Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

4.1
4. TORQUE PRODUCTION AND POWER .................................................................................. 1
4.1 Lorentz Force ....................................................................................................................... 1
4.2 General Equation for Torque ............................................................................................... 2
4.3 Power ................................................................................................................................... 6
4.4 Reluctance Torque and Coenergy ........................................................................................ 7
4.5 Reluctance Torque and the Principle of Cross-Field ......................................................... 10
4.6 Maxwells Stress Tensor in the Definition of Torque ....................................................... 11
4. TORQUE PRODUCTION AND POWER
4.1 Lorentz Force

A core task of electrical machines is to produce the torque required by the load at the desired rota-
tion speed. Torque production in electrical machines can be considered to base on two phenomena:
In round-rotor machines, the torque production is easiest to explain by the Lorentz force, whereas in
the case of a salient-pole rotor, the torque is produced based on those magnetic force effects that are
created when the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is different in different directions. Naturally,
also in this case, the torque production can be explained by the Lorentz forces acting upon the stator
windings; however, as the rotating-field machines always have to be magnetized before the torque
production can be begin, we may start from the assumption that there occurs a flux density B
[Vs/m
2
] in the air gap of the machine. According to the equation of the Lorentz force, the charge
element dQ moving at speed v experiences a force element

( ) d d F E v B = + Q . (4.1)

Here E is the vector [V/m] expressing the strength of the electric field. Note that we treat here the
real vectors related to the electromagnetic field quantities not space vectors. The proportion of the
electric field strength of the force is in the direction of the field strength E and does not depend on
the motion of the charge element. The force produced by the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane determined by both the speed v and the flux density B and depends on these two according to
the cross product of the vectors. The absolute value of the force effect caused by the magnetic field
is

d d F QvB = sin| . (4.2)

Here | is the angle between the speed and flux density vectors as shown in Fig. 4.1











Figure 4.1 Lorentz force caused by the magnetic field on
a moving charge. A charge dQ, moving at speed v in the
magnetic field B, experiences a force dF.

dQ
B
v
dF
|

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.2

In ordinary electrical machines, torque is produced in practice only with the magnetic field, and
therefore the term depending on the magnetic field strength can be neglected. In the case of a cur-
rent-carrying conductor, we may write for a charge element dQ moving at speed v

s s
s
v d d
d
d
d
d
d d i
t
Q
t
Q Q = = = . (4.3)

By substituting this expression of the current-carrying element to the equation of the Lorentz force,
we obtain according to Fig. 4.2

B s F = d d i . (4.4)

The force acting upon the conductor element is perpendicular to the plane determined by the ele-
ment ds and the flux density B according to the right-hand screw rule. The force reaches its maxi-
mum, when ds and B are perpendicular to each other (sin| = 1). Otherwise the force reduces in the
ratio of sin|, and reaches zero when the current and flux density are parallel to each other.









Figure 4.2 Application of the magnetic part of the Lorentz
force to a current-carrying conductor.

ds
i
B
dF
|


In electrical machines, the current i and the flux density B are attempted to be kept perpendicular to
each other. This is fairly easy in electrical machines, since if no significant saturation of the mag-
netic circuit occurs, the flux of the air gap penetrates into iron quite perpendicularly.

The flux u penetrating from the air gap of electrical machines to the rotor intersects the current-
carrying rotor bars, thus generating a force determined by the Lorentz force on the periphery of the
rotor. We may now imagine that the current of Fig. 4.2 flows for instance in the rotor bar of an in-
duction motor. The total force exerted to a single bar is obtained by integrating over the length of
the bar. If the flux density and the current remain constant in the length of the bar, this integration is
an easy task, and is simplified into bare multiplication.

4.2 General Equation for Torque

Next, we derive an expression for torque, which is essential for the control drives of electrical ma-
chines; this expression was introduced in the previous chapter already, when we started from the
magnetic part of the Lorentz force. Let us consider Fig. 4.3; it shows, spread out in a plane, the si-
nusoidal flux density distribution B(x) acting in the air gap of a two-pole machine, and the linear
current density A(x) of the rotor. The linear current density of the rotor is an imaginary quantity,
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.3
which represents the rotor currents as an infinitesimally thin layer on the rotor surface. The right-
hand section of the figure depicts the location of a current element of the width dx on the rotor sur-
face, and the air gap flux density B
o
acting upon it, and the force dF' as well as the dimensions of
the rotor.




Figure 4.3 Flux density wave
and linear current density
wave in the air gap of a two-
pole machine and on the
rotor surface, as well as the
dimensions of the rotor. t
p
is
the pole pitch of the machine.

0
t/2
B
o
(o)
L
dx
do
r
ids
dF'
B
o

A(o)
o
t
p

The flux density distribution and the linear current density distribution are assumed sinusoidal;

( )
( ) ( ). sin

, sin

o o
o o
+ =
=
A A
B B
(4.5)

The linear current density wave and the flux density wave have a phase difference of the magnitude
on the rotor surface. The target in electrical machines is that the magnetic flux would meet the
rotor surface perpendicularly. Now we may easily apply the equation of the Lorentz force to a con-
ductor of the width dx, located on the rotor surface; there is a current di flowing in the conductor

}
=
L
i
0

'
tan
d d d B s F . (4.6)

Since the flux density distribution can with sufficient accuracy be assumed to be independent of the
coordinate of the rotor surface in the axial direction, we obtain the absolute value for the force act-
ing upon an imaginary bar of the width dx from the equation

L iB F

'
tan
d d = . (4.7)

Calculated at any position of the rotor, this force is tangential to the rotor surface.

The magnitude of the current di in the area of the width dx is obtained by applying the expression
for the linear current density

( ) x A i d sin

d o + = . (4.8)

The sum of the absolute values of the tangential forces acting upon the surface of a two-pole rotor is
obtained by integrating over one pole pair, that is, over two pole pitches t
p


Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.4
( ) x B A L d sin

sin

2
0
'
tan
p

}
+ = o o
t
F . (4.9)

To simplify the integration, we change the variable into dx = rdo.

( ) o o o d sin sin

2
0

'
tan
}
+ = Lr B A F . (4.10)

. cos

d ) sin sin cos cos (sin

2
0
2

'
tan

o o o o
Lr B A
Lr B A
=
+ =

}
F


The electric torque produced by a two-pole rotor is obtained by multiplying the result by the radius
r the rotor.

r L B a r Lr B A r T = = =

t cos

cos

p
'
tan e
F . (4.11)

In principle, the peak value of the linear current density is obtained by dividing the peak value of
the slot current by the slot pitch, and also taking into account the winding factor
1
of the fundamen-
tal harmonic. If the number of slots per pole and per phase is q, the number of coil turns is N, the
number of phases is m = 3, and the number of slots is Q, we obtain the effective peak current of the
slot from the equation

i
Ni
q
u
=

1
. (4.12)
The slot pitch is
t
t
u
p
=
2
Q p /
. (4.13)

Since in a three-phase machine, there is a connection between the number of slots per pole and per
phase q and the number of slots Q

Q m pq pq = = 2 6 , (4.14)

in the two-pole case (p = 1), based on the dimensions of the winding, we obtain for the linear cur-
rent density
p
1

t
i N
A = . (4.15)

By substituting this result to the expression of the torque produced by the rotor, we may rewrite the
torque in the form

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.5

T
i N
B L r i NB Lr
i N B L r
i N B L
e
p
p
p
= =
=
=
3
3
3
2
2
3
2
2
1
1
1
1

cos

cos

cos

cos .

t
t

t
o o
o
o
t
t
t


By investigating this latest form, we see that it includes the peak flux term

u =
o o
t
2
B Lt
p
of the
sinusoidal air gap flux density distribution, this term being the surface integral of the flux density
over the pole pitch. When the peak value of the air gap flux is multiplied by the effective number of
turns
1
N, we obtain the peak value

m
of the air gap flux linkage, and thus the expression for the
torque can be simplified into the form

T i
e m
=
3
2


cos . (4.16)

Let us consider Fig. 4.4 somewhat further: the figure illustrates the currents of the machine and the
respective current vectors according to the space vector theory. By investigating the figure, we see
that according to the definition based on the space vector theory, the direction of the current vector
is equal to the direction of the current linkage of the current of the winding in question, this current
linkage deviating t/2 from the direction of the actual current. In the useful parts of the winding, the
currents are flowing in the axial direction to the machine. The current vector is defined as a vector
perpendicular to the plane determined by the winding loop, the current vector being thus, depending
on the winding of the machine, in the radial direction to the electrical machine.

Hence, when adopting the space vectors, the length of which is scaled to be equal to the peak value
of the respective temporal quantity, a torque vector in accordance with the space vector theory is
obtained from Eq. (4.16)

T i i i
e m r m r m r
=
|
\

|
.
| = =
3
2 2
3
2
3
2
cos sin
t
. (4.17)

Usually it is agreed upon that we obtain a positive torque by the air gap flux linkage and the stator
current, in other words,
T i i
e m s m r
= =
3
2
3
2
. (4.18)

There occur equal but opposite torques in the stator and the rotor. The torque of the stator is taken
into account by bolting the stator firmly to the base to prevent the stator from rotating.

Since the leakage flux linkage does not produce torque, the torque can be equally calculated by the
stator flux linkage. If there are several pole pairs p in the machines, the torque equation has to be
multiplied by the number of pole pairs; this yields the general equation for the torque calculated
with stator quantities

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.6

s m s s e
2
3
2
3
i i T = = p p . (4.19)

The above general torque equation is extremely important in the context of the control drive of elec-
trical machines. Although the result was derived above for a two-pole machine, using thus the
quantities of a single pole pair, the equation is yet of general validity. When computing the torque,
the flux linkage vector formed by the voltage fed to the machine is used as the flux linkage, and the
space vector formed by the phase current vectors of the machine is used as the current vector; the
obtained cross product is multiplied by the number of pole pairs p. Thus, the torque of all the pole
pairs will be taken into account. However, when using the above equations, it has to be borne in
mind that the flux linkage and the current always have to be given in the same voltage level usu-
ally referred to the stator winding.

Let us investigate Fig. 4.4 to find out how an asynchronous motor produces torque according to the
space vector theory. The figure shows the directions of the currents flowing in the stator windings
and rotor bars of the induction motor at a given instant of time. The current vectors are constructed
of these instantaneous values according to the given definition. We see that the current sum vector
has a large angle towards the current vectors of both the stator and the rotor. The induction motor is
quite efficient in torque production.

stator current vector
rotor current vector
sum current vector
and the direction of the peak
air gap flux of the machine

Figure 4.4 The currents of the stator and the rotor of a two-pole asynchronous machine at a given instant of time, and
the respective vectors. We see that the asynchronous machine is well capable of torque production, since there is a large
phase difference between the vector of the air gap flux (not illustrated in the figure) and the stator or the rotor current
vector.
4.3 Power

Next we investigate how the torque equation determined previously correlates with power. Eq.
(4.19) is multiplied by the mechanical angular speed e/p, and thus we obtain


s s s
s
s s e e
2
3
j 2
3
2
3
i u i
u
i = = = = e
e
T
p
P . (4.20)

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.7
Here, we have taken into account the fact that in the stationary state je
s
= u
s
. Now the absolute
value of the power equation is written by using the vectors


cos
2
3
s s
e
i u
= P . (4.21)

It should be borne in mind that the length of the voltage and current vectors is selected to be equal
to the peak value of the sinusoidal phase quantity. We may now see that the equation corresponds to
the power calculated by the effective values

e cos 3
v v e
I U T P = = . (4.22)

Next, the power is investigated by using the instantaneous values of the phase quantities. If there is
no zero component, we may write for the instantaneous value P(t) of the power of a three-phase
asynchronous machine:

( ) { } { }
s s s
t P i u i u i u = = =
s s s e
2
3
* Re
2
3
* Re
2
3
(4.23)

The equation can be proved correct by starting from the definition of the space vector. Since it
holds for the phase-shift operator that a* = a
2
and a*
2
= a, we obtain in the stator reference frame

( ) { }
( ) ( )
)
`

+ + + + =
=
sC sB
2
sA sC
2
sB sA
s e
3
2
3
2
Re
2
3
* Re
2
3
i i i u u u
t P
s
s
s
a a a a
i u
(4.24)
Taking into account that Re{a} = Re{a
2
} =
1
2
, we obtain
( ) ( ) |
( ) ( )| .
2
1
3
2
sB sA sC sC sA sB
sB sB sA sC sC sB sB sA sA e

+ + + +

+ + + =
i i u i i u
i i u i u i u i u t P
(4.25)

For the instantaneous values of the phase currents i
sA
+ i
sB
+ i
sC
= 0, and thus Eq. (4.25) can be re-
written as

( )
sC sC sB sB sA sA e
i u i u i u t P + + = , (4.26)

which is the sum of phase powers, and as an effective value corresponds to the result of Eq. (4.22).

4.4 Reluctance Torque and Coenergy

The operation of a double-salient pole reluctant machine is based on the saliency of both the stator
and the rotor. The torque production can be investigated by analyzing the energy stored in the mag-
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.8
netic circuit of the machine. The voltage of a double-salient pole reluctance machine can be ex-
pressed by applying Faradays induction law and Ohms law:


( )
t
i
i R u
c
c ,
+ = . (4.27)

The flux linkage + depends on both the current i and the rotor angle . The power fed to a phase is
obtained by multiplying the voltage by the current


t
i
t
i
i
i i R i u
d
d
d
d
2

c
c
c
c
+ + = . (4.28)

The energy consumed in the phase represents the mechanical work dW
mec
and the change of the
energy dW
e
stored in the magnetic field. Furthermore, some of the energy is wasted in resistive
losses:


mec e
2 2
d d d d d d d W W t i R i i
i
i t i R t i u + + = + + =
c
c
c
c
. (4.29)

The change of magnetic energy can be expressed with the current i and the rotation angle :

d d d
e
e e
W
W
i
i
W
= +
c
c
c
c
. (4.30)

Consequently, the derivative of the mechanical energy is written as

i
i
W
i
i
W
i W d d d
e e
mek

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
c
c

c
c
c
c
. (4.31)

The energy stored in the phase at a given instant is obtained from the equation

i i i W
i
d d
0 0
e
= =
} }

. (4.32)

Thus, the derivative of the magnetic energy with respect to the current is written as


i
i i
i i
i
i
W
i
c
c
c
c

c
c
c
c
= + =
}
0
e
d . (4.33)

By substituting the result of Eq. (4.30) to Eq. (4.28) we obtain for the derivative of the mechanical
energy


c
c
c
c
d d
mek

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
W
i W . (4.34)
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.9

The torque T is the change of the mechanical energy with respect to the rotation angle. Its equation
is written as


c
c
c
c

e mek
d
d W
i
W
T = = . (4.35)

The expression of the torque can be simplified by substituting the magnetic energy W
e
by the mag-
netic coenergy W
*
in the torque equation. The magnetic coenergy is defined as

i W
i
}
=
0
*
d . (4.36)

The geometric interpretation for the magnetic coenergy is the area between the magnetizing curve
represented in the (i,)-plane and the i-axis, Fig. 4.5.


W*
W
e
i

Figure 4.5 Geometric representation for the magnetic energy W
e
and the coenergy W
*
.

Based on the illustration, we obtain the sum of the magnetic energy and the coenergy

= + i W W
*
e
. (4.37)

By deriving W* with respect to the angle we obtain for the derivative of the coenergy


c
c
c
c
c
c
e
*
W
i
W
= . (4.38)

By comparing this result with the torque equation (4.32), we see that the torque of a reluctance ma-
chine is equal to the change of magnetic coenergy per differential angular change.

T
W
=
c
c
*
. (4.39)

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.10
The calculation of the above requires the knowledge of the field solution, and therefore, it is limited
to numerical calculations. It is essential for the modelling of an SR machine to know its i-
mappings in different operation situations.
4.5 Reluctance Torque and the Principle of Cross-Field

The saliency produces torque, if the shift of the rotor causes reduction in the reluctance of the main
flux path of the machine. The machines tend to settle at their reluctance minimum, in which case
also the energy stored at a certain voltage to the magnetic circuit reaches its minimum value. This
principle holds well both for the operation of the contactor core and the double-salient pole syn-
chronous machine.

Next, we investigate in brief, how a synchronous reluctance machine produces torque when apply-
ing the principle of cross-field. A prerequisite is that the direct and quadrature inductances of the
machine are known. Consider the machine of Fig. 4.6. The stator current vector and the d-axis of
the rotor form an angle k. It is most convenient to investigate the machine in the d-q reference
frame of the salient pole. The flux linkage is expressed by the direct and quadrature inductances as

= + = + L i L i
d sd q sq d q
j j . (4.40)

k
q-axis
d-axis
i
s


Figure 4.6 The current vector of a synchronous reluctance machine with respect to the rotor of the machine.



According to Fig. 4.6, we obtain for the current and flux linkage components


i
i
L
L
sd s
sq s
sd d s
sq q s
=
=
=
=
i
i
i
i
cos
sin
cos
sin .
k
k
k
k
(4.41)

We substitute the above to the torque equation

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.11

( )
T i
e s s sd sq sq sd
= =
3
2
3
2
i i . (4.42)

The equation is rewritten as


( )
T L L i
e d q s
=
3
4
2
2
sin k . (4.43)

The maximum torque achieved from a synchronous reluctance machine at a given current is ob-
tained when the angle between the current and the d-axis of the rotor is t/4.

4.6 Maxwells Stress Tensor in the Definition of Torque

When applying numerical methods, Maxwells stress tensor is often employed in the calculation of
torque. The idea is based on Faradays statement, according to which there occurs tension in the
flux lines; these lines act like rubber bands trying to contract. In electrical machines, there are often
configurations in which there are no current-carrying bars on the rotor surface; the previous syn-
chronous reluctance machine is a typical example of such a structure. Also a separately magnetized
synchronous machine operating in the steady state can be considered to represent a machine type, in
which there occur no currents on the rotor surface. Fig. 4.7 depicts the flux solution of an air gap of
an asynchronous machine, the machine operating under load.



Figure 4.7 Flux solution of the air gap of a loaded asynchronous machine induction motor, the machine rotating as a
motor counter-clockwise.

The figure shows that most of the flux lines cross the air gap diagonally so that if we imagine the
flux lines to be flexible, they cause a notable torque rotating the rotor counter-clockwise. According
to Maxwells tension theory, the magnetic field strength between objects in a vacuum creates a ten-
sion o
F
on the object surfaces, the magnitude of which is
Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
4.12


| |
o
F
H =
1
2
0
2 2
, N / m . (4.44)

The tension occurs in the direction of lines of force and creates an equal pressure perpendicularly to
the lines (Carpenter, Surface Integral Methods 1959, IEE Monograph No 342). When the tension
term is divided into its normal and tangential components with respect to the object in question, we
obtain
( ) o
F
H H
n n
2
t
2
=
1
2
0
(4.45)
o
F
H H
t n t
=
0
(4.46)

Considering torque production, the tangential component o
Ft
is naturally of the greatest interest.
The total torque exerted on the rotor can be obtained by integrating the stress tensor e.g. over a cy-
linder that confines the rotor. The cylinder is located so that it encloses the rotor precisely. The tor-
que is obtained by multiplying the result with the radius of the rotor. In the case of a synchronous
motor, it is of course possible to integrate for instance along the contours of the rotor; however, to
calculate the torque, it is necessary at each position to define the radius of the rotor to the point to
be investigated, as well as its normal component. Note that no steel shall be left inside the surface to
be integrated.

The linear current density A creates a tangential field strength in the electrical machine;

A B A H
0 t t
= = . (4.47)

According to Eq. (4.46), the tangential tension in the air gap is given by

.
n n 0 t n 0 t
A B A H H H
F
= = = o (4.48)

Maxwells stress tensor illustrates well the torque generation mechanism. Unfortunately, due to
numerical inaccuracies, for instance in the finite element method, the gained torque must be consi-
dered with caution. Therefore, also when applying the finite element method, the torque is often
solved with other methods.