12. Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Dene the set R[[x]] of formal power series in the indeterminate
x with coecients from R to be all formal innite sums.
R[[x]] =

i=1
a
i
x
i
[a
i
R
where addition and multiplication is dened as
(

i=1
a
i
x
i
) + (

i=1
b
i
x
i
) =

i=1
(a
i
+ b
i
)x
i
and
(

i=1
a
i
x
i
) (

i=1
b
i
x
i
) =

i=1
(
n

k=0
(a
k
b
nk
)x
k
).
Denition 2.10. A subset S of a ring R is said to be a subring of R if the following conditions hold:
1. 0 S.
2. If a S, then a S.
3. If a, b S, then a + b S and ab S.
If R is a eld and the following conditions also hold:
4. 1 S.
5. If a ,= 0 and a S, then a
1
S.
we say that S is a subeld of R.
If S is a subring (subeld) of the ring (eld) R, then it is easy to verify that S is itself a ring (eld) with
respect to the addition and multiplication on R.
Problem 2.11. 1. Let R be a ring. Then
(a) 0a = a0 = 0 for all a R.
(b) (a)(b) = (a)(b) = (ab) for all a, b R.
(c) (a)(b) = ab.
(d) a(b c) = ab ac.
(e) (b c)a = ba ca.
(f ) If R has identity element 1, then i)the identity is unique ii) (a) = (1)a iii) (1)
2
= 1 iv) If u
is unit in R then so is u.
2. (Subring Test) A non-empty set S of ring R is subring if S is closed under subtraction and multiplica-
tion.
3. Let R be a ring with unity. Find two non-trivial subrings of M
n
(R).
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 6
4. Let R and S be rings. Prove that the direct product R S is a ring under component wise addition
and multiplication.
5. Prove that cancellation laws hold in integral domain.
6. Every eld is an integral domain.
7. Every nite integral domain is eld.
8. A ring R is called a Boolean ring if a
2
= a for all a R. Prove that every Boolean ring is commutative.
9. Prove that only Boolean ring that is integral domain is Z
2
.
10. Prove that Z
n
is a eld if and only if it is an integral domain.
11. Prove that Z
n
is a eld if and only if n is a prime.
12. Let R be a ring with identity. The center of a ring R is z R[zr = rzr R (i.e., set of all elements
that commute with every element of R). Prove that center of ring is subring that contains the identity.
Prove that center of division ring is eld.
13. Let R be a ring with identity. For a xed element a R dene
C(a) = r R[ra = ar.
Prove that C(a) is subring of R containing a. Prove that center of ring is the intersection of all
elements over a R.
14. If D is a division ring, then C(a) is a division ring for a R.
15. R be an integral domain and p(x), q(x) R[x]. Then
(a) deg(p(x)q(x)) = deg(p(x)) + deg(q(x))
(b) The units of R[x] are simply the units of R.
(c) R[x] is also an integral domain.
16. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1 ,= 0 and let G = g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
be any nite group operation
written multiplicatively. Then show that
N = g
1
+ g
2
+ + g
n
is in the center of the group ring RG.
17. Let S be a subring of ring R. Then provide an example for the following cases.
(a) S may be commutative but not R.
(b) S and R may both have unities but they may not be the same.
(c) S may not have unity even if R has.
(d) S may have unity but R may not.
(e) Assume R and S have same unity. And an element a S is unit R but not in S.
(f ) If the unities in R and S exists and are dierent, then an element a S may b e a unit in S but
not in R.
2 WEEK-1(RING, SUBRING, INTEGRAL DOMAIN, DIVISION RING, FIELD) 7
18. Show that the set

a b

b a

[a, b C be a division ring but not a eld, where C is the eld of complex
numbers and z denote complex conjugate of z.
19. If R is commutative ring with 1, then A M
n
(R) is a unit if and only if its determinant, det(A) is a
unit in R.
20. Give an example of Boolean ring without unity.
21. A ring in which the elements 1 and 0 are equal is the zero ring.