STELLAR EVOLUTION.

First type of cloud: Dark Nebulae cool, dense, massive, clouds of gas and dust. Use to be
conceived as a hole. The densitys is so dense, light cant pass through it. Very cool clouds
30-40 degrees of absolute zero. Can be quite massive. The raw material for star and planet
formation.

In space, molecules cant survive, in these molecular clouds, they can protect it. Inside dark
nebulae High Energy radiation is absorbed by the dust grains.
This allows quite complex molecules to form and survive. For this reason, dark nebulae are
also referred to as molecular clouds.
Interstellar Molecules over 140 molecules are currently known! Many can be used to make
the basic building blocks of biological molecules of life.
The building blocks of life are present in space before stars and planet formation. Meaning:
there might be life on other planets in different galaxies.
How do we know molecules are there?
Molecules can rotate and vibrate, which atoms cannot. When performing quantum
mathematical equations
When molecules changes speed, it gives off characteristic patterns like infrared and
microwave.
Molecular Abundance: by far the most common interstellar molecule is hydrogen, H2
The next most is carbon monoxide.
SECOND KIND OF NEBULAR: Emission Nebulae family of hot massive stars which are
heating and ionizing gas. Clouds of ionized gas surrounding hot, massive, new born stars
(birth of hot young massive stars that are ionizing and heating).
Colour of Emission Nebulae emission nebulae have a characteristic red colour from the
emission of hydrogen atoms within the cloud.
How can gas emit radiation if it is ionized? In these clouds, hydrogen is ionized, electrons are
kicked out of the atoms they cant orbit.
Ground state: H(n=1) UV radiation -- ionization H+ + e- (arrow down) V recombination
H(n=3)excited state (red photon)
Process ionization . . . Stellar nurseries: emission nebula

Diffuse nebulae thin clouds of gas and dust easily penetrated by radiation. Diffuse meaning
thin
Blue light being reflected by the dust grains. A Reflection Nebula.
Stars seen directly through the cloud appear: 1. Dimmer (IS Extinction) 2. Redder (IS
reddening) they appear redder because of the blue light being pushed out.
Interstellar Extinction and Reddening

Extinction and reddening increase with distance. A distant nebula (NGC 3603) A closer
nebula

In star formation regions all three types of nebulae are often seen together.

Interstellar medium of the gas clouds in space.
Form of hydrogen in the different clouds:
1. Dark molecular, H2
2. Emission ionized, H+
3. Diffuse atomic, H
Dark: low radiation
Emission: high radiation environment
Diffuse: enough radiation to break the molecules into atoms, but not enough to ionize them.
Intermediate.

Currently accepted theory for star formation is called the condensation theory. Stars condense
out of interstellar clouds of gas and dust the same way as water condenses rain and cloud

Dark Nebulae which are cold and massive enough to form stars and planets.

Interstellar clouds are normally stable for the same reason the sun is stablebecause the
inward force of gravity and the outward force of pressure.

To form a star and planetary system we need the cloud to become unstable: gravity > pressure
Causing the cloud to collapse under gravity.
This can happen when clouds are compressed externally. One way are that interstellar clouds
collide with each other.

But a spectacular one: a supernova explosion. If a star dies close to one of the clouds, in will
cause the cloud to collapse on itself to form new stars.
The interstellar clouds are very large, if one of them becomes unstable, its not possible . . .

Cloud Fragmentation the cloud does not fragment into equal sized pieces but fragments
into clumps with a range of masses.
High power stars are rare, low power stars are common.

Formation of Binary Stars: more than half of our stars are in a binary system.
Gravitational capture can form a binary system.
When a cloud collapses it spins faster called the conservation of angular momentum. As
rotating objects gets smaller it spins faster.

Similarly, as a cloud collapses, it spins faster forming a rotating protoplanetary disk (proplyd)
around a central clump which will eventually become a star.

Particles of gas and dust stick together within the disk by the process of accretion leading
to the formation of a family of planets. How planets form around a star (life the orbition of
our planets forming our star sun!)

Protostars a collapsing clump of gas on its way to becoming a star as they have not yet
started nuclear fusion!
Protostars are large cool and luminous. Found in the same region of the H-R diagram as red
giants but they are not the same. Theyre just in the same region.
How can a collapsing clump of gas produce more energy than the sun when it has not yet
started nuclear fusion?
Why does a collapsing clump of gas heat up anyway?
Answer: the Kelvin-Helmholtz Contraction
Using newton universal law of gravitation you can calculate.
The closer the particles get together, the strong the force of gravity, the stronger the
force of gravity, the faster they move together, the faster they move, the higher the
temperature.
As it collapses its literally conversing gravity into heat. It causes protostars to heat up.

Instability and Mass Loss protostars transfer energy from their hot interiors to their cool
surfaces via convection. This makes their surfaces very unstable. As they heat up they
eventually start to eject their out layers into space leading to mass loss. Up to 50% of the
original mass of the clump can be loss this way.

Just before a star is born, it may lose half of its mass/matter back out to space because of its
temperature.
Mass Loss from Protostars mass loss can only occur perpendicular to the protoplanetary
disc leading to the formation of a bipolar outflow.
Although cold, theyre very, very large putting out extensive amounts of energy.

Evolutionary Tracks: as protostars collapses and heat up they move on the H-R diagram
towards the main sequence.
A Star is Born eventually nuclear fusion begins in the core when it reaches a temperature of
around 10 million K
During star formation process, gravity dominated over pressure. Once fusion begins, thats
when the stars start to balance itself out because of the pressure. A constant battle against
gravity.
Once nuclear fusion begins, the stars to balance itself out. The star attains hydrostatic and
thermal equilibrium producing a newborn stable zero-age main sequence star.
The Sun took around 50 million years to form.
Formation of Stars of Different Masses final position on main sequence determined by
mass luminosity relation.
The higher the mass the star, the shorter amount of time it takes to form because of gravity.
Everything is faster for high massed stars. All stars that are born begins on the main
sequence.
Formation of low mass stars: 1 form on timescales tens of millions of years. 2, move
diagonally onto the main sequence. 3. Produces low luminosity on the bottom of the main
sequence.
High: hundreds of thousands of year
Move horizontally.

End result: a cluster of newborn stars with a range of masses.

If young cluster of stars contains one or more hot massive O- or B-type stars an emission
nebula will be produced. A young family of stars which has just formed million(s) years
old.

A Sibling of the Sun In 2014 an F8 V (a little bit hotter than the sun) star was discovered
in the constellation of Hercules which was once part of the star cluster of the Sun formed
from.

Observation Evidence?
Universe is 14 billion years old. Stars and planets were forming billions of years before the
sun and earth; its going to continue billions of years after the sun and earth die.

The Orion Nebula: a star formation region 1500 ly away (closest to us)

Protostars and Protoplanetary disks are seen inside interstellar clouds.

Disks of gas and dust are seen around other, mature solar-type stars!

Detected 2,000 planets around other stars.

Main Sequence Evolution
Represents adulthood.

Stellar Adulthood: A star depends more than 90% of its total lifetime on the main sequence.
This is the most stable phase of a stars life similar to adulthood in humans. The boring and
important part of the stars life. During its sequence this may give out life for the other
planets surrounding stars.

Definition of MS Star: core hydrogen of helium fusion. In hydrostatic and thermal
equilibrium.

As the star ages, hydrogen decreases and the helium increases. Eventually the hydrogen fuels
runs out of its core.

When the sun formed its core contained roughly 75% H and 25% He by mass. After 4.6
billion years of fusion the amount of hydrogen in the core has decreased. Our sun is gradually
running out of fuel.
Fusion can only occur in the core the star.
Main Sequence Evolution of the Sun the Sun is gradually increasing its luminosity as it
uses up its hydrogen fuel and its core becomes hotter to maintain balance with gravity. Our
sun today is 30% more powerful than it was when it was formed.

Main Sequence Lifetime
Depends on: 1. The amount of nuclear fuel = mass. 2. Rate which fuel is consumed =
luminosity.
The lifetime of the stars is inversely proportional to the mass. The higher the mass of a star,
the shorter its lifetime.

Why? They have much higher central temperatures (and hence luminosity)