Particle Physics Notes

311 - Particle Physics
Dr. Harald Fox

Faraday Building
B45
h.fox@lancaster.ac.uk
Lecture 1:
Introduction & Overview
1
Setting the Scene...
Office Hours:
Tuesday 16-17
Seminars:
1.11. 15.11. 29.11. 13.12.
There are 4 (four) worksheets!
This Friday will be a lecture!
2
Worksheets count for 20% of your
final grade, the exam for 80%.
3
The penalty for late work is a reduction of one full grade (e.g. B+ becomes C+) for up
to 3 working days late. Work later than this will be awarded zero marks.

For quantitative work, and original marks between 50 and 69, there will be a
reduction of 10 percentage marks (e.g. 58% becomes 48%). Otherwise, the penalty
for quantitative work is as in the table below.
Late Marks
Original Mark Grade Equivalent Mark After Penalty Grade Equivalent
87-100 A+ 68 B+
74-86 A 65 B
70-73 A- 62 B-
60-69 B+/B/B- 50-59 C+/C/C-
50-59 C+/C/C- 40-49 D+/D/D-
40-49 D+/D/D- 31 F1
31-39 F1 18 F2
18-30 F2 9 F3
0-17 F3/F4 0 F4
! I need your feedback
Ask questions during the lecture (this lecture and any other during the
course).
Tell me what you like/dislike/not understand.
! Think about the subject (Private Study 3! lectures!)
Use the lectures and seminars for discussions.
Use the online services.
Read in the books!
Credits: 15
Contact time: 35 hrs
Private study: 115 hrs
Office Hours:
Tuesday 16-17
4
Seminars:
1.11. 15.11. 29.11. 13.12.
There are 4 (four) worksheets!
This Friday will be a lecture!
! I need your participation
I might require you to do small things during the lecture time.
I will ask you to read something on your own.
My notes are incomplete: make your own annotations and copy
examples!
You are certainly required to work on the problems in the work
sheets.
Exercise for your brain!
1 Very Poor 0(0%)
Question 4 -Your involvement in the module
Mean score =3.95
Standard Deviation =0.85
Option Frequency
5 Very good 5(26%)
4 9(47%)
3 4(21%)
2 1(5%)
1 Very poor 0(0%)
Question 5 -What were the most valuable parts of the module?
very good insight into particle physics, teacher combined many many important aspects of
particle physics into one lecture, good presentation, interactive lecture, tasks to do in the
lecture e.g. group work, interesting homework, detailed solutions for homework questions,
The great presentations, lots of pretty, relevant pictures and simple comments that carry the
lectures forward . Very Natural Progression .
Well taught.
Questions were taken seriously and answered very well
gave insite into what is actually done at modern particle detectors
Very intresting section on the standard model.
Question 6 -How could the module be improved?
more interactive
A free trip to Cern ? Shame there's a world economic crisis on...
Online notes could be more in-depth
more quantum mechanics, derive equations
Page numbering / contents in the notes.
Carry on asking the students questions in the lectures like in the rst half
Question 7 -I learnt a lot from this module
Mean score =3.95
Standard Deviation =0.78
Option Frequency
5 Strongly agree 4(21%)
4 11(58%)
3 3(16%)
PHYS311 Module Evaluation Report le:///Users/foxh/Lehre/ParticlePhysics/2009/PHYS311_2009...
2 of 4 10/10/2010 21:16
5
Particle Physics:
! Kane, G: The Particle Garden; good general reading, no maths
! Ledermann, Hill: Beyond the God Particle.
! Robert Mann, An Introduction to the Standard Model of Particle Physics
! Martin & Shaw: Particle Physics
! M. Thomson: Modern Particle Physics
! Griffiths, D: Introduction to Elementary Particle Physics; good to advanced level,
no detectors.
! Seiden: Particle Physics, A Comprehensive Introduction; best coverage of
underlying maths
Detectors:
! Leo, W.R.: Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments
! Particle Data Group
Books
6
Web
! PDG
http://pdg.lbl.gov
THE resource for particle physics
! Particle Physics UK
http://www.particlephysics.ac.uk/
Understandable explanations
Links to go well beyond that
! Lancaster Particle Physics Package
http://lppp.lancs.ac.uk/
Some basics, relativistic kinematics
! Laboratories
CERN
- http://www.cern.ch
- http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Content/Chapters/Education/
OnlineResources/OnlineResources-en.html
Fermilab
- http://www.fnal.gov
7
What is Particle Physics about?
Fundamental Questions:
! What makes up matter?
! What holds it together?
! Can you divide matter further? How far?
Aim:
A unified description of the building blocks of matter
and their interaction
8
From Particle Zoo...
9
From Particle Zoo...
! If I could remember all of this
I would have become a
botanist...
9
to systematic order: The Standard Model
6 quarks
6 leptons:
3 charged (e,,!)
3 neutrinos
4 force-carrying bosons:
1 for electromagnetic force: "
2 for weak force: W
,Z
0
8 for strong force: g
The World Formula:
Highly predictive model!

10
to systematic order: The Standard Model
6 quarks
6 leptons:
3 charged (e,,!)
3 neutrinos
4 force-carrying bosons:
1 for electromagnetic force: "
2 for weak force: W
,Z
0
8 for strong force: g
The World Formula:
Highly predictive model!

H
Missing: 1 Higgs Boson

10
The Higgs Mechanism
The Higgs field fills out space. It is special:
The vacuum expectation value for the Higgs
field is not <0> ! The Higgs potential itself
retains all symmetries, but the symmetry is
broken spontaneously.
The particles of the Standard Model on their
own are massless. However, all particles
interact with the Higgs field. This slows
them down they acquire an effective
mass.
Why do the quarks and leptons
have the masses they do?
And, why are they so varied?
<0>
vacuum
The Mexican Hat Potential
11
The Higgs Mechanism
The Higgs field fills out space. It is special:
The vacuum expectation value for the Higgs
field is not <0> ! The Higgs potential itself
retains all symmetries, but the symmetry is
broken spontaneously.
The particles of the Standard Model on their
own are massless. However, all particles
interact with the Higgs field. This slows
them down they acquire an effective
mass.
Why do the quarks and leptons
have the masses they do?
And, why are they so varied?
<0>
vacuum
The Mexican Hat Potential
We know everything
about the Standard
Model,
and now also the
Higgs Boson exists!
11
The Higgs Mechanism
An analogy how the Higgs Mechanism works:
12
The Higgs Mechanism
12
The Higgs Mechanism
12
The Higgs Mechanism
12
Symmetries & Conservation Laws
Noether Theorem:
Relativity:
Space-Time-Continuum Energy-Momentum (4-vector)
Lorentz-Transformation change of reference frame invariant mass
Rotation in Space-Time Spin
Space (translation)
!
Momentum
Time
!
Energy
Space (rotation) ! Angular Momentum
El.-magn. potential
!
Charge
13
Local Symmetries
Inner Symmetries
(local gauge invariance):
El.-magn.
Potential
U(1)
QED
(Maxwell Equations)
Weak Potential SU(2) Weak Interaction
Colour Potential SU(3) QCD
Coordinate
System
Gravity
14
How to do it: Feynman Diagrams
Unified description of the fundamental forces through Symmetries: Gauge
Theory!
Standard Model:
SU(3)colour ! SU(2)weak isospin ! U(1)Y
These inner symmetries, or local gauge symmetries determine the properties of
the interaction. If the coupling constants are small there is a easy graphical
representation:
The Standard Model
The Electromagnetic Force
e e
initial
state
final
state
e
e
e
e
e
e
_
_
initial
state
final
state
2 electrons enter, interact via
the exchange of a photon, and
leave. (Coulomb repulsion)
An electron and positron annihilate to form
a photon, which subsequently produces a
new e
+
e
-
pair. (Coulomb attraction)
Mller Scattering Bhabha Scattering
(bit of a misnomer)
virtual photon
Feynman diagram for
the electromagnetic
interaction from U(1)em.
15
Quantum Numbers
Particle/ Mass Lifetime Spin Charge
Generation Anti-particle (MeV) (s) () (q
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
Flavour Charge Interaction
quantum number (q
e
) strong el.-mag weak grav.
Quarks up charm top +2/3 x x x
1)
x
down strange bottom 1/3 x x x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
The weak interaction may violate avour!
1
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
conserved by all interactions
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
conserved by em & strong interaction,
violated by weak interaction
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
Also conserved: Baryon number (3 quarks)
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
Spin is not conserved, but
total angular momentum is
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
Mass is not conserved, but
energy (and momentum) is
16
Quantum Numbers
e
) L L
e
L
1 e
/e
+
0.511 stable 1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
e
/
e
< 3 10
6
stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 +1/ 1 0 0
2
/
+
105.66 2.20 10
6
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0
< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

3
/
+
1777 2.91 10
13
1/2 1/ + 1 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1
< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

1
quantum number (q
e
1)
x
1)
x
Leptons
e

0 x x
e 1 x x x
1)
1
Work sheet:
Problem 1
Mass is not conserved, but
energy (and momentum) is
16
How to do it: Quantum Field Theory
! Among the particles we need to describe are electrons and protons
You know already how to describe those: Quantum Mechanics
Schrdinger equation, momentum and position operator:
! Now compare electrons to the Z boson:
mZ " 90 GeV.
me " 500 keV.
!
E/m " 90GeV/500keV/2 " 100,000
How can a light particle like the electron have an energy 100,000 ! its mass?
What about E=mc
2
(here c = 1)?
Its actually E
2
=m0
2
c
4
+p
2
c
2
. Most of the energy of our electron is in its
momentum " its ultrarelativistic!
! QFT is Special Relativity + Quantum Mechanics
Two electrons collide at high energy
Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN
45 GeV 45 GeV
qq pairs
e
e
Z
o
jet
jet
. .
Experimental High Energy Physics detecting particles
_
Z
0
p

x
E

t
E(x) =
1
2m
2
(x)
17
The Electroweak Lagrangian!
Here is the SU(2) ! U(1) part
of the Standard Model:
The generic name of the theory
describing the particle dynamics
is Quantum Field Theory (QFT).
18
The only Truth: Measurement!
Eye
Microscope
Electron
Microscope
High energy
particle beams
Quantum Mechanics: E = h/#
1 eV 0.2 m
200 fm 1 MeV
0.2 fm 1 GeV
E =
m
2
c
4
+p
2
c
2
Relativity:
19
Surprises from Experiments
The Universe and the Big Bang
Antimatter? There is CP violation in the Standard model, but not enough.
Dark Matter? Astronomy and direct searches.
SUSY is a candidate.
Dark Energy? No idea
Neutrino Mixing
Neutrinos continuously change flavour,
the 3 generations mix
To do that they need to have mass.
Where are right-handed neutrinos?
How do they get mass? Not via the Higgs mechanism!
Neutrino Velocity
Are neutrinos faster than the speed of light?
Where is the Higgs?
DM? DE?
20
ATLAS Detector
21
Summary & Outlook
! Particle Physics is simple:
12 particles
3 interactions (leave out
gravity)
! It is governed by (broken)
symmetries
global symmetries determine
the conservation laws
local symmetries determine the
interaction (dynamics) of the
particles
! The ingredients are old friends:
Theory of Special Relativity
Quantum Mechanics
! Homework for tonight:
Start solving problem 1-1:
Remember interactions and
associated Quantum Numbers.
Look up Lorentz Transformation
and 4-vectors (part 4, page 7ff)
! Next Lecture(s):
Natural Units ($ = c = 1)
Review of Special Relativity
4-vectors
invariant mass
centre-of-mass energy
22
Summary & Outlook
! Particle Physics is simple:
12 particles
3 interactions (leave out
gravity)
! It is governed by (broken)
symmetries
global symmetries determine
the conservation laws
local symmetries determine the
interaction (dynamics) of the
particles
! The ingredients are old friends:
Theory of Special Relativity
Quantum Mechanics
! Homework for tonight:
Start solving problem 1-1:
Remember interactions and
associated Quantum Numbers.
Look up Lorentz Transformation
and 4-vectors (part 4, page 7ff)
! Next Lecture(s):
Natural Units ($ = c = 1)
Review of Special Relativity
4-vectors
invariant mass
centre-of-mass energy
22
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Natural Units & Relativity
1
Outline
Where do we want to go?
! We want to describe the fundamental particles and their interactions.
! Conservation laws and dynamics are governed by (broken) symmetries.
! The (mathematical) theories describing the interactions are Quantum Field
Theories (QFT). They describe the properties of particles at
small distances Quantum Theory
high energies & high momentum Theory of Special Relativity
! Small distances and high energy require new experimental techniques
new detection mechanisms
large detectors
Today
Today + next week
Week 3...
2
How to do it: Quantum Field Theory
! Among the particles we need to describe are electrons and protons
You know already how to describe those: Quantum Mechanics
Schrdinger equation, momentum and position operator:
! Now compare electrons to the Z boson:
mZ ! 90 GeV.
me ! 500 keV.
!
E/m ! 90GeV/500keV/2 ! 100,000
How can a light particle like the electron have an energy 100,000 " its mass?
What about E=mc
2
(here c = 1)?
Its actually E
2
=m0
2
c
4
+p
2
c
2
. Most of the energy of our electron is in its
momentum " its ultrarelativistic!
! QFT is Special Relativity + Quantum Mechanics
Two electrons collide at high energy
Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN
45 GeV 45 GeV
qq pairs
e
e
Z
o
jet
jet
. .
Experimental High Energy Physics detecting particles
_
Z
0
p

x
E

t
E(x) =
1
2m
2
(x)
3
The Electroweak Lagrangian!
Here is the SU(2) " U(1) part
of the Standard Model:
The generic name of the theory
describing the particle dynamics
is Quantum Field Theory (QFT).
4
The only Truth: Measurement!
Eye
Microscope
Electron
Microscope
High energy
particle beams
Quantum Mechanics: E = h/#
1 eV 0.2 m
200 fm 1 MeV
0.2 fm 1 GeV
E =
m
2
c
4
+p
2
c
2
Relativity:
5
Units in Particle Physics
Ultra relativistic regime (lifetime of muon)
E = mc
2
me = 9.109 " 10
-31
kg " better if c is of O(1)
Ultra quantum regime:
Spin sz = $/2 = % " 1.055 " 10
-34
Js
Better if $ is of O(1)
That's what particle physicist do: c=1, $=1; not only value but also the dimension
Consequence:
SRT: E
2
= p
2
c
2
+ m
2
c
4
- Energy, momentum and mass are measured in the same units
- M = E/c
2
[mass] = GeV
- Only one dimensional unit: the unit of energy: 1GeV
- Angular momentum is dimensionless
QT: &E &t > $/2 ! 1 and &p &x > $/2 ! 1
- [energy] " [time] = 1 and [momentum] " [distance] = 1
- T = $/E [time] = GeV
-1

- L = $c/E [length] = GeV
-1

space-time continuum
6
Natural System of Units
The system of units with $=1 and c=1 is called the Natural system:
! 1 unit of time = 1 GeV
-1
~ 6.588 " 10
-25
s (lifetime of a t-quark)
! 1 unit of length = 1 GeV
-1
~ 0.1978fm
! 1 unit of energy = 1 GeV
! 1 unit of momentum = 1 GeV (sometimes GeV/c)
! 1 unit of mass = 1 GeV (sometimes GeV/c
2
)
Note: 1 GeV = 1000 MeV and (1 GeV)
-1
= (1000 MeV)
-1
, but 1000 GeV
-1
= 1 MeV
-1
! One more unit: barn b for cross section: 1b=10
-24
cm
2
. One barn is far too big a
unit for particle physics:
! 1b = 10
3
mb = 10
6
b = 10
9
nb = 10
12
pb = 10
15
fb
The cross sections of most interesting processes in particle physics are usually
measured in femtobarns fb.
1 GeV
-1
=0.389 mbarn
$ = 6.588 " 10
-25
GeV s
$c = 1.978 " 10
-16
GeV m
See Martin & Shaw for
a good description.
7
Electric Charge in Natural Units
The fine structure constant ' is a dimensionless constant. In SI system:
In natural units with (0 = 1 it still has the same numerical value:
The electric charge in Natural Units is dimensionless!
The numerical value of e is not used often. However, ' is one of the best-
measured constants in physics.
There are two things which are very interesting here:
The fact that ' is a very small number, ' ! 1 (allows use of perturbation theory)
The fact that charge is quantised. The smallest non-zero charge we know of is
exactly e/3 (more about this later).
=
e
2
4
0
c
=
1
137.036

1
137
=
e
2
4
=
1
137.036

1
137
8
Some Quantum Mechanics
Remember the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle?
&px&x > $/2
and similarly for y and z directions. Space time continuum:
&E&t > $/2
(Einstein's proof that QT is wrong)
The energy of a system can be measured with high precision only if it lives long
enough. If the system is unstable, its energy is not defined precisely.
In Natural Units:
&px &x > 1 and &E&t > 1
(for order of magnitude arguments)
9
Relativistic Notation
E
2
= p
2
c
2
+ m
2
c
4
In natural units:
E
2
- p
2
= m
2
Introducing 4-vectors:
(E1,p1) = p1 p2 = (E2,p2).

On this page:
p denotes the usual 3-
dimensional 3-vector whereas
p denotes a 4-vector
p
2
=
E
2
p
2x
p
2y
p
2z
E
1
p
1x
p
1y
p
1z
= p
1
g
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Scalar product (dot product):

p
1
p
2
= E
1
E
2
- p
1
p
2
= E
1
E
2
- p
1x
p
2x
- p
1y
p
2y
- p
1z
p
2z
p
1
p
2
= g
!
p
1
p
2!
= p
1
p
2
Einsteins summing convention:
Sum over identical indices!
p
1
= = p
2
g
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x =
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
10
Relativistic Notation
Convention (important):
4-vectors are usually written as p or simply p (no arrows, no bold fonts, not
slanted)
The (Greek) 4-indices ,),... have the values 0, 1, 2, 3 (or t, x, y, z).
p0 = E is energy, p1,2,3 * px,y,z is the usual 3-dimensional momentum
Easier: In the dot product energies enter with a + sign, 3-momenta enter with
a sign
E
2
= p
2
c
2
+ m
2
c
4
E
2
- p
2
= m
2
p
2
= m
2

Natural Units
Summing Convention
p
2
= p
= g
E
p
x
p
y
p
z
E
p
x
p
y
p
z
= E
2
p
2
= m
2
11
Lorentz Transformation
Energies and momenta of particles depend on the system of reference.
Energy and momentum conservation is only valid in a given reference frame!
Lorentz transformations describe the relations between the physical quantities in
two systems that are moving relative to each other with velocity v:
With ! = v/c and " = 1/#(1-!
2
):
E' = +E , -+pz
px' = px
py' = py
pz' = +pz , -+E
The particle mass m is invariant under Lorentz transformation:
E
2
-px
2
-py
2
-pz
2
= m
2
= E'
2
-px'
2
-py'
2
-pz'
2
12
Detour: Derivation of Lorentz Transformation
After U.E. Schrder, Spezielle Relativittstheorie
Start from the following 3 assumptions about the structure of space-time:
1. Space is isotropic
2. Space and time are homogenous
3. All inertial systems are equal
13
Transforming between 2 moving inertial systems K ! K requires a linear
transformation between them:
You need to get the same result for simultaneously changing the direction x",x,
x",x and v",v (also y",y to keep a right-handed coordinate system):
Comparing the two sets of equation gives

introduces an even .
14
x
= (v)(x vt)
y
= (v)y
z
= (v)z
t
= (v)t + (v)x
x
= (v)(x + vt)
y
= (v)y
z
= (v)z
t
= (v)t (v)x
(v) = (v), (v) = (v), (v) = (v)
(v) = (v) (v) =
v
(v)
(v)
Linear Transformation
Isotropy of Space
This gives the new transformation
Doing the transformation from K ! K requires just v",v (using that ', +, even):
Using that
15
x
= (v)(x vt)
y
= (v)y
z
= (v)z
t
= (v)
t
v
(v)
x
x = (v)(x
+ vt
)
y = (v)y
z = (v)z
t = (v)
+
v
(v)
x
= (v)y
2
(v) = 1 = 1
v0
= +1
Relativity Principle
Take /(1) + v+/(4):
Compare this to our previous result
This yields
Giving
The Lorentz transformation depends only on a linear
function .(v) with the dimension of (velocity)
2
!
16
x
= (v)(x vt)
y
= (v)y
z
= (v)z
t
= (v)
t
v
(v)
x
+ vt
1
v
2
x
x =
x
(1
v
2
)
+
vt
(1
v
2
)
(1)
(4)
x = (v)(x
+ vt
)
=
1
(1
v
2
)
, =
1
(1
v
2
)
= ,
2
=
1
(1
v
2
)
=
1
(1
v
2
(v)
)
Lorentz Transformation
Find out more about .:
Consider an inertial system K an calculate the transformations K!K!K and K"K
Expressing x, t with x,t:
The coefficient for x should be identical to the coefficient for t. A comparison yields
Thus
17
Relativity Principle
x
= (v
1
)(x v
1
t), x
= (v
2
)(x
v
1
t
)
t
= (v
1
)
t
v
1
(v
1
)
x
, t
= (v
2
)
v
2
(v
2
)
x
(v
2
)(v
1
)
1 +
v
1
v
2
(v
1
)
= (v
2
)(v
1
)
1 +
v
1
v
2
(v
2
)
= (v
2
)(v
1
)
x v
1
t v
2
t
v
1
(v
1
)
x
= (v
2
)(v
1
)
t
v
1
(v
1
)
x
v
2
(v
2
)
(x v
1
t)
(v
1
) = (v
2
) = const.
. is a universal, finite constant with
dimension velocity
2
valid in all inertial
systems.
On the other hand, K ! K can be written as
A little bit of algebra and the comparison of coefficients with the previous result
gives
Check that for v1=v2=. also w=.!
This is the theorem for adding (relativistic) velocities.
18
x
= (w)(x wt)
t
= (w)
t
w
(w)
x
w =
v
1
+v
2
1 +
v
1
v
2
! = "# is a maximal velocity that is identical

in all inertial systems.
After U.E. Schrder, Spezielle Relativittstheorie
Start from the following 3 assumptions about the structure of space-time:
1. Space is isotropic
2. Space and time are homogenous
3. All inertial systems are equal
The result is the Lorentz transformation
and a universal constant
that is experimentally identified with the speed of light, 0=c.
19
=
1
(1
v
2
)
# = $% is a maximal velocity that is
identical in all inertial systems.
Why the Detour?
Because Opera measured that the velocity of neutrinos is larger than the speed of
light! http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.4897
Some remarks:
The existence of a maximal velocity is pure geometry: the structure of space-time
and symmetry (principle of relativity).
Relativity does not say what that velocity is, nor what its value is.
Relativity never said that this maximal velocity is the speed of light. (If Einstein did,
he shouldnt have.)
However, the speed of light fits the bill very well:
Only massless particles can reach the relativistic limit. We think the photon is
massless.
The Michelson-Morley experiment shows, that the speed of light is close to the
relativistic speed limit (within 10
-19
).
If the Opera result turns out to be true (most likely it is not), will it mean that
Einstein was wrong?
What if neutrinos follow a different geometry (i.e. extra dimensions)?
20
Useful Relations
! The easiest way to calculate the speed - of a particle is:
- = p/E
(pz'/E' with pz=0 for the rest frame of the particle)
! The easiest way of calculating the +-factor is:
+ = E/m
! The easiest way of calculation the product -+ is:
-+ = p/m
! Decay length in the lab frame is:
t'=+t
l = vt' = c-t' = c-+t
With t in seconds, c in m/s l will be in meters. Example:
Ks
0
" 1
+
1
-
, 2 ! 10
-10
s, c2 = 2.7 cm
However, for a 10 GeV kaon l = 2.7 " 10/0.5 = 54 cm.
Decay Length
Decay length l is the distance travelled by an unstable particle during its lifetime t.
Obviously, if the particle is at rest, l = 0 no matter how long it lives. For
a particle moving with velocity v in the lab frame, the observed lifetime
t is dierent from the proper lifetime in the particles own rest frame
t
, following the Lorentz transformation (in the rest frame z
= 0):
t = t
+ z
= t
l = vt = ct = ct
Hence, the mean decay length in the lab frame is l = c.

For a particle with 3-momentum modulus p |p| its energy is
E =
p
2
+ m
2
. Hence:
=
p
E
, =
E
m
, =
p
m
With in seconds and c in m/s, l will be in meters. Example:
K
0
S

+
decay has mean life 10

10
s with c = 2.7 cm.
However, 10 GeV kaons will travel on average 2.7 10/0.5 = 54 cm.
Particle Physics
(page 15) V. Kartvelishvili (Lancaster U)
More exercises with
solutions in Griffiths.
21
Example: Z ! e
+
e
,

Energy and momentum conservation imply that the energy of the electron and
positron in the rest frame of the Z boson is 45 GeV. The momentum of the positron
in this frame is given by
p = 3(E
2
,m
2
) = 3[(45GeV)
2
,(0.5GeV)
2
] ! 45GeV.
The +-factor is given by +=E/m (for the Z boson!). The boosted energy of the Z is
E = 3(m
2
+p
2
) = 3[(90GeV)
2
+(45GeV)
2
] ! 100.6GeV.
The +-factor is thus +!1.12. The factor -+ is
-+ = p/m = 45GeV/90GeV = 0.5.
The boosted momentum of the positron is thus
p = +p + -+E = 1.12*45GeV + 0.5*45GeV ! 72.9GeV
A Z boson (m
Z
=90GeV) is decaying into e
+
e
!
. The positron is flying into the
direction of the z-axis. The Z boson has a momentum along the z-axis of 45 GeV.
What is the momentum of the positron as measured by the detector?
22
Invariant Mass
The scalar product of any two 4-vectors is invariant under Lorentz Transformations
as well.
Consider the scalar product of two particles described by two 4-vectors: p1 =
(E1,p1) with mass m1 and p2 = (E2,p2) with mass m2. Then the invariant mass of
the sum of the two particles
P = (E1+E2,p1+p2) is
M
2
= P
2
= P/P = (E1+E2)
2
, (p1+p2)/(p1+p2)
Using the angle can be useful:
M
2
= (p1+p2)(p1+p2) = p1
2
+p2
2
+2p1p2
= m1
2
+ m2
2
+ 2E1E2 , 2p1p2
= m1
2
+ m2
2
+ 2E1E2 , 2 |p1| |p2| cos 4
where 4 is the opening angle between the two 3-vectors p1 and p2.
The invariant mass is invariant under Lorentz Transformations!
Remember: all quantities must be calculated in the same frame!
23
Centre of Mass and Laboratory Frame
Energy of colliding particles:
s: invariant mass squared of the colliding particles
In c.m. Frame p1 + p2 = 0:
In symmetric high energy colliders (LEP) c.m. frame and lab frame are identical:
In a fixed target experiment:
s = (E
1
+ E
2
)
2
= E
2
cm
P
beam1
= P
beam2
, E
beam1
= E
beam2
E
beam
and

s = E
cm
= 2E
beam
.
s = (p
1
+ p
2
)
2
= (E
1
+ E
2
)
2
(p
1
+p
2
)
2
P
lab
|p
1
|, E
1
=
p
1
2
+m
2
1
, p
2
= 0, E
2
= m
2
,
E
2
cm
= s = (p
1
+ p
2
)
2
= (E
1
+ m
2
)
2
(p
1
+ 0)
2
= E
2
1
+ 2E
1
m
2
+ m
2
2
p
2
1
= p
2
1
+ m
2
1
+ 2E
1
m
2
+ m
2
2
p
2
1
= m
2
1
+ m
2
2
+ 2E
1
m
2
It is much more efficient
to build a collider!
s = E
cm

2m
2
P
lab
24
Summary & Outlook
! Relativity combines space and
time to a space-time continuum
4-vectors are a good
description
The Lorentz Transformation
rotates energy and
momentum between frames
The dot product of the
momentum vector is a Lorentz
invariant: The invariant mass.
! Private Study:
Start with problem 2 of the
work sheet:
- 4-vectors
- Lorentz transformation
- + - factor
25
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Introduction to Detectors
1
Measurements
What do we want to measure?
The 4-vectors of all particles
momentum
energy
Vertices
creation
decay
Charge
In principle thats all we need to
know, as mass and speed of a
particle are given implicitly by the
4-vector as well. Including
creation and decay vertices one
can determine the lifetime. But for
relativistic particles E ! p.
Sometimes additional
measurements are made to
complement the information:
Particle ID: e, ", K separation
Not all particles can be measured
(neutrinos!). We can make
indirect observations by
measuring
total energy
total (visible) momentum
missing energy/momemtum
Sometimes single particles cannot
be resolved. Then quantities for a
combination of particles (e.g. jets)
are measured: jet energy,
multiplicities (tracks), event
shapes (sphericity).
2
Detection Mechanism
Electromagnetic Interaction
charged particles (e, , "
, K
, p)
charge particles that live long enough to leave a measurable track!
#, B
do not live long enough to leave a track in most detectors!

photons
Strong Interaction
neutral particles ("
0
, n)
also energy measurement of charged particles ("
,)
problem: inelastic scattering. How to measure the energy lost in nuclear
interactions?
Weak Interaction
neutrinos
only in specialised neutrino experiments
3
Electromagnetic Interaction of Charged Particles
Ionisation
Ionisation of atoms in a gas
electron-hole creation in a solid state detector
Radiation
accelerated charge
brems photons
This is exploited in the energy determinaion in calorimeters. For the momentum
measurement (tracking) this is a problem.
Cerenkov radiation
polarisation of a medium
particles can be faster than the speed of light in a medium
electro-magnetic equivalent to a supersonic cone
Transition Radiation
photon radiation when the optical properties of a medium changes
4
Electromagnetic Interaction of Photons
Photo effect
Energy transfer bound electrons of an atom according to its energy levels.
The photon is absorbed and the electron receives a very characteristic energy.
Compton scattering
Photon scattering off a free electron.
The photon suffers a wave length shift. The electron receives energy up to a
maximum amount.
Pair production
$ ! e
+
e
!
The main energy transfer channel for relativistic photons.
5
2 27. Passage of particles through matter
27.2. Electronic energy loss by heavy particles [122, 2430, 82]
Moderately relativistic charged particles other than electrons lose energy in matter
primarily by ionization and atomic excitation. The mean rate of energy loss (or stopping
power) is given by the Bethe-Bloch equation,
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
is the maximum kinetic energy which can be imparted to a free electron in a
single collision, and the other variables are dened in Table 27.1. With K as dened in
Table 27.1 and A in g mol
1
, the units are MeV g
1
cm
2
.
In this form, the Bethe-Bloch equation describes the energy loss of pions in a material
such as copper to about 1% accuracy for energies between about 6 MeV and 6 GeV
(momenta between about 40 MeV/c and 6 GeV/c). At lower energies various corrections
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Bethe-Bloch Radiative
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$
Fig. 27.1: Stopping power (= dE/dx) for positive muons in copper
as a function of = p/Mc over nine orders of magnitude in momentum
(12 orders of magnitude in kinetic energy). Solid curves indicate the
total stopping power. Data below the break at 0.1 are taken from
ICRU 49 [2], and data at higher energies are from Ref. 1. Vertical
bands indicate boundaries between dierent approximations discussed
in the text. The short dotted lines labeled
illustrate the Barkas

eect, the dependence of stopping power on projectile charge at very low
energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
Energy Loss from Ionisation (Stopping Power)
Note the units!
Need this for
Q4 in sheet1!
6
Bethe-Bloch equation:
me: rest mass of the electron
Z/A: Atomic number
z: charge of incident particle
Tmax: max kinetic energy
transferred
I: mean excitation energy
%: density effect correction to
ionization loss
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
Following PDG, Passage of
Particles through Matter
T
max
=
2m
e
p
2
m
2
0
+m
2
e
+2m
e
E/c
2
Heavy charged particles (not electrons!)
7
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
8
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
2
1
2

rise ! ln !
"-electrons
ln

Broad Minimum
#! $ 4
Minimum Ionizing Particle
MIP
9
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
Above a critical energy energy
losses by Bremsstrahlung
become dominant.
%: density correction: polarization
of the atoms by the field of the
incident particle shields electrons
further out. More important for
very high and very low velocities.
Dependent on the density of the
material.
Without "
10
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
No theory. Electon capture
is a dominant effect.
Small charge effect: The
stopping power is greater
for positive charges.
11
Layers in ATLAS
20 minute movie: http://www.atlas.ch/multimedia/html-nc/feature-episode2.html
12
13
14
" Tracks ! charged particles
" EM energy (loads of particles deposit
energy)
" no hadronic energy
" no muon
" SumE=175.3 close to ECM
" SumE/Sump ! 1
" no imbalance, tracks are back-to-back; in
all likelihood no neutrino
" charged particle depositing practically all
energy in the em-calorimeter: e
+
e
!
final
state
15
16
" Tracks ! charged particle
" small amount of energy in em-
calorimeter
" small amount of energy in had-
calorimeter
" two muons found
" tracks are back-to-back
" sump close to ECM
" from the above two items: no neutrinos
" two charged particles leaving minimum
ionisation in the calorimeters and hits in
the muon detector: two muons in the
final state
17
18
" In total 24 tracks; bundled mainly in two
opposite regions
" significant em energy associated to the tracks
" significant hadronic energy associated to
tracks
" no muons
" some energy imbalance (Ehad+Eem=134
GeV) some low energy neutrinos possible
" two particle jets going in opposite directions
with all different kind of particles: two quarks
in the final state
19
20
21
" upper right hand side:
single track ! charged particle
em energy
some hadronic energy
a muon
a hadron subsequently decaying into a
muon is the most likely candidate
" lower left hand side:
single track ! charged particle
em energy
no hadronic energy, no muon
electron is the most likely candidate
" event variables:
Sump=36.2 much lower than ECM
SumE=75.6 much lower than ECM
presence of neutrinos
" As both sides have different final states the
most likely decay is Z!#+#& with one #
decaying into an electron + neutrinos #!
e'e'" and the other # decaying hadronically
(e.g. #!"'" or #!K'")
22
23
24
25
26
27
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
28
Stopping Power for different Materials
Stopping power for different
materials (Z/A term)
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
1.0 10 100 1000 10000 0.1
Pion momentum (GeV/c)
Proton momentum (GeV/c)
1.0 10 100 1000 0.1
1.0 10 100 1000 0.1
1.0 10 100 1000 10000 0.1
!
d
E
/
d
x

(
M
e
V

g
!
1
c
m
2
)
"# = p/Mc
Muon momentum (GeV/c)
H
2
liquid
He gas
C
Al
Fe
Sn
Pb
Figure 27.3: Mean energy loss rate in liquid (bubble chamber) hydrogen, gaseous
helium, carbon, aluminum, iron, tin, and lead. Radiative eects, relevant for
muons and pions, are not included. These become signicant for muons in iron for
>
1000, and at lower momenta for muons in higher-Z absorbers. See Fig. 27.21.
and atomic excitation. Since dE/dx depends only on , R/M is a function of E/M or
pc/M. In practice, range is a useful concept only for low-energy hadrons (R
<
I
, where
I
is the nuclear interaction length), and for muons below a few hundred GeV (above
which radiative eects dominate). R/M as a function of = p/Mc is shown for a
variety of materials in Fig. 27.4.
The mass scaling of dE/dx and range is valid for the electronic losses described by the
Bethe-Bloch equation, but not for radiative losses, relevant only for muons and pions.
For a particle with mass M and momentum Mc, T
max
is given by
T
max
=
2m
e
c
2
2
1 + 2m
e
/M + (m
e
/M)
2
. (27.2)
August 30, 2006 15:40
Using dE/dx to identify different
particle types
28. Particle detectors 33
! ! ! " #
e
E
n
e
r
g
y

d
e
p
o
s
i
t

p
e
r

u
n
i
t

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
e
V
/
c
m
)
Momentum (GeV/$)
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
0.1 1 10
Figure 28.8: PEP4/9-TPC energy-deposit measurements (185 samples @8.5 atm
Ar-CH
4
8020%) in multihadron events. The electrons reach a Fermi plateau value
of 1.4 times the most probably energy deposit at minimum ionization. Muons from
pion decays are separated from pions at low momentum; /K are separated over all
momenta except in the cross-over region. (Low-momentum protons and deuterons
originate from hadron-nucleus collisions in inner materials such as the beam pipe.)
Here N is the number of samples, is the sample size, and P is the pressure. Typical
energy-deposit distributions are shown in Fig. 28.8. Good three-dimensional two-track
resolutions of about 11.5 cm are routinely achieved.
E B distortions arise from nonparallel E and B elds (see Eq. (28.12)), and from
the curved drift of electrons to the anode wires in the amplication region. Position
measurement errors include contributions from the anode-cathode geometry, the track
crossing angle (), E B distortions, and from the drift diusion of electrons
2
x or y
=
2
0
+
2
D
(1 + tan
2
)L/L
max
+
2
(tan tan)
2
(28.18)
where is the coordinate resolution,
0
includes the anode-cathode geometry contribution,
is the Lorentz angle, and L is the drift distance.
Space-charge distortions arise in high-rate environments, especially for low values of .
July 14, 2006 10:37
29
Penetration Depth
Integrating the dE/dx distribution yields the penetration depth of particles, here
shown for protons. The peak at low ($ causes a high energy loss for low
velocities: the slower a particle the more energy it looses.
This results in the so-called Bragg peak for the penetration depth. This is
particularly interesting for cancer treatment where a radiation dose is applied
locally.
9
Reichweite
Beim Durchgang durch Materie verlieren geladene Teilchen
Energie und werden langsamer, so dass schlielich der
Energieverlust pro Wegstrecke stark ansteigt ( )
und die Teilchen nach einer defin
Bragg- Peak
ierten Wegstrecke liegen bleiben,
die .
Durch Integration der Bethe-Bloch-Formel kann
man die Reichweite von schweren geladenen Tielchen
berechnen (Bremsstrahlung wird also nicht bercksichtigt)
Reichweite
! "
2
.
Die Abbildung rechts oben zeigt die Reichweite durch Projektilmasse
in Einheiten der Massenbelegung g/cm pro GeV.
Die Reichweite steigt also mit der Teilchenenergie. Dies kann insbesondere
zu eine
R M
r Abschtzung der Teilchenenergie verwendet werden.
Reichweite eines Protonstrahls aus einem Zyklotron in Luft.
Man beachte die Aufweitung durch Vielfachstreuung.
30
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Tracking & Momentum
Thanks to I. Bailey for providing some images.
1
2
Detection of Ionisation at an Anode Wire
E =
1
r
V
0
ln(b/a)
V0: Potential
r: distance from axis
a: radius of central wire
b: radius of cylinder
The field is proportional to
1/r: There is a very
strong field close to the
anode wire.
Literature: W.R. Leo, Chapter 6
3
Detection of Ionisation at an Anode Wire
a) The electron accelerates due to the strong field close to the anode wire.
b)It gains enough energy to ionise more and more atoms on its path. It comes to an
avalanche close to the anode wire.
c) The electron and ion clouds drift apart.
d)Electrons build an asymmetric cloud around the anode wire.
e) The positive ion cloud drifts towards the cathode.
Anode wire (+)
Primary Ionisation
4
Operation Modes
Geiger-
Mller Area
Proportional
Area
Ionisation
Chamber
Recombination
before Collection
Discharge
Region
Limited Proportional
Region
! Particles
Electrons
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

I
o
n
s

5
! Recombination: electrons and ions are formed but recombine before being
detected.
! Ionisation Chamber: primary ionisations are detected. The signal depends on the
type of particle (e.g. ! or e
!
). Usage: radiation dosimetry.
! Proportional Area: gas amplification through avalanches close to the anode wire.
The measured signal is proportional to the amount of primary ionisation (or
energy loss dE/dx). dE/dx can still be used to identify particle types. This is the
region where most particle physics detectors work. The gas amplification is in
the order of 10
6
.
! Limited Proportional Region: The number of secondary ionisations and therefore
the signal becomes independent of the primary ionisations. However, the gas
multiplication becomes very large and the generated signal is huge.
! Geiger-Mller Area: large amplification and large signal. Useful for just detecting
ionising radiation.
! Discharge Region: complete discharge when the gas turns into a plasma and
becomes conductive. This can destroy the device.
Operation Modes
6
Anode wires
Particle
Cathode
planes
Multi Wire Proportional Chamber
Many anode wires together build part of a tracking chamber:
order of one or few nanoseconds; the constant t
max
(several microseconds) describes the
time that it takes ions to reach the cathodes.
A sketch of the rst multi-wire proportional chamber (MWPC) [92] is shown in
Fig. 28.4. It consists of a plane of parallel sense wires with spacing s and length L
inserted in a gap of thickness . The potential distributions and elds in a proportional
or drift chamber can usually be calculated with good accuracy from the exact formula for
the potential around an array of parallel line charges q (coul/m) along z and located at
y = 0, x = 0, s, 2s, . . . ,
V (x, y) =
q
4
0
ln
sin
2
x
s
+ sinh
2
y
s
. (28.14)
0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
x (cm)
y

(
c
m
)
Figure 28.4: Electric eld lines in a (MWPC) with an anode pitch of 2 mm as
calculated with GARFIELD program [93].
With digital readout, the resolution in the direction perpendicular to the wire is
s/
12, where s is typically 12 mm. Similar resolution can be achieved with a smaller
channel density by measuring the dierence in time between the arrival of electrons at
the wire and the traversal of the particle, albeit with a longer response time. In the case
of drift chambers, the spatial resolution is limited by the diusion of ionization electrons
during the drift and by the uctuations of the ionization process. Depending on the gas
mixture, the width of the diusing cloud after 1 cm of drift is typically between 50 and
300 m; small diusion implies low drift velocity. With drift lengths up to 5 cm (1 s),
resolutions in the range 100200 m have been achieved in chambers with surface areas of
several square meters [94]. The central detectors in many collider experiments are drift
chambers with the wires parallel to the beam direction. Small volume chambers (0.1 m
3
)
have been used for vertex measurement achieving resolutions of 50 m using high pressure
July 14, 2006 10:37
A second co-ordinate measurement may come from the measurement of the drift
time: measuring the event time with a scintillator and the arrival of the electrons at
the anode wire (Drift Chamber).
7
Stereo Views with Wire Modules
Stacking layers of anode wires on top of each other with a stereo angle gives a 3D
interaction point:
8
The CDF Central Tracking Chamber
9
The CDF Central Outer Tracker (COT)
! Cylindrical drift chamber: 310cm long, 265cm
diameter
! Argon ethane mixutre (50:50) with 1.7%
isopropanol
! 96 radial wire layers grouped into 8 superlayers
! 30 240 wires with 7.112 mm spacing
! sense and field wires (40m gold-plated
tungsten wires)
! 6.35m thick mylar cathode sheet on either side
(gold finish)
! 2 stereo angle on 4 superlayers
! Relative wire motion: < 25.4m
! Gravitational sag: 260m
! Single hit resolution: ~140m
doi:10.1016/j.nima.2006.05.039, doi:10.1016/j.nima.2004.02.020
10
Time Projection Chamber
Example for a wire chamber
with large drift region:
The ALEPH TPC
Charge is created throughout
the volume by ionisation.
The electrons drift to the end
caps of the TPC. The r-"
position is measured in a
MWPC, the z position is
deduced from the timing
information.
11
GEM (Gas Electron Multipliers)
Two copper foils are glued onto both sides of of an isolating kapton
layer of ~50m thickness.
The copper layers are charged oppositely.
Small holes in the structure allow charged particles to pass through.
At the holes the field strength is very high: gas-amplification at the
holes
Amplification gain ~10
4
for 500V
Can be used multi-staged
Natural broadening can help center-of-gravity technique.
Literature: PDG, 28.8,
Micro-pattern Gas Detectors
12
ATLAS Straw Tubes
! Each straw is 4 mm in
diameter
! 30 #m diameter gold-
plated W-Re wire.
! The maximum straw
length is is 144 cm
! The barrel contains about
50 000 straws
! The straws are read out
at both ends to reduce
the occupancy.
! The drift time
measurement gives a
spatial resolution of 170
#m per straw
13
Momentum Measurement: Magnetic Field
ATLAS Solenoid Magnet:
mv
2
= evB
y
=
L
=
L
p
eB
y
p
x
= p sin LeB
y
L
2
Simple geometry to
reconstruct the momentum
(L=magnet length, !=
bending radius):
14
Solenoid & Toroid
15
Momentum Measurement
This Technique allows us to measure the component of the momentum
transverse to the magnetic field (hence coined transverse momentum)
16
Momentum Measurement
The momentum of the particle is
given by the bend of the track.
The uncertainty of the moemntum
measurement is
N: number of measured points
$r,": uncertainty [m] per point
B: magnetic field
L: length of track
pT: measured momentum
(projection)
(p)
p
T
=

r,
0.3BL
2
720
N + 4
p
T
[GeV ]
A momentum measurement can be improved:
Increasing the lever arm L: ! L
2
Increasing the magnetic field: ! B
Increasing the accuracy per point: ! !
Increasing the measured points: ! !N
The measurement is more accurate for low
momenta: ! 1/p
T
2
17
Summary
Charged particles can be detected through ionisation.
At higher energies they are minimum ionising:
enough energy loss for detection
minimal disturbance of the particle to be measured
Multi Wire Proportional Chambers are excellent tracking devices
Track + Magnetic field Momentum measurement
The precision of the momentum measurement depends mainly on the lever arm.
Next Lecture:
Silicon Detectors and Vertexing
18
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Silicon & Vertexing
1
2
Example: b-physics
performance requirements
example:
top quark production
at the Tevatron
precision:
b jet identication is crucial,
making use of 1.5 ps b lifetime:
ight distance few 100 m
want hit precision < 10 m
Kristian Harder, 31 October 2007 12
The lifetime of a b-meson is
!1ps, the decay length is
therefore a few 100 m
One would want a measurement
precision of !10 m in order to
identify b-jets
Top quark mass
lepton+jet channel:
1 unknown (p
z
!
)
3 constraints
m(l!) = m(qq) = m
W
m(l!b) = m(qqb)
constraint kinematic fit
compare to MC to measure m
t
p
p
t
b
W
W
b
t
q
q
l
!
b q q b l t t ! "
Bestimmung der Top-Quark Masse
Lepton+jet channel (D)
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
Iargest systematics
jet energy 4.0 GeV
MC generator 3.1 GeV
noise/piIe-up 1.3 GeV
dominated by
jet energy scale and
gluon radiation
Background-rich
Signal-rich
3
From Tracking with Gas to Vertexing with Silicon
Wire chambers have reached their limit:
! Wires cannot come closer together (distortion from repulsion)
! Position / momentum resolution is limited to ~100m
! Cannot deal with high occupancy (track density)
Advantages of semiconductors:
! Average energy required to create a e
!
h
+
pair is a factor ~10 lower than for gas
detectors (signal is 10 times larger for the same energy deposited better
resolution)
! Higher density higher stopping power. Compact detectors fast readout
Disadvantages:
! Require cooling
! Prone to radiation damage (crystalline structure)
! Loads of readout channels
! High X0
Literature: W.R. Leo, Chapter 10
4
History
~ 1960
First prototyps of semiconductor
detectors in Nuclear Physics. Excellent
resolution in " and # spectroscopy
~1983
Silicon Strip detectors as tracking
devices in fixed target experiments.
Excellent position resolution.
~1987
First micro vertex detectors at collider
experiments; VLSI electronics. Used in
all following HEP experiments: ALEPH,
DELPHI, L3, OPAL, H1, ZEUS, CDF, D,
BaBar, Belle
~1991 Development of Pixel Detectors
~1992
Development of large integrated systems
(pixel and strips) for the LHC detectors.
ALEPH VDII
area
[m
2
]
modules channel
Delphi 1.5
D 4 ~700 ~800k
ATLAS ~44 ~4100 2.9M
CMS 214 11.4M
ATLAS SCT
5
Solid State Physics
Holes
Semiconductor
Eg ! 1eV
Free
electrons
Conduction
band
Energy
gap
Valence
band
Eg ! 6eV
Insulator
Conduction
band
Valence
band
Metal
Acceptor levels
Donor levels
Si Ge
Z 14 32
Energy gap @ 300K 1.1 0.7
@ 0K 1.21 0.785
Average energy for eh @ 300K 3.61 -
@77K 3.81 2.96
Transmission Photons
6
Semiconductor: Detection Principle
36
Detector principle: diode
p i n
+
+
+
+
+
+
- -
-
-
-
-
p i n
+
+
+
+
+ +
- -
-
-
-
-
+
+
p i n
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
p i n
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
Diode with p-material (positive
holes) and n-material (negative
electrons).
Forward bias: a current flows,
electrons and holes recombine
Reverse bias: no current flows.
Reverse bias: a short current pulse
is created by a charge particle.
7
52
Strip Detector
8
60
Various types of module
geometries of the D
Silicon Microstrip Tracker
9
1. Sensors
280 m thick
Hamamatsu
Max V = 500
5. Hybrid
Flex circuit technology
Cu / polyamide 280m thick
12 x ABCD chips.
DMILL technology
Centrally placed to minimize
space conflicts.
Bridges sensors (no contact)
4. Interfaces
Cooling interface (8x60mm)
~ 100 m thick grease layer
to aluminium cooling block
Electrical Connector
3. Location Holes
(fix to brackets, one hole & one slot)
30 m precision
2. Stereo angle
Upper or lower
detector pairs
rotated by 40 mRad
This gives intrinsic Z
resolution of
~ 580m
ATLAS Barrel Modules
10
8
In particle physics
ATLAS SCT Barrel
11
ATLAS Pixel + SCT + TRT
Transition Radiation Tracker
12
ATLAS SCT Cosmic Track
13
96
SelIportrait !
6-chip SMT HDI
SMT
CFT
X, cm
Y, cm
!" $%&
! " e
#
e
$
! " e
#
e
$
From M. Weber
4
Silicon detectors Ior visible light
14
Beyond Strips: Pixels
54
! Strip devices
High precision (< 5!m) 1-D coordinate measurement
Large active area (up to 10cm x 10cm from 6 wafers)
Inexpensive processing (single-sided devices)
2nd coordinate possible (double-sided devices)
Most widely used silicon detector in HEP
! Pixel devices
True 2-D measurement (20!m pixel size)
Small areas but best for high track density environment
! Pad devices (big pixels or wide strips)
Pre-shower and calorimeters (charge measurement)
! Drift devices
Just starting to be used
!"#$%
%$&'()%*+
+#$,"
Type oI detectors
2b/20 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. MoII and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
2b - Tracking with
Solid State Detectors
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Particle Detectors Principles and Techniques
Hybrid Pixel Detectors
HAPS - Hybrid Active PixeI Sensors
! segment silicon to diode matrix with high granularity
(" true 2D, no reconstruction ambiguity)
! readout electronic with same geometry
(every cell connected to its own processing electronics)
! connection by "bump bonding
! requires sophisticated readout architecture
! Hybrid pixel detectors will be used in LHC experiments:
ATLAS, ALCE, CMS and LHCb
FIip-chip technique
SoIder Bump: Pb-Sn
!"##$%&'()'*+
, ./#0
CERN Globe is
a 3 million times
bigger bump!
2b - Tracking with
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FIip-chip technique
SoIder Bump: Pb-Sn
!"##$%&'()'*+
, ./#0
CERN Globe is
a 3 million times
bigger bump!
2b - Tracking with
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FIip-chip technique
SoIder Bump: Pb-Sn
!"##$%&'()'*+
, ./#0
CERN Globe is
a 3 million times
bigger bump!
15
2b - Tracking with
C
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New detector concepts: 3D detectors
n
n
p p
n
n n
n
|Proposed: S.I. Parker et al.,
NIMA 395 (1997) 328|
! EIectrodes:
- narrow columns along detector thickness-"3D
- diameter: "10#m; distance: 50 - 100#m
! LateraI depIetion:
- lower depletion voltage needed (V
dep
~ d
2
)
- radiation tolerant or thick detectors possible
- fast signal (" 3.5 ns measured)
! Processing of detectors:
- complex fabrication: Holes have to be made
and filled with electrodes (DRE etching, Laser
drilling, Photo Electro Chemical etching);
present aspect ratio (depth to diameter) " 30:1
- possibility to implement narrow dead regions
at edges "edgeless detectors
! AppIication:
- detectors still under development!
- option for LHC experiments upgrade ?
!
"
p
+
# # # #
# #
" "
" "
" "
" "
# #
# #
" "
3
0
0

#
m
n
+
p
+
50 #m
# # # #
# #
" "
" "
" "
" "
# #
# #
" "
3D PLANAR
p
+
extra slide
not shown
New Developments
To column load
Source follower Reset transistor Row select transistor
p+ shielding implant
n+
buried channel (n)
storage
pixel #1
storage
pixel #20 sense node (n+)
Charge collection
row select
reset gate
V
DD
p+ well
reected charge
reected charge
photogate
transfer
gate
output
gate
High resistivity epitaxial layer (p)
2b/23 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, !" !$%% and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
&' - Tracking with
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DEPFET - DEP(leted)F(ield)E(ffect)T(ransistor)
! FET integrated on high resistivity bulk, bulk sideward depleted
! electrons collected in potential minimum at internal gate
- transistor current modulated by collected charge
- charge removed by reset mechanism (clear)
! switch on/off by (external) top gate to read out
! amplification of charge at the position of collection " no transfer loss
! full bulk sensitivity, bulk can be thinned down to 50 #m if needed
! non structured entrance window (backside)
! very low imput capacitance " very low noise
p+
p+
n+
n
n+
totally depleted
n
-
-substrate
internal gate
rear contact
source top gate drain bulk
potential via axis
top-gate / rear contact
V
potential minimum
for electrons
p-channel
p+ !"##
!$%% ##
'
'
'
extra slide
not shown
DEPFET
ISIS
3D Detectors
16
Example for an ILC Design Study
Pixel vertex detector
!
4-layer
0.3 % X
0
/ layer
r
bp
= 2 cm
conservative design
!
5-layer
0.1 % X
0
/ layer
r
bp
= 1 cm
agressive design
(~goal resolution)
17
Summary
Vertexing:
Silicon detectors are needed
Silicon has several advantages over gas counters:
High position resolution (~10m)
High density, low occupancy
Fast (~ns)
And some disadvantages:
High Z scattering
Too many readout channels, slow to readout
High cost
18
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Calorimeter & Particle Id
1
2
Backup
Heavy charged particles (not
electrons!)
Bethe-Bloch equation:
me: rest mass of the electron
Z/A: Atomic number
z: charge of incident particle
Tmax: max kinetic energy
I: mean excitation energy
!: density effect correction to
ionization loss
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2m
e
c
2
2
T
max
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here T
max
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
Following PDG, Passage of
Particles through Matter
T
max
=
2m
e
p
2
m
2
0
+m
2
e
+2m
e
E/c
2
3
Interaction of Charged Particles
Interactions of electrons/muons with matter
Energy loss by Ionisation:
Energy loss by Bremsstrahlung:
dE
dx

1
dE
dx
log()
dE
dx

E
m
2
Important for low mass (electrons) or high
energy (muons E > 100 GeV)
4/4 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
4. Calorimetry
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nteraction of charged particles
Energy Ioss by BremsstrahIung
Radiation of real photons in the Coulomb field
of the nuclei of the absorber medium
Effect plays a role only for e
and ultra-relativistic ! (>1000 GeV)

For electrons:
!
!
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
$%#
&'
(
$
(
!
"
#
"
!$
%
&
'
#
(
)*
)"
'
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
) *
+,
-
#
$
#
$
$%#
&' (
$%#
&' (
! !
"
"
!
!
#
+ # (
'
,
,
"
)*
)"
#
" +
'
#
(
)*
)"
% '
% '
-
-
)
) *
) *
radiation length [g/cm
2
]
(divide by specific density to get ,
-
in cm)
Z,A
e
-
"
)
"
, *
% " "
*
)
dE
dx
Z
2
These are the two regions in the Bethe-Bloch
formula that give us the MIP valley
4
Bremsstrahlung
Bremsstrahlung is a kind of braking radiation
in an external electromagnetic field.
This field might come from an accelerator
(synchrotron radiation) or from a nucleus of
traversed material.
For electrons:
X0: Radiation length [g/cm
2
]
X0 in water: 36cm
X0 in lead: 0.56cm
dE
dx
=
E
X
0
E = E
0
e
x/X
0

4. Calorimetry
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nteraction of charged particles
Energy Ioss by BremsstrahIung
Radiation of real photons in the Coulomb field
of the nuclei of the absorber medium
Effect plays a role only for e
and ultra-relativistic ! (>1000 GeV)

For electrons:
!
!
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
$%#
&'
(
$
(
!
"
#
"
!$
%
&
'
#
(
)*
)"
'
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
) *
+,
-
#
$
#
$
$%#
&' (
$%#
&' (
! !
"
"
!
!
#
+ # (
'
,
,
"
)*
)"
#
" +
'
#
(
)*
)"
% '
% '
-
-
)
) *
) *
radiation length [g/cm
2
]
(divide by specific density to get ,
-
in cm)
Z,A
e
-
"
)
"
, *
% " "
*
)
27. Passage of particles through matter 15
Results using this formula agree with Tsais values to better than 2.5% for all elements
except helium, where the result is about 5% low.
Bremsstrahlung
Lead (Z = 82)
Positrons
Electrons
Ionization
Mller (e
!
)
Bhabha (e
!
)
Positron
annihilation
1.0
0.5
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
(
c
m
2
g
!
1
)
E (MeV)
1
0
10 100 1000
1E
!
d
E
d
x
(
X
0
!
1
)
Figure 27.10: Fractional energy loss per radiation length in lead as a function of
electron or positron energy. Electron (positron) scattering is considered as ionization
when the energy loss per collision is below 0.255 MeV, and as Mller (Bhabha)
scattering when it is above. Adapted from Fig. 3.2 from Messel and Crawford,
Electron-Photon Shower Distribution Function Tables for Lead, Copper, and Air
Absorbers, Pergamon Press, 1970. Messel and Crawford use X
0
(Pb) = 5.82 g/cm
2
,
but we have modied the gures to reect the value given in the Table of Atomic
and Nuclear Properties of Materials (X
0
(Pb) = 6.37 g/cm
2
).
The radiation length in a mixture or compound may be approximated by
1/X
0
=
w
j
/X
j
, (27.23)
where w
j
and X
j
are the fraction by weight and the radiation length for the jth element.
27.4.2. Energy loss by electrons : At low energies electrons and positrons primarily
lose energy by ionization, although other processes (Mller scattering, Bhabha scattering,
e
+
annihilation) contribute, as shown in Fig. 27.10. While ionization loss rates rise
logarithmically with energy, bremsstrahlung losses rise nearly linearly (fractional loss is
nearly independent of energy), and dominates above a few tens of MeV in most materials
Ionization loss by electrons and positrons diers from loss by heavy particles because
of the kinematics, spin, and the identity of the incident electron with the electrons which
it ionizes. Complete discussions and tables can be found in Refs. 7, 8, and 27.
August 30, 2006 15:40
Bremsstrahlung
5
Photon Interaction
Photo-electric effect:
Compton scattering:
Pair production:
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n order to be detected, a photon has to create charged particles
and / or transfer energy to charged particles
Photo-eIectric effect: (already met in photocathodes of photodetectors)
nteraction of photons
! "
" # " ! !"#$ !"#$ $
% &'#$(#) *
+,
,
+
-
,
. /
0
,
1
!
!
"#
!
!
"#
$
%#&'&
(
) *
+
, % & ' & (
'
&
$
) ) *
+
,
-
.
/
)
'
( % &
1
/
. / ,
, (
!
$
%#&'&
)
e
-
X
+
X
.
,
%#&'&
0 &
Only possible in the close neighborhood of a
third collision partner # photo effect releases
mainly electrons from the K-shell.
Cross section shows strong modulation if !
$
1 !
"#$%%
At high energies ('221)
4. Calorimetry
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Compton scattering:
' ' ! ! ! " ! # #
$
$
%
ln
&
!
"
!
"
#$%&'"
"
( % % ' (
)
#
+ ,
#
# #
) $ cos 1 1
1
- !
( . ) )
Assume electron as quasi-free.
KIein-Nishina
Atomic Compton cross-section:
e
-
# #
) ) )
!
. - (
At high energies approximately
) , ( $ )
%
/ *
*
E
# (
k
e
V
)

)
+
Compton cross-section (Klein-Nishina)
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Pair production
!"#$%"& % % !"#$%"& ! " !
# !
$
!
! # ' (
%
%
$
"
"
! !
#
$
%
%
$
#
%&'
()
$
#
*
'
%
)
*
+
) *
+
,
, -
./0-
./0- +
+
% ./0-
&
'
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
'
.
.
/ 0 independent of energy !
Z
e
+
e
-
Only possible in the Coulomb field of a nucleus (or an electron) if
Cross-section (high energy approximation)
Energy sharing
between e
+
and
e
-
becomes
asymmetric at
high energies.
# # ! #
! " ! % % % % $
!"#$%"& % % !"#$%"& ! " !
# !
$
Photo Electric Effect
27. Passage of particles through matter 19
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental !
tot
!
p.e.
"
"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (! = 6)
!
Rayleigh
!
g.d.r.
!
Compton
!
Compton
!
Rayleigh
"
nuc
"
nuc
"
"
!
p.e.
- experimental !
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon and
lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:
p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon absorption)
Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited
Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)
nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld
e
= Pair production, electron eld
g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole Reso-
nance [46]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is broken up.
Data from [47]; parameters for
g.d.r.
from [48]. Curves for these and other
elements, compounds, and mixtures may be obtained from
http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData. The photon total cross section is
approximately at for at least two decades beyond the energy range shown. Original
gures courtesy J.H. Hubbell (NIST).
August 30, 2006 15:40
Compton Scattering
Pair Production
6
Pair Production
Some additional particle is needed to fulfill
energy conservation and momentum conservation
simultaneously.
The intensity of photons decreases exponentially:
Note that for a single photon this translates into a survival probability.
QED relates the interaction lengths of photons " with the radiation length X0 of
electrons:
I = I
0
e
7
9
x/X
0
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Pair production
!"#$%"& % % !"#$%"& ! " !
# !
$
!
! # ' (
%
%
$
"
"
! !
#
$
%
%
$
#
%&'
()
$
#
*
'
%
)
*
+
) *
+
,
, -
./0-
./0- +
+
% ./0-
&
'
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
'
.
.
/ 0 independent of energy !
Z
e
+
e
-
Only possible in the Coulomb field of a nucleus (or an electron) if
Cross-section (high energy approximation)
Energy sharing
between e
+
and
e
-
becomes
asymmetric at
high energies.
# # ! #
! " ! % % % % $
!"#$%"& % % !"#$%"& ! " !
# !
$
=
9
7
X
0
7
Electromagnetic Showers
The dominating processes for high energy electrons, bremsstrahlung, and high
energy photons (pair production) lead to a cyclic evolution of energy loss in matter.
4/11 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, !" $%&'(, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
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Electromagnetic cascades (showers)
t t
E particle t E t N
!
" # # ! " # $ ! # $
%
! &'
&'
%
()*
c
E E
t #
c
t
t
t
t t total
E
E
N
%
%
# + $
! ! ! + ! !
()*
()*
()*
# " $ ! # #
%
#
&
'
Electron shower in a cloud
chamber with lead absorbers
Consider only Bremsstrahlung and
(symmetric) pair production.
Assume: X
0
~ (
pair
Process continues until E(t)E
c
After t t
max
the dominating processes are
ionization, Compton effect and photo effect )
absorption of energy.
Simple qualitative model
e
+
e
-
4. Calorimetry
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LongitudinaI shower deveIopment
Shower maximum at
95% containment
Size of a calorimeter grows only logarithmically with !
"
#
$ #
%#
%!
!
"
#
! "#
$
"#
%
&'(
&
!
!
# $
) * + %, * %
&'( - +.
% % & ' # #
Example: !
"
= 100 GeV in lead glass
!
&
=11.8 MeV ' #
()*
& 13, #
95%
& 23
+
"
& 2 cm, ,
-
= 1.8+
"
& 3.6 cm
/ 0 1
234 !$
!
%
&( . +
!
,
&
-
$
(C. Fabjan, T. Ludlam,
CERN-EP/82-37)
6 GeV/c e
-
Transverse shower development
95% of the shower cone is located in a cylinder with radius 2 ,
-
Molire radius
46 cm
8 cm
Electromagnetic cascades
l
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y

d
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
a
.
u
.
)
t
r
a
n
s
v
e
r
s
e

c
o
n
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t

9
0
%

(
R
M
)
X
0
17
Elektromagnetische Schauer
! " Hochenergetische Elektronen und Photonen GeV verlieren in Materie Energie
hauptschlich durch Bremsstrahlung bzw. Paarbildung. Die so erzeugten sekundren
Photonen bzw. Elektronen und Positronen verur
E #
0
sachen ihrerseits wieder Paarbildung
und Bremsstrahlung, so dass sich ein von Photonen, Elektronen und
Positronen ergibt.
In einem einfachen Modell kann man annehmen, dass pro Strahlungslnge X
Schauer
eine
Aufteilung (Bremsstrahlung oder Paarbildung) stattfindet, wobei die Energie jeweils zu
gleichen Teilen auf die beiden Tochterteilchen aufgeteilt wird. Wir bezeichnen mit die
Koordinate entlang des
t
! "
! "
! " ! "
0
0
0
2 2
Schauers in Einheiten der Strahlungslngen . Die Anzahl der
Teilchen im Schauer wchst in diesem Modell exponentiell und entsprechend sinkt
die Energie pro Teilchen:
wobei die Ene
t t
X
N t
E t
N t E t E
E
$ $
rgie des einfallenden Photons bzw. Elektrons oder Positrons ist. Dieser
Prozess endet, wenn die Energie pro Teilchen die kritische Energie erreicht, unterhalb
derer die Teilchen ihre Energie durch Io
C
E
! "
max
max max
0
max 0 max
0 0
1
2 ln
ln2
2 2
nisation bzw. Compton- und Photoeffekt verlieren,
so dass der Schauer ausstirbt. Damit folgt
Schauermaximum bei mit
Gesamtzahl der Schauerteilchen
t
C
C
t t
t
t t
E
t E E t
E
S N t
$ $
$ % $
$ $ $
& &
max max max
1 1 0
0
0
0
1 2 2 2 2
Sichtbare Spurlnge aller Schauerteilchen
wobei der Faktor bercksichtigt, dass die Schauerteilchen nur oberhalb einer bestimmten
Energie ein messbares Signal
t t t
C
C
E
E
E
E
T F X
E
F
' '
( ) $ * $
$
!
! "
1
7
erzeugen. Ein Elektron der Energie GeV erzeugt in Blei
MeV also mehr als tausend Teilchen.
C
E
E
$
$
Electromagnetic showers are characterised by
their length and width. The length is clearly
related to the material dependent radiation
length. The width is related to the critical
energy EC, where ionisation begins to
dominate.
The width of a shower is measured as the
Moliere radius RM
8
Sampling Calorimeter
Separate absorber and detection
material:
Dense materials with high Z make
good absorbers: Pb, U, Fe, Wi
The sensitive material may be Liquid
Argon (Xenon, Krypton), scintillators,
gas detectors, silicon detectors...
Example: ATLAS calorimeter
4. Calorimetry
C
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N

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/
2
0
0
5
Sampling calorimeters
SampIing caIorimeters = Absorber + detector (gaseous, liquid, solid)
MWPC, streamer tubes
warm liquids (TMP = tetra-
methylpentane, TMS = tetra-
methylsilane)
cryogenic noble gases:
mainly LAr (Lxe, LKr)
scintillators, scintillation
fibres, silicon detectors
'Shashlik' readout
plastic scintillators
WLS bars/fibres
Absorber Scintillator
Light Guide
Light Detector
4. Calorimetry
C
E
R
N

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5
ATLAS eIectromagnetic CaIorimeter
Accordion geometry absorbers immersed in Liquid Argon
Liquid Argon (90K)
+ lead-steal absorbers (1-2 mm)
+ multilayer copper-polyimide
readout boards
! onization chamber.
1 GeV E-deposit ! 5 x10
6
e
-
Accordion geometry
minimizes dead zones.
Liquid Ar is intrinsically
radiation hard.
Readout board allows fine
segmentation (azimuth,
pseudo-rapidity and
longitudinal) acc. to physics
needs
Test beam results ! "# $ % ! "& $ ' ( ) " # ! ! ! $ Spatial resolution % 5 mm / &E
Example ECAL - sampling
LAr (90K)
lead-steel absorber
copper-polyamid
readout boards
9
Homogenous Calorimeter
The absorber material is at the same
time the detector material. Either
scintillators (NaI, CsI,) or
Cherenkov counters (lead glass) are
used.
Example: OPAL, lead glass with PM
readout
very compact (37cm depth, 24.6 X0)
CMS Calorimeter:
4/23 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, !" $%&'(, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
4. Calorimetry
C
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N

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/
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5
OPAL Barrel + end-cap electromagnetic calorimeter: lead glass + pre-sampler
!10500 blocks (10 x 10 x 37 cm
3
, 24.6 X
0
),
PM (barrel) or PT (end-cap) readout.
!!" # ! !$ # ! % & " # ! ! ! $
Spatial resolution (intrinsic) ! 11 mm at 6 GeV
(OPAL collab. NM A 305 (1991) 275)
Principle of pre-sampler or
pre-shower detector
Sample first part of shower with
high granularity. Useful for %/&
0,
e/%, e/&
'
discrimination.
Usually gas or, more recently, Si
detectors.
detector
Example ECAL - homogeneous
10
3a/21 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
3a Scintillators
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ATLAS Hadron Calorimeter
Periodical arrangement of scintillator tiles
(3 mm thick) in a steel absorber structure
1 of 64 ind. wedges
1 mm fiber
c
a
.

2
m
(ATLAS TDR)
ca. 11m
Scintillating tile readout via fibers and photomultipliers
PMT
ATLAS Hadron Calorimeter
20
Hadronische Schauer
Material Z A ! [g/cm
3
] X0 [g/cm
2
] "a [g/cm
2
]
Hydrogen (gas) 1 1.01 0.0899 (g/l) 63 50.8
Helium (gas) 2 4.00 0.1786 (g/l) 94 65.1
Beryllium 4 9.01 1.848 65.19 75.2
Carbon 6 12.01 2.265 43 86.3
Nitrogen (gas) 7 14.01 1.25 (g/l) 38 87.8
Oxygen (gas) 8 16.00 1.428 (g/l) 34 91.0
Aluminium 13 26.98 2.7 24 106.4
Silicon 14 28.09 2.33 22 106.0
Iron 26 55.85 7.87 13.9 131.9
Copper 29 63.55 8.96 12.9 134.9
Tungsten 74 183.85 19.3 6.8 185.0
Lead 82 207.19 11.35 6.4 194.0
Uranium 92 238.03 18.95 6.0 199.0
0.1
1
10
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
X
0
"
a
X
0
,

"
a

[
c
m
]
Z
# $ Wenn stark wechselwirkende Teilchen , K, p, n, ... auf Materie treffen,
dann werden sie an den Atomkernen gestreut. Ein Teil dieser Streuprozesse
ist inelastisch, d.h. es entstehen weitere, sekundre T
%
eilchen. Bei hinreichend
hoher Energie setzt sich dieser Prozess fort und es entsteht ein
. Das Auftreten hadronischer Wechselwirkungen in Abhngigkeit
von der Materialtiefe wird du x
hadronischer
Schauer
0
exp
rch die
(auch mittlere freie Weglnge genannt) beschrieben:
mit
Wenn man nur an der Absorption durch inelastische Wechselwirkungen interessiert
ist,
W
W
W
A total
x
N N
A
N
"
"
"
! &
' (
) *
+ ,
- .
)
Wechselwirkungslnge
dann ist diese durch die zu ersetzen:
Da die Absorptionslnge auer bei den ganz leichten Elementen immer deutlich grer
ist als die Strahlungslnge, ist die Ausd
A
A
A inelastisch
A
N
"
"
! &
)
Absorptionslnge
ehnung von hadronischen Schauern grer
als die von elektromagnetischen.
In einem hadronischen Schauer werden hauptschlich geladene und neutrale Pionen erzeugt.
Die neutralen Pionen zerfallen sehr schne
# $
# $
-16
10
20%
ll s in zwei Photonen. Hierdurch entstehen
lokale elektromagnetische Unterkaskaden.
Ein signifikanter Anteil der Energie eines hadronischen Schauers ca. wird fr
das Aufbrechen von Kernbindungen
0
L
verbraucht und trgt nicht zum sichtbaren Signal bei.
Auerdem entstehen neutrale Teilchen (Neutronen, K ,Neutrinos), die aus dem Material
entkommen knnen, ohne ein Signal zu hinterlassen. Auch Myonen hinterlassen nur wenig
Energie durch Ionissation. Alle diese Effekte fhren dazu, dass nur ein statistisch
schwankender Bruchteil der Gesamtenergie in ein messbares Signal umgewandelt wird.
Hadronic are not as well defined as electromagnetic
showers. The processes are much more complex:
within a hadronic shower and neutrinos may be
produced. Some energy is used to break up nuclei in
the absorber. Typically around 20% of the energy is
invisible.
Hadronic showers are much longer and broader. The
interaction length is lager than the radiation length.
11
ATLAS: Calorimeters
12
Photo Multiplier Tube
3b/9 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
3b Photo-detection
C
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N

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5
Basic principle:
! Photo-emission from photo-cathode
! Secondary emission (SE) from N dynodes:
!dynode gain g!3-50 (function of
incoming electron energy E);
!total gain !:
! Example:
!10 dynodes
with g=4
!! = 4
10
! 10
6
"
#
#
!
"
"
# $
!
Photo-muItipIier tubes (PMT's)
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/
pe
(http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu)
(Hamamatsu)
3b/9 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
3b Photo-detection
C
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Basic principle:
! Photo-emission from photo-cathode
! Secondary emission (SE) from N dynodes:
!dynode gain g!3-50 (function of
incoming electron energy E);
!total gain !:
! Example:
!10 dynodes
with g=4
!! = 4
10
! 10
6
"
#
#
!
"
"
# $
!
Photo-muItipIier tubes (PMT's)
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/
pe
(http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu)
(Hamamatsu)
Start with photo emission of an
electron on the cathode.
Emission of secondary electrons on
each of the dynodes.
Amplification gain of each dynode:
3-50
13
Particle ID: Cerenkov Detectors
A charged particle polarises a medium as it
passes through it. If the speed # of the
particle is greater than the speed of light in
that medium the polarisation is directed.
Photons are emitted at a fixed angle $C
relative to the particle direction:
25
Cerenkov-Strahlung
! "
Ein geladenes Teilchen polarisiert das Medium, das es durchquert. Wenn die
Teilchengeschwindigkeit grer ist als die Lichtgeschwindigkeit im Medium
Brechungsindex
dann wird die Polarisation unsym
v
n
c
v
n
#
metrisch und es entsteht ein resultierendes
zeitlich vernderliches Dipolmoment, das elektromagnetische Strahlung erzeugt.
Der Energieverlust durch diese betrgt
nur wenige Prozent de
Cherenkov - Strahlung
1
cos
s Energieverlusts durch Ionisation.
Die Cherenkov-Photonen werden unter dem Cherenkov-Winkel abgestrahlt:
denn whrend das Teilchen die Geschwindigkeit hat, ist die Geschwindigkeit der St
C
C
n
c
$
$
%
%
&
! "
/
.
1
rahlung
siehe Skizze
Cherenkov-Strahlung wird also nur dann emittiert, wenn

ist. Daher kann der Cherenkov-Effekt zur Eingrenzung der Teilchengeschwindigkeit verwendet we
c n
n
% # Cherenkov - Schwelle
2
400 700
490
sin
rden.
Die Zahl der Abgestrahlten Cherenkov-Photonen im optischen Bereich ( nm) betrgt fr einfach
geladene Teilchen
cm
Damit ist das Cherenkov-Licht grob um einen Faktor der Grenor
c
dN
dx
$
'
&
100 dnung schwcher als Szintillationslicht,
trgt jedoch Information ber Richtung und Geschwindigkeit des Teilchens.

25
Cerenkov-Strahlung
! "
Ein geladenes Teilchen polarisiert das Medium, das es durchquert. Wenn die
Teilchengeschwindigkeit grer ist als die Lichtgeschwindigkeit im Medium
Brechungsindex
dann wird die Polarisation unsym
v
n
c
v
n
#
metrisch und es entsteht ein resultierendes
zeitlich vernderliches Dipolmoment, das elektromagnetische Strahlung erzeugt.
Der Energieverlust durch diese betrgt
nur wenige Prozent de
Cherenkov - Strahlung
1
cos
s Energieverlusts durch Ionisation.
Die Cherenkov-Photonen werden unter dem Cherenkov-Winkel abgestrahlt:
denn whrend das Teilchen die Geschwindigkeit hat, ist die Geschwindigkeit der St
C
C
n
c
$
$
%
%
&
! "
/
.
1
rahlung
siehe Skizze
Cherenkov-Strahlung wird also nur dann emittiert, wenn

ist. Daher kann der Cherenkov-Effekt zur Eingrenzung der Teilchengeschwindigkeit verwendet we
c n
n
% # Cherenkov - Schwelle
2
400 700
490
sin
rden.
Die Zahl der Abgestrahlten Cherenkov-Photonen im optischen Bereich ( nm) betrgt fr einfach
geladene Teilchen
cm
Damit ist das Cherenkov-Licht grob um einen Faktor der Grenor
c
dN
dx
$
'
&
100 dnung schwcher als Szintillationslicht,
trgt jedoch Information ber Richtung und Geschwindigkeit des Teilchens.

5a/13 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, !" $%&'(, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
5a. Particle dentification
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index refractive :
1
!
!
"#$
! " # #
l
part
#c$t
l
light
(c/n)$t
%
w
a
v
e
I
r
o
n
t
1 ) ( with
1
cos
" !
!
&
#
%
! !
!
%
0
1
' ( !
% "#$
!
% #
Cherenkov
threshold !
1
arccos
max
! %
'saturated' angle (#=1)
Number of emitted photons per unit length and
unit wavelength interval
. with
1
sin
2 1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
&'!("
)*)+
, )
+
#& &
)*)
, )
-
!
-
)*)
, )
%
! ! ! )
!
*
*
+
,
-
-
.
/
0 !
1
&
& &
%
&
2 3
# &
2 3
&
dN/d&
&
dN/dE
4
%
C
Cherenkov radiation
Cherenkov radiation is emitted when a charged particle passes through a dielectric medium
with velocity
.
.tan%

DELPHI RICH at 161 GeV
Barrel Gas Radiator
Barrel Liquid Radiator
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10
-1
1 10
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
10
-1
1 10
P "GeV/c#
$
!
c
%

"
m
r
a
d
#
P "GeV/c#
$
!
c
%

"
m
r
a
d
#
Kaon 11.8 GeV/c
Gas Radiator: Ring Identification
Liquid Radiator: Ambigous
4 Jet Event
Kaon 2.2 GeV/c
Gas Radiator: Veto Identification
Liquid Radiator: Ring Identification
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
-50 0 50
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
-500 0 500
!
c
cos" "mrad#
!
c

s
in
"

"
m
r
a
d
#
!
c
cos" "mrad#
!
c

s
in
"

"
m
r
a
d
#
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
-50 0 50
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
-500 0 500
!
c
cos" "mrad#
!
c

s
in
"

"
m
r
a
d
#
!
c
cos" "mrad#
!
c

s
in
"

"
m
r
a
d
#
cos
C
=
1
n
Application: Ring Image Cerenkov Counters
(RICH)
DELPHI:
14
Particle ID: Transition Radiation Detectors
A relativistic electron may emit a photon when
traversing the boundary between vacuum/material.
Usually stacks of thin foils are used as radiators.
5a/22 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, !" $%&'(, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2
C
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5
Particle D by Transition radiation
radiators) (plastic eV 20
Irequency
plasma
3
1
0
2
!
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
) (
!
"
"
!
!
#
" $
% %
*
+
*
, , * -
!
!
only high energetic e
emit TR of detectable intensity.

!particle D
medium vacuum
TR is electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle
traverses a medium with a discontinuous refractive index, e.g.
the boundaries between vacuum and a dielectric layer.
A (too) simple picture
Radiated energy per medium/vacuum boundary
(there is an excellent review article by B. Dolgoshein (NM A 326 (1993) 434))
Transition Radiation was predicted by Ginzburg and Franck in 1946
(G. Garibian, Sov. Phys. JETP63 (1958) 1079)
A correct relativistic treatment shows that.
electron
1
+
*
optical absorptive X-ray
Cherenkov
radiation
ionisation
transition radiation
regime:
effect:
Re +
Im +
TR is also called
sub-threshold
Cherenkov radiation
+ <1 !
28
bergangsstrahlungs-Detektoren
0.5 100
(Transition Radiation Detector TRD)
Elektron-Pion-Trennung fr GeV GeV
Effizienter Rntgenphotonennachweis und Spurrekonstruktion durch Verwendung
von "Strawtubes", die im Radiatormaterial ver
p ! !
10 20
50 100
teilt werden (z.B. in ATLAS TRT, AMS TRD).
Die Pionunterdrckung steigt mit der Anzahl der Lagen und der Lnge des Detektors stark an (Faktor pro cm).
Fr cm lange bergangsstrahlungsdetekt "
3
10 90% oren erreicht man eine Pioneffizienz von bei Elektroneffizienz.
"
Example:
The ATLAS TRT combines both, tracking of charged particles and detection of
Transition Radiation of electrons in a single detector.
C
E
R
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5
Particle D by Transition radiation
The ATLAS Transition Radiation Tracker (TRT)
Straw tubes (d = 4mm) based
tracking chamber with TR
capability for electron identification.
Active gas is Xe/CO
2
/O
2
(70/27/3)
operated at ~2x10
4
gas gain;
drift time ~ 40ns ( fast!)
Radiators
Barrel: Propylen fibers
Endcap: Propylen foils
d=15 !m with 200 !m spacing.
Counting rate ~ 6-18 MHz at LHC
design luminosity 10
34
cm
-2
s
-1
6
8
0
c
m
photo of an
endcap TRT
sector.
15
Particle ID: Vertexing and dE/dx
Delphi:
charmless b decay
with a K*
! ! ! " #
e
E
n
e
r
g
y

d
e
p
o
s
i
t

p
e
r

u
n
i
t

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
e
V
/
c
m
)
Momentum (GeV/$)
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
0.1 1 10
Figure 28.8: PEP4/9-TPC energy-deposit measurements (185 samples @8.5 atm
Ar-CH
4
8020%) in multihadron events. The electrons reach a Fermi plateau value
of 1.4 times the most probably energy deposit at minimum ionization. Muons from
pion decays are separated from pions at low momentum; /K are separated over all
momenta except in the cross-over region. (Low-momentum protons and deuterons
originate from hadron-nucleus collisions in inner materials such as the beam pipe.)
Here N is the number of samples, is the sample size, and P is the pressure. Typical
energy-deposit distributions are shown in Fig. 28.8. Good three-dimensional two-track
resolutions of about 11.5 cm are routinely achieved.
E B distortions arise from nonparallel E and B elds (see Eq. (28.12)), and from
the curved drift of electrons to the anode wires in the amplication region. Position
measurement errors include contributions from the anode-cathode geometry, the track
crossing angle (), E B distortions, and from the drift diusion of electrons
2
x or y
=
2
0
+
2
D
(1 + tan
2
)L/L
max
+
2
(tan tan)
2
(28.18)
where is the coordinate resolution,
0
includes the anode-cathode geometry contribution,
is the Lorentz angle, and L is the drift distance.
Space-charge distortions arise in high-rate environments, especially for low values of .
July 14, 2006 10:37
dE
dx
= Kz
2
Z
A
1
1
2
ln
2mec
2
2
Tmax
I
2

2
()
2
. (27.1)
Here Tmax is the maximum kinetic energy which can be imparted to a free electron in a
1
1
cm
2
.
Muon momentum
1
10
100
S
t
o
p
p
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

[
M
e
V

c
m
2
/
g
]
L
i
n
d
h
a
r
d
-
S
c
h
a
r
f
f
Radiative
effects
reach 1%
!
"
on Cu
Without !
Radiative
losses
"#
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
10
6
[MeV/c] [GeV/c]
100 10 1 0.1 100 10 1 100 10 1
[TeV/c]
Anderson-
Ziegler
Nuclear
losses
Minimum
ionization
E
!c
!
$

energies [3].
August 30, 2006 15:40
16
Particle ID: Comparison
C
E
R
N

A
c
a
d
e
m
i
c

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

P
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
e
2
0
0
4
/
2
0
0
5
p |GeV/c|
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
RICH
dE/dx
TOF
TR
!/K separation
e
+
identification
Particle dentification
!
"
#
p
Summary:
A number of powerful methods are available to identify particles over a large
momentum range.
Depending on the available space and the environment, the identification power
can vary significantly.
A very coarse plot ..
?
TOF: Time of Flight: Timing a particle how long it takes to
traverse the detector.
17
Muon Detectors
Mainly wire chambers or scintillators shielded by >30 interaction length of material
to filter out all other charged particles.
18
Comparison of different detectors
42
19
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Decays & Collisions
1
Decays
2
Decays
Decays
N(t) number of (unstable) objects of the same type, still intact at moment t.
If the objects decay spontaneously and independently of each other, the number of
objects decayed, dN, during the small time interval dt must be proportional to the
number of objects still present at the start of the interval, N(t):
dN = N dt N(t) = N
0
e
t
where is a constant, which determines
the rate of the decay. It has dimension
[1/time] and hence [energy] or [mass],
and is equal to the decay probability
per unit time.
Quantity = 1/ has the dimension of [time], and is called mean life. It is closely
related to another measure of decay rate, half-life t
1/2
.
After t = only the fraction 1/e of the initial sample is left undecayed.
After t = t
1/2
half of the initial sample has decayed; t
1/2
= log 2 = 0.693 .
Particle Physics
dN = Ndt
N(t) = N
0
e
t
=
1
t
1/2
= log 2 = 0.693
Mean life: Half life:
Dimension
[!] = [1/time] = [energy]
3
Decays in Quantum Theory
Decay of a particle at rest, p = 0, E = m:
The probability to find the particle at a position x at time t is |!|
2
= !*! = const .
Add decay: for an unstable particle with mean life " = 1/# the mass becomes
complex:
The construction is such that probability density decays exponentially over time
with mean life "=1/#.
(x, t) = Ce
iEt+ipx
= Ce
imt
m mi/2
||
2
=
e
+imtt/2
e
imtt/2
= e
t
4
Consequences of decays
Uncertainty relation between
energy and time:
$E $t ~ 1
$E ~ 1/" = #
So what happens when you try to
measure the invariant mass of a
particle?
The uncertainty relation takes care
that you measure a distribution of
masses with width in the order of
# instead of a single number!
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
-
e
+
e ! Z
Example: decay of the Z
0
boson into two
leptons, here e
+
e
!
, measured at the D
experiment:
5
Partial Decay Widths
Decay modes of the Z boson:
Remarks:
In an experiment one often
measures Branching Ratios, #tot or
the lifetime ". #i are not accessible
directly.
By comparing BR(i) with #tot one can
indirectly conclude on other decay
modes (number of light neutrino
generation)
(Never sum up "i!)
BR(i) =

i
tot
Citation: W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group), J. Phys. G 33, 1 (2006) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov)
Z DECAY MODES Z DECAY MODES Z DECAY MODES Z DECAY MODES
Scale factor/
Mode Fraction (
i
/) Condence level
1
e
+
e
( 3.363 0.004 ) %
2

+
( 3.366 0.007 ) %
3

+
( 3.370 0.008 ) %
4

+
[a] ( 3.36580.0023) %
5
invisible (20.00 0.06 ) %
6
hadrons (69.91 0.06 ) %
7
(uu+cc )/2 (11.6 0.6 ) %
8
(dd +ss +bb)/3 (15.6 0.4 ) %
9
cc (12.03 0.21 ) %
10
bb (15.12 0.05 ) %
11
bbbb ( 3.6 1.3 ) 10
4
12
g g g < 1.1 % CL=95%
13

0
< 5.2 10
5
CL=95%
14
< 5.1 10
5
CL=95%
15
< 6.5 10
4
CL=95%
16

(958) < 4.2 10

5
CL=95%
17
< 5.2 10
5
CL=95%
18
< 1.0 10
5
CL=95%
19

[b] < 7 10
5
CL=95%
20

[b] < 8.3 10

5
CL=95%
21
J/(1S)X ( 3.51
+0.23
0.25
) 10
3
S=1.1
22
(2S)X ( 1.60 0.29 ) 10
3
23

c1
(1P)X ( 2.9 0.7 ) 10
3
24

c2
(1P)X < 3.2 10
3
CL=90%
25
(1S) X +(2S) X
+(3S) X
( 1.0 0.5 ) 10
4
26
(1S)X < 4.4 10
5
CL=95%
27
(2S)X < 1.39 10
4
CL=95%
28
(3S)X < 9.4 10
5
CL=95%
29
(D
0
/D
0
) X (20.7 2.0 ) %
30
D
X (12.2 1.7 ) %
31
D
(2010)
X [b] (11.4 1.3 ) %
32
D
s1
(2536)
X ( 3.6 0.8 ) 10
3
33
D
sJ
(2573)
X ( 5.8 2.2 ) 10
3
34
D
(2629)
X searched for
35
BX
36
B
37
B
+
X ( 6.03 0.15 ) %
38
B
0
s
X ( 1.55 0.13 ) %
39
B
+
c
X searched for
HTTP://PDG.LBL.GOV Page 23 Created: 9/15/2006 12:09
tot
=
1
+
2
+...
=
1
tot
Quiz: The full width of the Z is !(Z
0
)=2.5 GeV.
(i) What is the partial width of the Z into charged leptons?
(ii) Calculate the number of neutrino generations assuming
that the cross section into ""# is twice the one for l
+
l
!

6
Decay Kinematics
For a two-particle decay M ! m
1
+ m
2
, the value of p " |p| can be easily
calculated using Lorentz-invariance and energy-momentum conservation:
In its own rest frame, the 4-momentum of the decaying particle is q = (M, 0).
The decay products have 4-momenta p
1
= (E
1
, p
1
) and p
2
= (E
2
, p
2
). Energy
conservation gives E
1
+ E
2
= M .
Momentum conservation yields p
1
+ p
2
= 0 ! |p
1
| = |p
2
|. Start with p
2
2
:
m
2
2
= p
2
2
= (q p
1
)
2
= q
2
+p
2
1
2qp
1
= M
2
+m
2
1
2ME
1
+ 2 0 p
1
m
2
2
= M
2
+m
2
1
2ME
1
E
1
=
M
2
+m
2
1
m
2
2
2M
p =
E
2
1
m
2
1
= |p
1
| = |p
2
|
This is the formula you will use most often, along with the
formulas for the Lorentz Transformation! (Worksheets 2 & 3
and exam!)
There is no free parameter in a particle 2-body decay!
Everything is determined by the particle masses.
7
Fermis Golden Rule for Decays
Quantum Field Theory provides us with a recipe to calculate the decay rate in
terms of two ingredients:
1. The quantum-mechanical amplitude for the process M.
2. The phase space available for the final state of the process.
The Golden Rule for decays states:
where (1$ N) is the matrix element for the transition between initial $ final
state that we can calculate from a Feynman diagram.
Decay Rate d |M(1 N)|
2
(Phase Space of N)
8
Golden Rule for Decays
The full version:
S: statistical factor 1/j! for identical particles.
Using conservations laws, algebra and integrating over all possible momenta in the
final state one gets
(2)
4
4
(p
1
p
2
p
3
... p
n
)
d = |M|
2
S
2m
1
d
3
p
2
(2)
3
2E
2
d
3
p
3
(2)
3
2E
3
...
d
3
p
n
(2)
3
2E
n
=
S|p|
8m
2
1
|M|
2
9
Collisions
10
Describing Collisions
Decays provide lots of useful information, but you have to nd a way of producing the
unstable particles rst. Those which are produced naturally (Big Bang, cosmic rays)
tend to decay without being detected by physicists, for various reasons).
First experiments used natural radioactive sources. Now giant accelerator complexes are
being built, thanks to huge international eorts.
Until 1970s, experiments usually had a xed target:
a beam of particles (n
e
per unit time)
hits a (solid, liquid or gaseous)
target (n
p
protons per unit area).
Some of the projectile particles (n
s
per
unit time) get scattered, some just go through the
target unperturbed. The cross section
=
n
s
n
e
n
p
dimension
T
1
T
1
L
2
= L
2
represents an eective area per target particle such that an incident particle hitting that
area will be scattered.
Particle Physics
Describing Collisions
Rutherford scattering experiment
ne: beam particles per unit time
np: protons per unit area
ns: number of scattered beam particles
Cross Section:
dimension:
Unit: 1 barn = 1b = 10
-24
cm
2

Represents an effective area per target particle so that an incident particle hitting
that area will be scattered.
=
n
s
n
e
n
p
T
1
T
1
L
2
= L
2
11
Cross Sections
The cross section describes the probability of scattering.
It depends on the energy of the collision and the types of colliding particles.
Point like particles hitting a target of small hard spheres with radius R will have a
cross section # = $R
2
(unrealistic!)
The weaker the interaction, the smaller the cross section.
Differential cross section: probability for a beam particle to be scattered in a
certain direction (scattering angles %, &)
solid angle interval d% = sin& d& d'
fraction of scattered particles per solid angle interval
d
d
=
d
sindd
12
Proton-Proton Total and Elastic Cross Sections from PDG
Log-log? Elastic? Total? Tevatron? LHC? Highest energy points? P
lab
?

s? Threshold?
Particle Physics
Proton-Proton Total and Elastic Cross Sections from PDG
13
Luminosity
Luminosity is the number of colliding particles per unit time
per unit area and is measured in cm
-2
s
-1
.
Modern accelerator may have luminosities as high as
10
34
cm
-2
s
-1
The number of particles dN passing through area d' per unit
time is
The differential cross section is the number of particles per unit
time scattered into solid angle d(, divided by d( and by the
luminosity.
Event rate = cross section ) luminosity
The luminosity characterises the frequency of collisions (i.e.
The capabilities of the accelerator) while the cross section
describes the nature and the properties of the collisions.
dN = Ld
d
d
=
1
L
dN
d
Exercise 3-x:
Higgs boson
production rate
Exercise 3-x:
14
Threshold
One interesting consequence of energy conservation is immediately obvious. For a
decay of a particle of mass M at rest into two particles with masses m1 and m2 we
have M = E1+E2
However,

and similar for m2. This condition will never be met if m1 + m2 > M. In order for the
decay to proceed some amount of energy must be left to create some 3-
momentum: a particle cannot decay if the sum of final masses exceeds or is equal
to the initial mass.
For collisions M is replaced with the centre-of-mass energy Ecm=*s . This quantity
must exceed the sum of the masses of final particles, otherwise the process cannot
go ahead.
The minimum c.m. Energy at which a particular reaction is kinematically allowed is
called the threshold of this reaction.
Energy needed to create mass/momentum
E
1
=
m
2
1
+|p
1
|
2
m
1
15
Fermis Golden Rule for Collisions
Also here Fermis Golden Rule to calculate the cross section for collisions:
Where is again a matrix element for the transition that we can calculate from
Feynman diagrams.
Cross Section d
1
Flux Factor
|M(1 + 1 N)|
2
(Phase Space of N)
16
Golden Rule for Scattering
Mathematical complete:
S: statistical factor 1/j! for j identical particles
Using conservation laws, algebra and integration over variables that leave
invariant gives
d = |M|
2

2
S
4
(p
1
p
2
)
2
(m
1
m
2
)
2
d
3
p
3
(2)
3
2E
3
d
3
p
2
(2)
3
2E
2
...
d
3
p
n
(2)
3
2E
n
(2)
4
4
(p
1
+ p
2
p
3
p
4
... p
n
)
d
d
=
c
8
2
S|M
2
|
(E
1
+ E
2
)
2
p
f
p
i
17
Summary & Outlook
Decays:
exponential law and widths
decay kinematics
Fermis Golden Rule
Collisions
cross section
luminosity
Fermis Golden Rule
Next Lectures:
Dirac Equation
Photon & Feynman Graphs
18
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Dirac Equation
1
Recap
! Quantum Field Theory =
Relativity + Quantum
Mechanics
! Relativity
Principle: Invariants
- Mass
- Spin
Practical Issues
- Laboratory vs. centre-of-
mass frame, or particle
at rest
- Decay length
! Today:
Quantum Mechanics
- relativistic Schrdinger
equation (no spin)
2
Schrdinger Equation
Start with

p and E become operators acting on the wave function:
p ! -i" , E ! i!/!t
Separation of variables:
The solutions are then
So the full wave function for a free particle is the plane wave:
=
/x
/y
/z
E =
p
2
2m
+V
E(x) =
1
2m
2
(x)
i

t
(x, t) =
1
2m
(
2
+ V )(x, t)
(x, t) = Ce
iEt+ipx
i

t
(t) = E(t)
(t) = Ce
iEt
(x) = Ce
ipx
3
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Start with or
Substitue E and p by their operators again p ! -i" , E ! i!/!t :
(Klein-Gordon equation)
Also here the plane wave is a solution:
Interesting: Also wave functions with negative energy are solutions:
p
2
m
2
= 0 E
2
p
2
= m
2
(
2
t
2
+
2
) = m
2
(x, t) = Ce
iEt+ipx
(x, t) = C
e
+iEtipx
(

2
x
m
2
) = 0
Problem: 2
nd
order derivative!
4
Klein-Gordon Equation
The Klein-Gordon equation was the first relativistic wave equation. However, it
neglects another relativistic invariant: the spin. It therefore is only valid for
particles with spin 0. It is also good for single components of the photon
(neglecting polarization).
An interesting feature of the Klein-Gordon equation is that it allows for solutions
with negative energy and opposite momentum. In the case of the Dirac equation
this will be interpreted as anti-particles.
Feynman pointed out that anti-particles are a necessity in relativistic field theories
in order to keep causality.
One can extend the Klein-Gordon equation by adding a source term (replacing the
= 0 with = "). This equation describes a Yukawa potential that in the non-
relativistic limit yields the Coulomb potential. For a single point source the solution
of the Klein-Gordon equation with source is !(r) = -ge
-mr
/4"r. Note that the range
of the interaction described by this potential decreases with growing particle mass
m.
What are our observables beyond a free particle:
- Decays
- Collisions
5
Diracs Approach
Linearise the relativistic energy-momentum relation
no linear terms in mass: #
k
= $
k

p
2
m
2
= 0
p
m
2
=
k
p
k
p
m
2
p
=
k
p
k
p
!
!
!
(p
0
)
2
(p
1
)
2
(p
2
)
2
(p
3
)
2
m
2
= (
0
)
2
(p
0
)
2
+ (
1
)
2
(p
1
)
2
+ (
2
)
2
(p
2
)
2
+ (
3
)
2
(p
3
)
2
+(
0
1
+
1
0
)p
0
p
1
+(
0
2
+
2
0
)p
0
p
2
+(
0
3
+
3
0
)p
0
p
3
+(
1
2
+
2
1
)p
1
p
2
+(
1
3
+
3
1
)p
1
p
3
+(
2
3
+
3
2
)p
2
p
3
= 0, =
(
0
)
2
= 1
(
1
)
2
= (
2
)
2
= (
3
)
2
= 1
!
!
!
(p
0
)
2
(p
1
)
2
(p
2
)
2
(p
3
)
2
m
2
= (
0
p
0
1
p
1
2
p
2
3
p
3
+ m)(
0
p
0
1
p
1
2
p
2
3
p
3
m)
p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
+ m)(
m)
=
k
p
k
p
m(
k
k
)p
k
m
2
6
! Matrices
No solution if you think of $
as a number.
But there is a solution if you allow $
to be matrices!
$
need to be at least 4 % 4 matrices. The choice of explicit matrices is not unique.

A conventional choice is the following:
p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
m)(
+ m)
0
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

1
=
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
2
=
0 0 0 i
0 0 i 0
0 i 0 0
i 0 0 0

3
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
7
! Matrices
as a number.
to be matrices!
$

p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
m)(
+ m)
0
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

1
=
0 0
0 0

0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0

0 0
0 0
2
=
0 0
0 0

0 i
i 0
0 i
i 0

0 0
0 0

3
=
0 0
0 0

1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1

0 0
0 0
8
! Matrices
as a number.
to be matrices!
$

p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
m)(
+ m)
1
=
0
1
1
0
2
=
0
2
2
0

3
=
0
3
3
0
0
=
1 0
0 1
9
! Matrices
as a number.
to be matrices!
$

p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
m)(
+ m)
1
=
0
1
1
0
2
=
0
2
2
0

3
=
0
3
3
0
0
=
1 0
0 1
1
=
0 1
1 0
2
=
0 i
i 0

3
=
1 0
0 1
1 =
1 0
0 1
0 =
0 0
0 0
10
Dirac Equation
The relativistic energy-momentum relation (the equation above contains E = mc
2
!)
can be factorized! Continue with the recipe to get a quantum equation: p ! -i" ,
E ! i!/!t
(or p ! i!/!x ). It is convention that only one of the two terms is considered:
p
m
2
= (
k
p
k
m)(
+ m) = 0
m = 0
i
m = 0
11
Dirac Equation
4 coupled differential equations
Spin is an intrinsic part of the equation (as can be seen by the &
i
in the $
matrices), in contrast to the Klein-Gordon equation. The Dirac equation describes
spin ' particles like the electron.
A solution ( for the Dirac Equation has four components
( is not a 4-vector though, its called bi-spinor.
(x, t) =
0
(x, t)
1
(x, t)
2
(x, t)
3
(x, t)
m = 0
12
Dirac Equation
i
m = 0
t
0 0 0
0

t
0 0
0 0
t
0
0 0 0
0 0 0

x
0 0

x
0
0

x
0 0

x
0 0 0
0 0 0 i

y
0 0 i

y
0
0 i

y
0 0
i

y
0 0 0
0 0

z
0
0 0 0

z

z
0 0 0
0

z
0 0
m 0 0 0
0 m 0 0
0 0 m 0
0 0 0 m
= 0
0 0

z
0
0 0 0

z

z
0 0 0
0

z
0 0
m 0 0 0
0 m 0 0
0 0 m 0
0 0 0 m
= 0
(x, t) =
0
(x, t)
1
(x, t)
2
(x, t)
3
(x, t)
13
Solutions to the Dirac Equation
For a particle at rest the Dirac equation reduces
to
The four solutions to this equations are
We again find solutions with negative mass. The
interpretation of these solutions are anti-
particles, holes in the vacuum.
The two states with the same energy correspond
to different spin states of the electron: spin #
and spin $.
Spin comes out automatically as a relativistic
effect - as do antiparticles.

i
0
t
m = 0
=
e
imt
e
imt
e
+imt
e
+imt
u
1
u
2
v
3
v
4

e
+
e
+
14
Solutions to the Dirac Equation
The Dirac equation has 4 solutions, coined bi-spinor. Two solutions describe a spin-
' particle with positive energy (particle) and two with negative energy (anti-
particles). Each set of solution is called spinor. The two components of a spinor are
for the two spin states that an electron may have: spin up (#) or spin down ($).
The Dirac equation as relativistic equation naturally contains both ingredients that
are necessary for a covariant field theory: anti-particles and spin.
15
Feynman-Stckelberg Interpretation
Problem with Diracs of interpretation (sea of filled states):
not applicable to Bosons
Feynman & Stckelberg:
wave functions with negative energy make sense when they are running
backwards in time:
particles with negative energy going backwards in time

anti-particles with positive energy going forward in time
emission of anti-particle with p
absorption of particle with -p
absorption of anti-particle with p
emission of particle with -p

16
Summary and Outlook
! We have two relativistic wave
equations:
- Klein-Gordon equation for spin 0
particles
- Dirac equation for spin '
particles
The Dirac equation has four
components, describing
- particles and anti-particles
- spin
Both are a relativistic effects,
coming out when combining
Relativity with Quantum
Mechanics.
Whenever a particle is a solution -
the anti-particle is as well!
With the Dirac Equation we now
have a description of electrons.
We have to get to interactions
between charge particles (QED).
We need to describe photons, the
force carrier of the
electromagnetic interaction next.
17
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
The Photon & Feynman Diagrams
1
Recap & Plan
! Relativistic Wave Equations
Klein-Gordon Equation (no spin)
Dirac Equation (spin !)
! Relativity + QM makes two
(surprising) predictions:
Anti-particles
Spin
! Building blocks of matter
(electrons!) are all spin ! particles
and governed by the Dirac
equation. Their wave function in
described by bi-spinors.
! Today:
Interaction between particles:
Bosons (spin-1)
- El.-Magn: Photon
- Weak Interaction: W
, Z
0
- Strong Interaction: gluons
Start with the Photon today
2
History of the Photon
E = h
= +
c
(1 cos )
c
= h/mc
Light as wave
E = h
Spectrum of black
body radiation
Photoelectric effect
Compton Scattering
3
History of the Photon
Is light a wave or a particle?
! Newton: Particle
! 19
th
century result: Wave
Small problem: Spectrum of black body
radiation
! Planck: Electromagnetic radiation
emitted is quantised E = h"
! Einstein: Photoelectric effect (Nobel
prize 1921)
Energy of the electron does not
depend on the intensity of the
light, only the frequency
Quantised energy is part of the
very nature of radiation
The only truth: the experiment
! Decisive experiment: Compton
scattering (1923)
Quantum Mechanics:
! Wave - particle dualism
! Particles described by a wave
equation
Quantum Field Theory
! Particles (field quanta) that can be
created and destroyed (emitted and
absorbed) according to the rules of
SRT + QM
! Quantum statistics: Probabilities for
the number of quanta and their
momentum
! Particle Physics: the photon is much
more like the Z
0
boson.
= +
c
(1 cos )
c
= h/mc
4
The Photon in QED
The Standard Model
How do the gauge bosons mediate the interaction?
(Just a little cartoon. I drew it myself...)
Consider the electromagnetic force:
!
Repulsive (like charges) or attractive (opposite charges).
In throwing the ball to
each other, each throw
pushes the person away.
But what if they both want
to keep the ball? Then they
must stay close together.
gauge boson gauge boson
2
nd
year Nuclear & Particle Physics:
5
Higher Spin Dirac Equations
For particles with arbitrary spins multi-component Dirac equations and multi-
component spinors are developed. They are called Bargmann-Wigner equations.
For spin-1 particles one gets a symmetric 4#4 spinor with
Alternatively one can make a linearized Ansatz with 10 components for the $-
matrices and the spinor (Kemmer equations).
The result in both cases is equivalent and the former description yields the Proca
equation for spin-1 particles:
for the photon with m=0 this results in the Maxwell equations!
+m
2
A
= 0
W. Greiner: Relativistic Quantum
Mechanics. Wave equations.
(x) = m
CA
+
1
2
CF
=

x
6
Classic Maxwell Theory
! Using the photon field one can derive the Maxwell equations
In relativity the electric field E and the magnetic field B are related:
- E corresponds to the time component of a field
- B corresponds to the space component of a field
This electro-magnetic field F
!
is related to our photon field A
:
The (inhomogenous) Maxwell Equations relate the electromagnetic field to its
sources, some (moving) charged objects:
F
0 E
x
E
y
E
z
E
x
0 B
z
B
y
E
y
B
z
0 B
x
E
z
B
y
B
x
0
=

x
= 4J
Grifths 7.4
7
Toy Model: Yukawa Potential
(Static) Klein-Gordon Equation for a scalar potential of a point source:
A solution is the Yukawa Potential:
These equations describe the quantized field emanating from a point source like a
charged electron.
It contains the usual 1/r potential.
In addition there is an exponential dampening term that depends on the mass of
the field quanta:
M=0 long range photon of electromagnetism
M>0 short range W & Z bosons of weak interaction
The potential can also be used to derive the propagator of the field quanta (fourier
transform of the Greens function that is used to solve the inhomogenous diff eqn):
2
+M
2
V (r) =
3
(r)
V (r) =
1
4r
e
Mr
P(q
V
) :
1
q
2
M
2
Martin & Shaw 1.4
8
Inhomogenous Dirac Equation & Perturbation Theory
In the general case the potential V(r) is a bit more complicated:
The 4-potential A
is generated by an e-m 4-current eJ
. The photon propagator becomes

a 4"4 Matrix (M=0)
The Dirac equation of an electron within a potential becomes
This leads to an electron propagator describing the time development of the electron wave
function:
The Dirac equation is solved writing the electron wave function as a summation of plane
waves !(x):
Perturbation theory: e is small (" = e
2
/4# $ 1/137) thus one can approximate the solution:
D
(q) =
g
q
2
(i
m) = q
K(p) =

+m
p
2
m
2
(x) = (x) e
K(x x
(x
)(x
)d
4
x
(0)
= (x)
(1)
=
(0)
e
... = (x) e
...
(2)
=
(1)
e
... = (x) e
2
...
Schmser 4.
9
Feynman Diagram
!
e
_
e
_
e
_
e
time
s
p
a
c
e
_
Incoming external lines
! particles defined by
spin
4-momentum
charge
Outgoing external lines
! particles defined by
spin
4-momentum
charge
Vertex
! Coupling/Probability
q% &'
! Conserves
4-momentum
angular momentum
charge
parity
flavour
1
q
2
Internal lines
! propagator

! may be virtual
E
2
! p
2
" m
2

1
q
2
= A
Matrix element:
electron current
photon propagator
electron current
< u
e
|ie
|u
e
>
< u
e
|ie
|u
e
>
g
q
2
Q
10
Anti-particles & Crossing Symmetries
! An anti-particle is equivalent to a particle going backwards in time
! Building blocks for Feynman diagrams (part I):
! Crossing symmetry:
An incoming particle is equivalent to an outgoing anti-particle. Matrix
elements are closely related when the corresponding Feynman diagrams are
related by a crossing symmetry.
!
e
e
+
time
_
The arrow indicates the ow with
respect to time. The labels may
indicate only e instead of e
+
or
e
!
. Particle/anti-particle status is
inferred from the direction of the
arrow.
11
Feynman Diagrams
!
e
_
e
_
e
_
e
time
s
p
a
c
e
_
! Task: Construct all possible Feynman diagrams using only electrons, positrons
and photons with only two vertices
12
Related Feynman Diagrams
!
!
!
!
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
!
!
!
e
e
e
e
!
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
!
e
!
e
!
scattering
(Mller scattering)
e
+
e
!
scattering
e
+
e
!
scattering
e
+
e
!
annihilation
e
+
e
!
pair production compton scattering
B h a b h a s c a t t e r i n g
13
Interference
Bhabha scattering is an example of a process with two Feynman diagrams with the
same initial and final state. This is the particle physics equivalent to the double-slit
experiment in Quantum Mechanics:
! Transitions are defined by initial and final state. It doesnt matter what path is
taken on the way from initial to final state.
! In fact, one must sum over all possible paths: all paths are taken simultaneously,
even in the instance of a single event.
! In case of the Feynman diagrams the (complex) amplitudes are added before
the module is taken. In general this will lead to interference:
where I
ab
represents the interference term. Note that the interference may be
destructive and that the process in question may be suppressed because two
Feynman diagrams exist.
|M
e
+
e
e
+
e
|
2
= |M
a
e
+
e
e
+
e
+M
b
e
+
e
e
+
e
|
2
= |M
a
|
2
+|M
b
|
2
+I
ab
14
Vertices
! Building blocks for Feynman diagrams (part II)
Note: the above processes are prohibited for kinematic reasons! They may
only be part of a larger diagram.
For calculations the particles are represented by their wave functions
!
_
e
_
e
_
e
_
e
e
+
e
+
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
!
Radiation
Annihilation
Pair production
15
Virtual photons
! Real photons:
E
2
( p
2
= m
2
= 0
! Virtual photons:
E
2
( p
2
) m
2

can take any value for mass. They are said to be off mass shell.
! Virtual particles are only allowed for internal lines, never for external
lines.
! The farther from shell (i.e. the higher the apparent mass of the
photon), the lower the probability of the process and the shorter the
lifetime
e.g.: photon from Alpha-centauri

16
Feynman Rules for QED
Simplified version of the Feynman rules:
! Label incoming and outgoing 4-momenta p1,
p2,
! Label internal momenta q1, q2,...
! Add arrows according to particle/anti-particle
! Write down the current for external particles,
starting with the final state.
! For each vertex write down a factor iQ&'
(where Q is the charge of the particle)
! For each internal line write a factor
(propagator)
! Check that momentum is conserved at each
vertex. q
2
can be related to the momentum of
incoming/outgoing particles.
i
q
2
iM
ee
= iQ
muon
i
q
2
iQ
electron
3
_
_
e
_
e
_
q
2
1
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
p
p
p
1
2
4
p
Q
17
Summary and Outlook
! The photon is the exchange particle of the electromagnetic interaction
! It couples to particles with charge q with the strength q&' = q%e
! Exchange of a photon means momentum transfer.
Next Lecture:
- Scattering Process
18
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
The Process 2 ! 2
1
Recap
! Experimental side:
Decay
- Komplex mass in the
wave function
- m ! m + i! ; ! = 1/"
- Kinematics is fully
determined by the
masses of the particles!
Scattering
- Cross section
- total cross section
- differential cross
section
- Luminosity
! Today
Scattering 2 ! 2
- Kinematics: Mandelstam
variables
- Dynamics: Feynman
diagram
2
Kinematics of 2 ! 2
How many interesting variables describe this process?
16 variables: 4 4-vectors (E,p)
- 4 energies from E = #(p2 + m2)
- 4 components of the final state (E3+E4, p3+p4) from energy/momentum
conservation
- 6 components of p1 and p2 (we know what were colliding)
- 1 trivial variable: the azimuthal angle
Generic Process 2 2
p
1
, m
1
p
2
, m
2
p
3
, m
3
p
4
, m
4
Two particles with masses m
1
, m
2
and
momenta p
1
, p
2
collide.
3
, m
4
and
momenta p
3
, p
4
are produced.
In general, all masses can be dierent. Calculate energies:
E
1
=
p
2
1
+m
2
1
, E
2
=
p
2
2
+m
2
2
, E
3
=
p
2
3
+m
2
3
, E
4
=
p
2
4
+m
2
4
Energy and momentum conservation states:
E
1
+E
2
= E
3
+E
4
p
1
+p
2
= p
3
+p
4
Lets see how far we can go with this information alone (and a bit of common sense).
Particle Physics
In an e
+
!e
!
collider experiment the process 2
! 2 is described by a single variable!
3
Mandelstam Variables
Using 4-momentum conservation:
s is the invariant mass squared of the two initial (or final) particles: #s = Ecm
Momenta of the final state particles can be calculated with the formulas used in
the M ! m1 + m2 decay by replacing M with #s .
t is the square of the 4-momentum transfer from particle 1 in the initial state to
particle 3 in the final state.
For all masses being equal:
where $ is the scattering angle of particle 3 in the centre-of-mass frame.
s = (p
1
+ p
2
)
2
= (p
3
+ p
4
)
2
t = (p
1
p
3
)
2
= (p
2
p
4
)
2
u = (p
2
p
3
)
2
= (p
1
p
4
)
2
s +t +u = m
2
1
+m
2
2
+m
2
3
+m
2
4
Generic Process 2 2
p
1
, m
1
p
2
, m
2
p
3
, m
3
p
4
, m
4
1
, m
2
and
momenta p
1
, p
2
collide.
3
, m
4
and
momenta p
3
, p
4
are produced.
In general, all masses can be dierent. Calculate energies:
E
1
=
p
2
1
+m
2
1
, E
2
=
p
2
2
+m
2
2
, E
3
=
p
2
3
+m
2
3
, E
4
=
p
2
4
+m
2
4
Energy and momentum conservation states:
E
1
+E
2
= E
3
+E
4
p
1
+p
2
= p
3
+p
4
Lets see how far we can go with this information alone (and a bit of common sense).
Particle Physics
t
s
t = 2P
2
(1 cos ) = 4P
2
sin
2

2
4
Feynman Rules for QED
Simplified version of the Feynman rules:
" Label incoming and outgoing 4-momenta p1,
p2,
" Label internal momenta q1, q2,...
" Add arrows according to particle/anti-particle
" Write down the current for external particles,
starting with the final state.
" For each vertex write down a factor iQ#%
(where Q is the charge of the particle)
" For each internal line write a factor
(propagator)
" Check that momentum is conserved at each
vertex. q
2
can be related to the momentum of
incoming/outgoing particles.
i
q
2
iM
ee
= iQ
muon
i
q
2
iQ
electron
3
_
_
e
_
e
_
q
2
1
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
p
p
p
1
2
4
p
Q
5
Electron - Muon Scattering
M
fi

1
q
2
d |M
fi
|
2

2
q
4
|M
ee
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
t
2
(s
2
+ u
2
)
iM
ee
= iQ
muon
i
q
2
iQ
electron
J
contains the wave function of the incoming

and outgoing particles. It also contains
information about the spin. Thus Diracs &
matrices show up in the current:
Important is the following structure:
Translated into a cross section (see Fermis
Golden Rule) this means
What is the momentum of the photon q in this
case? It is the momentrum transfer squared
t = q
2
The full matrix element looks like this:
J
= u(p
4
)
u(p
2
)
3
_
_
e
_
e
_
q
2
1
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
p
p
p
1
2
4
p
Q
6
Matrix Element for e
+
e
'
!
+
'
Looks exactly the same. So the cross section is not different?
Cross symmetry:
Replace particle with anti-particle of opposite momentum.
3
_
_
e
_
e
_
q
2
1
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
p
p
p
1
2
4
p
Q
|M
ee
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
t
2
(s
2
+ u
2
)
iM
ee
= iQ
muon
i
q
2
iQ
electron
|M
e
+
e
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
s
2
(t
2
+ u
2
)
+
1
q
2
1
p
3
p
4
p
2
_
e
_
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
e

+
p
Q
7
Interference term!
Cross section for e
+
e
'
! e
+
e
'
|M
e
+
e
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
s
2
(t
2
+ u
2
)
+
1
q
2
1
p
3
p
4
p
2
_
e
_
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
e

+
p

e
+
e
+
3
_
_
e
_
e
_
q
2
1
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
p
p
p
1
2
4
p
|M
ee
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
t
2
(s
2
+ u
2
)
e
+
e
!
e
+
e
+
t-channel exchange
s-channel annihilation
|M
e
+
e
e
+
e
(s, t)|
2
=
32
2
s
2
+ u
2
t
2
+
t
2
+ u
2
s
2
+
2u
2
st
8
Charge structure of the Standard Model: Leptons
e
+

e

+

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
e
+
+
e
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
EM interaction does not mix families

The photon is not charged: EM interaction does not mix leptons and neutrinos
EM interaction of leptons is diagonal
9
Charge structure of the Standard Model: Quarks
u
d

s
c

t
b
d

s
c

t
+
2
3
0 0
0 +
2
3
0
0 0 +
2
3
u c

t
u
c
t
1
3
0 0
0
1
3
0
0 0
1
3
d s

b
d
s
b
EM interaction does not mix families
The photon is also colour blind.
10
Cross section for e
+
e
'
! u u!
|M
e
+
e
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
s
2
(t
2
+ u
2
)
|M
e
+
e
u u
(s, t)|
2
= 32
2
2
s
2

2
3
2
3 (t
2
+ u
2
)
+
1
q
2
1
p
3
p
4
p
2
_
e
_
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
e

+
p
+
1
q
2
1
p
3
p
4
p
2
_
e
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
e
p
2
3
u#, u#, u#
u, u, u
11
Cross section e
+
e
'
! qq!
(u u) = (cc) = (t
t) =
4
9
3 (e
+
e
)
(d
d) = (ss) = (b
b) =
1
9
3 (e
+
e
)
R
(e
+
e
q q)
(e
+
e
)
=
3Q
2
q
Experimental Plot of R =
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Q & A: Is it true that q q hadrons ? Whats the dierence between the red and the
green lines? What are those blue peaks? Red peaks? The huge green Z peak?
Particle Physics
12
Summary and Outlook
! Mandelstam variables help
describing the kinematics
they are invariants
s: centre-of-mass energy
t: momentum transfer
! A single variable describes the
kinematics of 2 ! 2 processes
momentum transfer t
centre of mass energy s
or scattering angle $
! Dynamics is in the Feynman
diagrams. 2 important
components:
Vertex factor Q#%
Momentum of the photon
(propagator, momentum
transfer) 1/q
2
! Next
Higher orders
Weak interaction
13
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Weak Interaction
1
Outline
! Weak Interaction
Introduction
- Experiments
- Neutrinos
- Fermi Theory
Feynman Diagrams
Quarks
Z Boson
V ! A
Electro-weak unification
2
Introduction
! What do we need the weak interaction for?
Decay of leptons:
Most obviously: beta decay
also
Decay of mesons:
n p +e
+
e
p n +e
+
+
e
e
+p n +
e
EC
K
+

+
0
K
+

+
+
e
Leptonic decays
Semi-leptonic decays
Non-leptonic decays
+

+
3
K. Jakobs Vorlesung Physik V, Freiburg, SS 2005
1947: Powell et al. entdecken in Bristol ein zweites, mittelschweres Teilchen in der
kosmischen Strahlung
Experiment: Photographische Emulsion
auf Berghhe
heutige Bezeichnung: ! Meson
m
!
= 139,6 MeV/c
2
Lebensdauer: "
!
= 2,6 10
-8
sec
!-Mesonen entstehen in der oberen Atmosphre,
zerfallen oder wechselwirken aber bevor sie
den Erdboden erreichen
Rom: Meereshhe !fast nur noch Myonen
Zerflle: !
! #
+ $
#
#
! e
+ $
e
+ $
#
K. Jakobs Vorlesung Physik V, Freiburg, SS 2005
5.1.4. Weitere, sog. Seltsame Teilchen
s. Vorlesung
4
Neutrinos
Pauli proposed the existence of the neutrino (1930) in a desperate measure to
save conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear " decay. He sent a letter
which was read out at a conference, My dear radioactive friends
Neutrinos were finally accepted when Fermi built a successful theory for weak
interactions using neutrinos (1934).
Finally observed by Reines/Cowan (1959)
Anti-neutrinos:
Neutrino generations:

3 types of # (and #$) and 3 separate conserved lepton numbers (Le , L , L! ; +1
for #, -1 for #$)
+ d
+u
+ d / e
+u
n p
+ p n +e
+
+ n / p +e
Lepton generations:
+
e
+
+
5
Neutrino Mass
A direct measurement of the neutrino mass is possible through the electron
spectrum of "-decays
Indirect measurement: neutrinos mix flavour. The mixing frequency requires
!m
2
>0 between neutrino generations.
N(p)dp p
2
(E
0
E)
2
dp
The Standard Model
The weak force is responsible
for nuclear ! decay.
y
u
d
d
d
u
u
e
-
"
e
_
W
n
p
spectator quarks
6
History: Fermi Theory
M G
F
J
had
J
lep
n
e

e
p
G
F
J
lep
J
had
7
The Fermi Theory
is ultimately wrong.
We need the W-
boson!
Fermi Theory
! Fermis Golden rule: % = GF
2
|M|
2
dN/dE
! %("e##) ! GF
2
m
5
! %(&"##) ! GF
2
m!
5
! Lifetime & = 1/%tot; here %i/%tot = 0.18 for & " decays
! Typical lifetimes: 10
-10
s ('), 10
3
s (n)
10 orders of magnitudes larger than em/strong interaction
cross section also ~10 orders smaller
n
e

e
p
L
had
L
lep
G
F
N(p)dp p
2
(E
0
E)
2
dp
M G
F
J
had
J
lep
= 0.18
5
= 1.3 10
7
Experiment: 1.4 10
7
Experiment:
8
Yukawa Potential
Remember the Klein-Gordon Equation? It was the wave equation resulting from
The static version of this wave equation has an interesting (and easy) solution:
This is interpreted as a potential that is falling off exponentially with growing radius
r. This potential is transmitted by a particle with mass m.
For m " 0 (a massless photon) we get back the electro static Coulomb potential:
For a massive exchange particle the potential is limited to a range R. The larger
the mass of the exchange particle, the shorter the range of the interaction, the
weaker the interaction.
For very large m the interaction is essentially point like: thats why the Fermi
theory works quite well!
Now compare to QED: What mass do we need so the GF equals the
electromagnetic coupling?
E
2
= p
2
+m
2
=
1
r
e
r/R
R =
1
m
=
1
r
G
F
=

q
2
M
2
W
M
W
90 GeV
9
W and Z Discovery
W and Z bosons were discovered at the purpose built pp$collider at CERN with
270 GeV energy in each beam. The two experiments finding the new bosons
were UA1 and UA2.
The discovery resulted in a Nobel Prize for van der Meer and Rubia.
Todays world average:
M
Z
= 91.1876 0.0021 GeV
e
+
e
W
+
W
p p W+jet e
e
+
e
Z
0
f

f
10
M
W
= 80.399 0.023 GeV
Feynman Vertex
The Vertex conserves
! electric charge
! lepton generation number
! quark number
! quark colour
It does not conserve
! quark flavour
f
1 f
2
W
g
W
1
q
2
M
2
W
11
Feynman Graphs
The Vertex conserves
! electric charge
! lepton generation number
(lepton flavour)
! quark number
! quark colour
l

l

l

l

l
+
W
+
W
+
W
+
W
+
W
f
1 f
2
W
g
W
1
q
2
M
2
W
12
Neutrino Scattering
! Neutrino scattering (typically low momentum, q
2
" MW
2
)
inverse muon decay
Matrix Element:
Typical cross section (here inverse "-decay):
! For leptons the weak interaction is diagonal:
|M|
2
g
4
W
M
4
W
=
G
2
F
2
(
e
+ p ne
+
) 10
43
cm
2

e
e
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

e
W
1
M
2
W
g
W
g
W
13
Task:
! Draw Feynman-Diagrams for
& " decay
" decay (p " n in nucleus)
K
+
decay
14
W Interaction with Quarks
Guiding principle: Lepton quark
symmetry
same coupling for quarks as for
leptons
What about K
"
decays?
Solution: Quark mixing
where (C is the Cabibbo angle.
d
= d cos
C
+ s sin
C
s
= d sin
C
+ s cos
C
K
u
s
g
us
g
W
u
d

c
s
u
d cos
C
+ s sin
C
c
d sin
C
+ s cos
C
u
d

c
s
15
Cabibbo Angle
The result of the quark mixing is that also the strange quark can decay into an u-
type quark.
Another consequence is that there are Cabibbo allowed and Cabibbo suppressed
decays.
The Cabibbo angle can be determined from the relation of those decays:
g
ud
= g
cs
= g
W
cos
C
g
us
= g
cd
= g
W
sin
C
(K
)
(
g
2
us
g
2
ud
= tan
2
C

1
20
C
12
o
K
u
s
g
us
g
W
16
GIM Mechanism
d
u
s
+
W
W
cos
C
sin
C
s
d
c
+
W
W
sin
C
cos
C
u
d cos
C
+ s sin
C
c
d sin
C
+ s cos
C
Glashow, Iliopoulos, Maiani:

The invention of the c-quark together with the Cabibbo theory takes care of the
cancellation of those two amplitudes. As a result the decay K
0
" is strongly
suppressed - as observed by experiments.
M
1
cos
C
sin
C
M
2
cos
C
sin
C
M |M
1
+ M
2
|
2
0
17
CKM Matrix
Extension of Cabibbo angle to three quark families: CKM matrix
For 3 generations one needs 3 angles:
Additional free parameter: 1 phase ) " CP violation
u
d

c
s

t
b

u
d

c
s

t
b
V
ud
V
us
V
ub
V
cd
V
cs
V
cb
V
td
V
ts
V
tb
d
s
b
14 11. CKM quark-mixing matrix

-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
sin

2!
sol. w/ cos

2!

!

0
(excl. at CL

"

0.95)
e
x
c
l
u
d
e
d

a
t

C
L

"

0
.
9
5
"
"
#
#
$m
d
$m
s

#

$m
d
%
K
%
K
$V
ub
/V
cb
$
sin

2!
sol. w/ cos

2!

!

0
(excl. at CL

"

0.95)
e
x
c
l
u
d
e
d

a
t

C
L

"

0
.
9
5
#
! "
&
'
excluded area has CL

"

0.95
Figure 11.2: Constraints on the , plane. The shaded areas have 95% CL. See
full-color version on color pages at end of book.
V
CKM
=
0.97383
+0.00024
0.00023
0.2272
+0.0010
0.0010
(3.96
+0.09
0.09
) 10
3
0.2271
+0.0010
0.0010
0.97296
+0.00024
0.00024
(42.21
+0.10
0.80
) 10
3
(8.14
+0.32
0.64
) 10
3
(41.61
+0.12
0.78
) 10
3
0.999100
+0.000034
0.000004
, (11.26)
and the Jarlskog invariant is J = (3.08
+0.16
0.18
) 10
5
.
Fig. 11.2 illustrates the constraints on the , plane from various measurements and
the global t result. The shaded 95% CL regions all overlap consistently around the
global t region, though the consistency of |V
ub
/V
cb
| and sin 2 is not very good, as
mentioned previously.
August 30, 2006 10:12
V
CKM

1
2
/2 A
3
1
2
/2 A
2
A
3
A
2
1
12
,
23
,
13
18
Effect of the CKM matrix
u
d
c
s
t
b
(1)
2
((! )
1
)
2
((!)
2
)
2

((!)
3
)
2

Attention: Mass energy
allows only bc decays!
The effect is on the
lifetime of b-mesons!
19
W Decay Modes
! Possible decay modes of the W
"
:
m(W) * 80 GeV
9 decay modes with branching
fractions proportional to the
coupling:
! The total width of the W is %tot (W) =
2.1 GeV. What are the 9 separate
branching ratios / partial decay
widths?
! What are the decay modes of the &?
e

e
,
, d u, s u, b u, d c, s c, b c
(W
f

f
) = N
colour
|V
ff
|
2
1
f
1 f
2
W
g
W
1
q
2
M
2
W
20
Quark Decay Chain
Start with the decay of a top quark
(m(t) * 175 GeV), where the
amplitude contains Vtb:
The W is real and can decay into any
of the 9 possible final states. The
decay of the b quark involves Vcb:
This time the W is virtual. It can only decay into particles lighter than its actual
invariant mass. The c-quarks main amplitude contains Vcs:
The lighter the quark the fewer decay modes are available for the W* (and the
quark). The s-quark finally decays into a u-quark involving Vus
t b +W
+
b c +W
c s +W
+
s u +W
u
d
c
s
t
b
21
Recap
Things to remember
! Mass eigenstates of the quarks and weak eigenstates of the quarks are
not identical, there is quark mixing
! In 2-doublet quark world the mixing is related to the Cabibbo angle
(resulting in 4-5%). In a 3-doublet quark world this is the CKM matrix.
! Weak decays changing the quark flavour are Cabibbo surpressed.
u
d
c
s
t
b
22
# Decay
! ' decay:
d
s
u
d
u
u
s
u
d
u
u
d
d
s
u
d
u
u
d
s
d
u
s
u
d
u
u
d
d
s
d
u
g
W
V
us
g
W
V
ud
g
W
V
ud
g
W
V
us
Martin & Shaw
23
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Parity
Z
0
Boson
1
Parity Violation
One thing is still missing from the W interaction:
Every other particle but the neutrino comes in two kinds: Left handed and right
handed.
Neutrinos are different: ! are coming only as left handed particles.
Resolution: the weak interaction is violating parity.
P(x, y, z) = (x, y, z)
P
2
(x, y, z) = (x, y, z)
P(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)
P
2
(x, y, z) = P
2
(x, y, z)
2
Vectors and Axial Vectors
3
Vectors and Axial Vectors
4
History of Parity Violation
Proposed by Lee and Yang (1956) whilst still graduate students to explain the " -
# paradox:
! " ## (P = +1) and $ " ### (P = %1) P# = %1
but " and # had identical mass, charge,
Lee and Yang proposed " and # are the same particle (K
+
meson) and that Parity is
not conserved in weak interactions.
Lee and Yang proposed experiments to verify the hypothesis which were
successfully performed by Wu et al
e
!
from Co-60 $-decay should be preferentially emitted backwards with respect to
Co-60 nuclear spin direction (%)
Co-60 ! Ni-60 + e
!
+ !&e (Co-60, cooled to align nuclei)
Rate ~ 1 + %'p/E which is manifestly parity violating!
Lee and Yang received 1957 the Nobel Prize of Physics
5
Parity Violation and Helicity
Related to parity (violation) is the helicity of a particle: the direction of the spin
with respect to its momentum:
H = +1: right handed particles ((R)
H = )1: left handed particles ((L)
Parity operation changes the sign of the momentum but leaves the spin direction
invariant.
Parity violation for the weak interaction means that it distinguishes between left-
handed and right handed particles/anti-particles.
Description: V ) A theory of weak interaction.

H =
p
|p|
= 1

e
e
L L L

R
6
" Matrices and the Adjoint Spinors
" Hermitian conjugate:
" Adjoint Spinor:
" u&u is Lorentz invariant
u =
= (
)
u
u = ||
2
+||
2
+||
2
+||
2
u = u
0
= (
5
= i
0
3
=
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Grifths pp 220/223
" Mathematically speaking our set of 4
Dirac * matrices are not a complete
group. The last 4 + 4 matrix to
complete our set is this one:
The operator 1-*5 has the interesting
property to project out the left handed
part of a wave function
L
= (1
5
)
7
V ! A Structure
Possible ways to combine the wave
function of fermions (bilinear forms):
(&( scalar
(&*5( pseudo-scalar
(&*( vector
(&**5( axial-vector
(&%!( tensor
In our calculations we have always used
the product of currents J
e
'J
A current J
e
is a short-hand notation for
a product like (&(.
8
V ! A Structure
QED is described by a vector coupling:
As a consequence parity is conserved in
QED.
However, we need parity violation to describe the weak interaction. We can
describe it by a mixture of vector and axial-vector couplings:
The operator (1 ) *5) projects the left-handed part out of a state. (1 + *5) would
project the right handed part out of a state vector (.
eJ
= e
g
W
J
= g
W

(
5
)W
= g
W

(1
5
)W
9
V ! A Structure
The weak interaction violates parity.
This is part of the fundamental coupling of any weak current to the W and Z
bosons.
Mathematically this is described by a Vectors ) Axial Vector coupling between
fermion and boson.
Remark on the side: one could write this as QED-like interaction between left-
handed fermions:
The important part for us: *(1-*5) is part of the
W and Z vertex:
g
W

L
W
g
W

(1
5
)W

e
W
1
q
2
M
2
W
g
W
(1
5
)
g
W
(1
5
)
10
Neutrino and Weak Interaction
The most dramatic consequence of this feature is for the neutrino because it
interacts only weakly. W and Z bosons are the only way for us to see neutrinos.
As a consequence: we see only left-handed neutrinos and right-handed anti-
neutrinos!
Do right handed neutrinos exist?
Before neutrinos had mass it did not matter. The statements neutrinos are left-
handed and the weak bosons interact only with the left-handed component of
matter were equivalent.
But now neutrinos also interact gravitationally.
11
Pion Decay
The weak interaction violates parity. In particular the W boson couples only to left
handed neutrinos (the spin is aligned antiparallel to the momentum)
Spin #
: 0
+
e
+
e
The neutrino must be left-handed. To conserve spin the
+
/e
+
must be left-
handed as well. But its particles that are left-handed, anti-particles are right
handed! For a massive particle the degree of polarisation is given by v/c. Due to
the higher mass of the and the small mass difference !/ a left-handed anti-
muon is much more likely.
+
/e
+
e
/
12
The Z
0
Boson
e
+
+
e
Z
0
Surprising result: The weak interaction remembers charge and direction.
QED conserves parity and charge conjugation. The weak interaction violates
both.
+
1
q
2
1
p
3
p
4
p
2
_
e
_
time
s
p
a
c
e
!
e

+
p
Z
0
1
q
2
m
2
Z
g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
) g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
)
13
Z Boson
We know that also the Z boson interaction violates
parity. This can be seen from a forward-backward
asymmetry in Z decays: the Z boson retains a
memory of the direction of the incoming
particle/anti-particle.
We can describe this by different couplings of the Z to fermions: a vector coupling
gV and an axial vector coupling gA. Using the above formulation:
If you want to know: the strength of the couplings comes from the complete
unified theory of electro-weak interactions:
e
+
+
e
Z
0
g
Z
J
= g
Z

(g
V
g
A
5
)Z
g
V
= t
3i
2Q
i
sin
2
W
g
A
= t
3i

e
e

u
d

c
s

t
b
Q = 0
Q = 1
t
3
= +1/2
t
3
= 1/2
Q = +2/3
Q = 1/3
14
Couplings " ! Z
Couplings
Here is a big table with all the couplings considered so far:
for electromagnetic () and weak netural-current (Z
0
) interactions of fermions
Carrier Current Common neutral charged quarks quarks
type factor
e
,
e, , u, c, t d, s, b
Vector e 0 1 +
2
3

1
3
Axial e 0 0 0 0
Z
0
Vector, g
V
e
2s
W
c
W
1
2
(
1
2
2s
2
W
) (
1
2
2
2
3
s
2
W
) (
1
2
2
1
3
s
2
W
)
Z
0
Axial, g
A
e
2s
W
c
W
1
2

1
2
1
2

1
2
Note the abbreviated notation: s
W
sin
W
, c
W
cos
W
.
Particle Physics
Note: if there is an entry for the photon coupling, there is also an entry for the Z
0

coupling.
The Z
0
couples to the same particles as the * (and then some more)
whenever you draw a photon diagram, you also have to draw a Z
0
diagram
sW/cW: sin !W/cos !W; !W: weak mixing angle
15
Z Decay Modes
" Possible decay modes of the Z
0
:
m(Z) , 90 GeV
11 decay modes with branching
fractions proportional to the
coupling:
" The total width of the Z is -tot (Z) =
2.5 GeV.
e

e
,
, e
e
+
,
+
,
+
, u u, d
d, s s, c c, b
b
(Z
0
f

f) = N
colour
(g
2
V f
+ g
2
Af
)
1
f

f
Z
0
1
q
2
M
2
Z
16
GIM Mechanism
d
u
s
+
W
W
cos
C
sin
C
s
d
c
+
W
W
sin
C
cos
C
u
d cos
C
+ s sin
C
c
d sin
C
+ s cos
C
The invention of the c-quark together with the Cabibbo theory takes
care of the cancellation of those two amplitudes. As a result the decay
K
0
! is strongly suppressed - as observed by experiments.
M
1
cos
C
sin
C
M
2
cos
C
sin
C
M |M
1
+ M
2
|
2
0
17
GIM for the Z Boson
u
d cos
C
+ s sin
C
c
d sin
C
+ s cos
C
Suppose that also the Z boson couples to d and s instead of d and s.

d
Z
0
= (d cos
C
+ s sin
C
)(d cos
C
+ s sin
C
)Z
0
= ddZ
0
cos
2
C
+ ssZ
0
sin
2
C
+ (dsZ
0
+ sdZ
0
) sin
C
cos
C
s
Z
0
= (d sin
C
+ s cos
C
)(d sin
C
+ s cos
C
)Z
0
= ddZ
0
sin
2
C
+ ssZ
0
cos
2
C
(dsZ
0
+ sdZ
0
) sin
C
cos
C
d
Z
0
+s
Z
0
= ddZ
0
+ssZ
0
There are no
Flavour Changing Neutral Currents (FCNC)
Martin & Shaw, p. 219
18
Summary & Outlook
Things to remember
" The weak interaction violates
parity and charge
conjugation.
" As a consequence neutrinos
are always left-handed,
anti-neutrinos are always
right-handed. Massive
particles prefer to be left-
handed, anti-particles prefer to
be right-handed.
" The technical term describing
this behaviour is
V ! A coupling
(Vector ) Axial-vector coupling)
" Electroweak Unification
19
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
QED as Gauge Theory
1
Plan of Action
What have we looked at so far?
! QED with the coupling of the
photon to charge.
! Weak interaction with W
and
Z
0
bosons
Both interactions are very similar
! Spin-1 bosons as mediator
between spin-! particles
! Similar intrinsic coupling
strengths
But there are differences
! The W
boson acts only on left-

handed particles.
! The weak bosons are massive.
How to combine the two
interactions?
! What is the overriding
principle?
! Can we explain similarities and
differences?
How to proceed:
! Look at the symmetries that
govern the interactions (or
better that govern physics)
! Go back to QED as the simplest
example and look at the
structure again.
2
Symmetries & Conservation Laws
Noether Theorem:
Symmetry ! Conservation Law
Space-time translation ! Momentum / Energy
Space (rotation) ! Angular Momentum
El.-magn. potential ! Charge
3
Local Symmetries
Inner Symmetries
(local gauge invariance):
El.-magn Potential U(1) ! QED (Maxwell Equations)
!
e
- e and ud-quark SU(2) ! Weak Interaction
Colour Potential SU(3) ! QCD
Coordinate System ! Gravity
4
Maxwells Equations for Potentials
Write the other two Maxwell equations in terms of A and V :
B =
0
J +
1
c
2
t
E (A) =
0
J
1
c
2
2
t
A
1
c
2
t
V

2
A
1
c
2
2
t
A =
0
J +( A+
1
c
2
t
V )
Similarly, D =
2
V =
1
0

t
A
Choose V, A such that A =
1
c
2
t
V (the Lorentz gauge, see below).
Now the Maxwell system takes the form:
2
A
1
c
2
2
t
A =
0
J
2
V
1
c
2
2
t
V = /
0
Note that in this system A and V look decoupled, although they are still coupled
through the gauge condition.
Electromagnetism
Gauge Invariance
We know that the choice of the potentials A and V is not unique.
Consider a gauge transformation of the potentials A and V :
A
new
A+f(r, t)
V
new
V
t
f(r, t)
where f(r, t) is a scalar eld. Then, for any function f (check this!):
B
new
B
E
new
E
and Maxwells equations are said to be gauge invariant, i.e. invariant under these
transformation.
Each f(r, t) corresponds to a dierent choice of gauge.
Two popular choices are:
! Coulomb gauge: A = 0
! Lorentz gauge: A =
1
c
2
t
V
Electromagnetism
5
Phase Shift Invariance
The plane wave is a solution of the (free) wave equations (Schrdinger, Klein-
Gordon, Dirac):
What happens when we shift the phase of the wave function?
Physical quantities should depend only on the amplitude ("*"), not on the phase.
This global phase invariance is related by the Noether theorem to the conservation
of charge.
e
i!
is just a complex number. On the other hand you may think of it as a unitary 1
# 1 matrix. The set of all these numbers builds a group:
U(1)
(x, t) = Ce
iEt+ipx
e
i
6
Charge conservation
Changing the global phase of a wave function is equivalent to a global shift to the
electro-magnetic potential:
Differentiating the last Maxwell equation shows the conservation of electric charge:
Also the Dirac equation remains valid:
) = 0
e
i
(e
i
(x)) = e
i

x
(x)
i
m = 0
7
Local Gauge Transformation
What happens when we want the transformation to be local, i.e. that the phase
shift $ may vary in space and time $ = $(x) ?
Electro-magnetism and the Maxwell equations stay the same as along as the
potential A
varies at the same time:

But heres a problem: Our relativistic wave equation, the Dirac equation for the
spin-! electrons, is not invariant under the local phase transformation for ":
leaves terms from the derivative:
If we still want to write down a Dirac equation that is invariant to local phase shifts
we can do so with a trick: invent a derivative that involves A
and just cancels the

additional term:
e
iq(x)
D
Dx
+iqA
(x)
i
m = 0 iq

x
(x)
8
The new Dirac Equation
Our new Dirac equation looks just like the old one, but it contains something
fundamentally new:
the previous version was valid for free electrons
this new version contains the photon field A
ieA
is the minimal coupling of the electron to the photon
phase shifts that vary locally can be compensated by the correct electro-
magnetic field that varies locally, too.
remember the momentum operator in quantum mechanics:
the new momentum operator now contains

part of the
photon field.
i
D
Dx
m = 0
p

x
D
Dx
+iqA
9
QED
The Lagrangian of QED
Euler-Lagrange equations:
Dirac equation
Maxwell equation
Local U(1) gauge invariance forces us to add a massless spin-1 field (the photon)
to the equation for free electrons. It also requires the introduction of the covariant
derivative D/D which ends up as interaction term.
L = L
fermion
+L
boson
+L
interaction
L
fermion
= i
L
boson
=
1
16
F
, F
L
interaction
= e
10
Classic Maxwell Theory
! Using the photon field one can derive the Maxwell equations
In relativity the electric field E and the magnetic field B are related:
- E corresponds to the time component of a field
- B corresponds to the space component of a field
This electro-magnetic field F
"
is related to our photon field A
:
The (inhomogenous) Maxwell Equations relate the electromagnetic field to its
sources, some (moving) charged objects:
F
0 E
x
E
y
E
z
E
x
0 B
z
B
y
E
y
B
z
0 B
x
E
z
B
y
B
x
0
=

x
= 4J
11
Summary and Outlook
We can describe all of QED with a single principle:
Invariance of the laws of nature against local phase shifts of the wave functions.
This is called gauge principle and gauge invariance.
The existence of the electromagnetic field (potential) is forced upon us by
requiring this principle to hold. Also the coupling of photons and electrons is given
by the symmetry.
Tomorrow: extend this principle to the weak interaction.
12
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Electroweak Unification
1
Historic View
1961: Glashow proposes a way to unify the weak and electromagnetic interaction
Introduction of massive W and Z bosons
No explanation where the mass is coming from
1964: Peter Higgs and others (Brout & Englert, Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble)
develop the electroweak symmetry breaking mechanism
A scalar potential can be symmetric but break a symmetry spontaneously
1967: Weinberg & Salam use the Higgs mechanism in the Glashow theory
W and Z acquire mass
The photon remains massless
A Higgs particle remains in the theory
1973: Veltman and tHooft show that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg theory is free
of infinities (renormalisable)
2
Recap
Gauge invariance (U(1) symmetry transformation on the wave function) proofed to
be a powerful tool in QED
relativistic description of free electrons
a photon field A

is required to correct the phase shift
photons and electrons interact: ieA
the momentum operator now contains part

of the photon field.
the Maxwell equations can be derived from this

D
Dx
+iqA
3
Symmetry of the Weak Interaction
Start with the particles on which the W
bosons act, neutrinos and electrons. For

the weak interaction the charge of the electron does not matter. The weak
interaction sees in both cases the same particle (neglecting mass).
What is the symmetry relating the two particles?
Ansatz: its a kind of spin, where the !e is ! and the e
"
is " - the (weak)
Isospin .
We need to find a symmetry transformation that rotates electrons and neutrinos.
Remember that #1 and #2 are complex, thus a simple rotation angle is not enough.
The rotation can be done by a matrix U that should be Unitary though:
As the name Isospin suggests the Pauli spin-matrices can do that:
The set of all 2 $ 2 matrices U (with det U = 1) forms the group SU(2)

e
e
=
U
T
= U, U
U = 1
U = e
ia
x
x
e
ia
y
y
e
ia
z
z
Isospin t
3
=
+1/2
1/2
4
Weak Gauge Fields
We have seen already in the case of QED what we need to do next:
- add free spin-1 fields
- add an interaction between our new mediator fields and the spin-% particles
There are some differences to the QED case though:
- three fields are needed, one for each of the spin-
matrices
- the weak interaction with W
acts on left-handed particles only

- weak bosons can interact with themselves (non-abelian gauge theory)
-
(W
1
, W
2
, W
3
)
e
iqa
1
(x)
x
e
iqa
2
(x)
y
e
iqa
3
(x)
z
5
Rotations do not Commute
Non Abelian: Rotation of book
6
Weak Gauge Fields
Then there is also the U(1) gauge invariance of a phase shift:
- this time its not the electro-magnetic potential as that is the result of the
unification
- it is called Hypercharge Y
- the field introduced to maintain this gauge invariance is denoted with B
7
Electroweak Unification
The combined SU(2)L,I $ U(1)Y transformations result in 4 gauge fields acting on
the weak isospin t3 and on the hypercharge Y
Unfortunately these are not yet the physical fields that we observe. The physical
fields are superpositions of those pure fields:
&W is the weak mixing angle with sin
2
&W ' 0.233
The physical W
bosons remain in the W isospin sector and therefore couple only

to left-handed particles. The Z
0
boson however also couples to hypercharge and
therefore also to right-handed particles
W
=
1
2
(W
1
iW
2
)
Z
= sin
W
B
+ cos
W
W
3
= cos
W
B
+ sin
W
W
3
W
1
W
2
W
3
, B
coupling of the W: g |t3|

coupling of the B: g/2 |Y|
8
Couplings
We already know what the coupling of the photon A to charged particles is: it is
the electron charge e(=()). There are therefore constraints on the possible weak
coupling constants. Only two of the four parameters are free parameters:
In addition the coupling of the Z boson is determined by the theory. The resulting
coupling is more complicated as it involves a mixture of a vector coupling gV and
an axial-vector coupling gA which depends on the eigenvalues of the particle with
respect to isospin and hypercharge:
The electrical charge is as well a composite:
If mass generation via the spontaneous symmetry breaking (Higgs mechanism) is
included then there also is a relation between the W and Z masses:
e = g sin
W
e = g
cos
W
g
V
= t
f
3
2 sin
2
W
Q
g
A
= t
3
m
Z
=
m
W
cos
W
Q = T
3
+
Y
2
Worksheet 4, Q1
9
The Higgs Boson
The Standard Model needs the Higgs Boson to work!
How does the Higgs mechanism work?
10
The Higgs Boson
10
The Higgs Boson
10
The Higgs Boson
10
Timeline
S. Glashow, Nucl. Phys. 22, 579 (1961) Introduces the Z
0
boson and the weak
mixing angle &W.
Nambu (Nobelprize 2008) & Goldstone (1960/61) introduced the idea of
spontaneous symmetry breaking into particle physics. This is modelled after
superconductivity where the same mechanism was developed by Anderson. A by-
product are massless bosons as a consequence of broken global gauge invariance
- rather disturbingly.
Brout and Englert, Bussels, PRL 13 (9), p321; paper received 26.6.1964. They
came up with a quantised theory of symmetry breaking. The symmetry is broken
by the gauge bosons themselves and (some) of the gauge bosons acquire mass.
The breaking mechanism is not detailed.
Peter W. Higgs, Edinburgh, PRL 13 (16), p508; paper recieved 31.8.1964. Higgs
knew about Brout & Englerts paper and looked at classical gauge fields where the
symmetry was spontaneously broken by scalar fields (=complex Higgs doublet). In
this case some vector gauge bosons would acquire mass, there are massless
vector gauge bosons and massive scalar bosons (= Higgs boson). Higgs looked at
the SU(3) case, hence he has in total 8 gauge bosons.
Guralnik, Hagen & Kibble, Imperial, PRL 13 (20) p585; paper received 12.10.1964.
They show that the Brout-Englert-Higgs theory does not require a massless
Goldstone boson (because of local gauge invariance) but still allows massive and
massless gauge bosons.
11
Timeline
Weinberg, PRL 19 (21) p1264; paper received 17.10.1967, Nobelprize 1979. They
put all of the above together: the modern standard model is born.
Abdus Salam, Nobelprize 1979. Proceedings of the 8th Nobel Symposium, Ed.
Svartholm, N., (Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm 1968)
t Hooft, G. and Veltman, M., Nucl. Phys. B44, 189 (1972); ibid. B50, 318 (1972).
They show that the Glashow, Salam & Weinberg theory is renormalizable.
12
Higgs Mechanism
The Higgs field exists everywhere and interacts with the other particles.
The W and Z bosons get their mass from the Higgs field.
The Higgs field acts like a viscous medium for the quarks and leptons
Light quarks and leptons (e.g. the electron) easily move through the field
they have a small resistance or mass
Heavy quarks and leptons (e.g. top quark) have a large resistance to the
Higgs field they have a much larger mass!
The Higgs Boson is predicted as real particle.
W
+
W
"
scattering remains finite:
+
13
Higgs Mechanism
Peter Higgs studied the effect of adding a
scalar field * to a gauge theory.
Assume a potential V(*)=
2
|*|++(|*|
2
)
2
For
2
>0:
The symmetry of the lagrangian is preserved.
The state of lowest energy (vacuum state) is *=0.

14
Higgs Mechanism
Peter Higgs studied the effect of adding a
scalar field * to a gauge theory.
Assume a potential V(*)=
2
|*|++(|*|
2
)
2
For
2
>0:
The symmetry of the lagrangian is preserved.
The state of lowest energy (vacuum state) is *=0.

For
2
<0:
The symmetry of the lagrangian is broken.
The vacuum expectation value is <*> = v

v=(-
2
/2+ = 246 GeV
14
The Higgs Mechanism
# The Higgs field acquires a vacuum
expectation value
# Particles interact with the Higgs field and
acquire an effective mass
V(!)=$
2
|!|+%(|!|
2
)
2
# The mass relation between ,, W and Z
bosons is determined
# Couplings and branching ratios are
determined.
v =
2
2
= 246GeV
m
= 0
m
W
=
1
2
vg
m
Z
=
1
2
vg
1
cos
W
m
H
=

2v
2
m
f
=
1
2
g
f
v
Weinberg - Salam - Theory
Start with the Lagrangian with electroweak gauge couplings and the usual
Higgs potential:
The T
i
are the usual isospin generators and Y is the hypercharge generator.
W
and B
are our usual 4 vector gauge fields.

The Higgs field is a complex isospin doublet with 4 real components:
As usual we have
We can get to any general choice of the Higgs field by a rotation of the
Higgs doublet in isospin-space:
L = |(i
gT
i
W
i
Y
2
B
)|
2
V ()
V () =
2
+
+(
+
)
2
=
1

1
+ i
2
3
+ i
4
2
< 0,
+
= v
2
/2, v
2
=
2
/
(x) = e
i
i
T
i
0
1
2
(v + H(x))
We can use our gauge freedom to make a specific choice for the Higgs
doublet:
Using this choice we get for the gauge fields in the Lagrangian
with T
i
= ! "
i
(x) =
0
v
(gT
i
W
i
Y
2
B
0
v
2
1
8
(gW
3
+ g
g(W
1
iW
2
)
g(W
1
+ iW
2
) gW
3
+ g
0
v
2
1
8
v
2
g(W
1
iW
2
)
gW
3
+ g
2
g
2
v
2
8
W
1
2
+

W
2
+
v
2
8
gW
3
2
From this we can read off the mass terms for the W boson:
Using the W mass one gets v=247 GeV. The physical Z and A gauge bosons
are the orthogonal states
with the mass term for the Z
The theory relates the masses of the gauge bosons, a well tested
prediction of the model:
M
W
=
gv
2
Z
=
gW
3
g
2
+g
2
A
=
gB
+g
W
3
g
2
+g
2
M
Z
=
g
2
+g
2
v
2
M
Z
= M
W
g
2
+ g
2
g
=
M
W
cos
W
Couplings
We already know what the coupling of the photon A to charged particles is: it is
the electron charge e(=()). There are therefore constraints on the possible weak
coupling constants. Only two of the four parameters are free parameters:
In addition the coupling of the Z boson is determined by the theory. The resulting
coupling is more complicated as it involves a mixture of a vector coupling gV and
an axial-vector coupling gA which depends on the eigenvalues of the particle with
respect to isospin and hypercharge:
The electrical charge is as well a composite:
If mass generation via the spontaneous symmetry breaking (Higgs mechanism) is
included then there also is a relation between the W and Z masses:
e = g sin
W
e = g
cos
W
g
V
= t
f
3
2 sin
2
W
Q
g
A
= t
3
m
Z
=
m
W
cos
W
Q = T
3
+
Y
2
19
Couplings ! " Z
Couplings
Here is a big table with all the couplings considered so far:
for electromagnetic () and weak netural-current (Z
0
) interactions of fermions
Carrier Current Common neutral charged quarks quarks
type factor
e
,
e, , u, c, t d, s, b
Vector e 0 1 +
2
3

1
3
Axial e 0 0 0 0
Z
0
Vector, g
V
e
2s
W
c
W
1
2
(
1
2
2s
2
W
) (
1
2
2
2
3
s
2
W
) (
1
2
2
1
3
s
2
W
)
Z
0
Axial, g
A
e
2s
W
c
W
1
2

1
2
1
2

1
2
Note the abbreviated notation: s
W
sin
W
, c
W
cos
W
.
Particle Physics
pure
V"A
-0.04 0.19 -0.35
s
2
W
= sin
2
W
= 0.233
20
Z Peak
(Z
0
f

f) = N
colour
(g
2
V f
+ g
2
Af
)
1
The Standard Model
Z
0
: M = 91.1876 0.0021 GeV/c
2
" = 2.4952 0.0023 GeV/c
2

# = (2.6379 0.0024) x 10
-25
s
Cross-section:
$ = the effective
target area
available for
one particle to
interact with
another.
$ depends on
the dynamics of
the interaction
and the available
phase space.
Number of events % $
21
#
W
and $
ll
0.231
0.232
0.233
83.6 83.8 84 84.2
68% CL
ll
[MeV]
s
i
n
2
l
e
p
t
e
f
f
m
t
= 170.9 1.8 GeV
m
H
= 114...1000 GeV
m
t
m
H

22
Measurements
# - cross sections for left-right
polarisations
# number of neutrinos
# Rl = .had/.l
# Afb (forward-backward
asymmetry)
# W mass and width
# Z mass
# Z width
coupling to left/right handed
electrons (add widths)
universality
- partial widths of leptons
are equal
- partial widths of d, s and
b quarks and of u and c
quarks are equal
# b-quark couplings gVb vs gAb
# e
+
e
"
cross section (vs (s)
, contribution
Z contribution
, - Z interference
# comparison of Afb for , b, c
# weak radiative corrections
R
= (e
+
e
r

+
l
)
L
= (e
+
e
l

+
r
)
P
R
+
L
< P
>=
2g
V
g
A
g
2
V
+g
2
A
23
Combined SM Fit
Measurement Fit |O
meas
O
fit
|/
meas
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
had
(m
Z
)
(5)
0.02758 0.00035 0.02768
m
Z
[GeV] m
Z
[GeV] 91.1875 0.0021 91.1875
Z
[GeV]
Z
[GeV] 2.4952 0.0023 2.4957
had
[nb]
0
41.540 0.037 41.477
R
l
R
l
20.767 0.025 20.744
A
fb
A
0,l
0.01714 0.00095 0.01645
A
l
(P
) A
l
(P
) 0.1465 0.0032 0.1481

R
b
R
b
0.21629 0.00066 0.21586
R
c
R
c
0.1721 0.0030 0.1722
A
fb
A
0,b
0.0992 0.0016 0.1038
A
fb
A
0,c
0.0707 0.0035 0.0742
A
b
A
b
0.923 0.020 0.935
A
c
A
c
0.670 0.027 0.668
A
l
(SLD) A
l
(SLD) 0.1513 0.0021 0.1481
sin
2
eff
sin
2
lept
(Q
fb
) 0.2324 0.0012 0.2314
m
W
[GeV] m
W
[GeV] 80.398 0.025 80.374
W
[GeV]
W
[GeV] 2.140 0.060 2.091
m
t
[GeV] m
t
[GeV] 170.9 1.8 171.3
24
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
100 30 300
m
H
[GeV]
2
Excluded Preliminary
had
=
(5)
0.027580.00035
0.027490.00012
incl. low Q
2
data
Theory uncertainty
m
Limit
= 144 GeV
Indirect hints on the Higgs
mass:
H!""
Measure 2 photons in the calorimeter (no track) and their opening
angle #
Try yourself at http://lppp.lancs.ac.uk
m
2
= 2E
1
E
2
(1 cos )
H! "" Results
Most photon pairs

detected are due to
background processes.
Small excess of events

at m
!!
~ 125 GeV/c
2

Just as wed expect if

theres a Higgs boson
which can decay into
two photons.
35
H!ZZ!
+
"
"
(maybe!)
39
H!ZZ results
Compatible with a peak at m!!!! ~ 125 GeV/c
2

in addition to background processes.
40
H!ZZ
ATLAS Combination
Combining the Searches
This plot shows for what masses the Higgs boson can be excluded.
ATLAS cannot exclude a Higgs between 122 and 131 GeV/c

2
at 95%
confidence level.
Combining the analyses weve H!ZZ, H!WW, H!"" H!bb!, H!#

+
#
$

44
ATLAS Combination

2
at 95%
confidence level.

+
#
$

44
Excluded region
ATLAS Combination

2
at 95%
confidence level.

+
#
$

44
The significance of the signal at 126.0 GeV/c

2
is 5.9 standard
deviations!
We have discovered something new!

46
Excluded region
ATLAS Combination

2
at 95%
confidence level.

+
#
$

44
The significance of the signal at 126.0 GeV/c

2
is 5.9 standard
deviations!
We have discovered something new!

46
The significance of the signal
at 126.0 GeV is 5.9 standard
deviations!
This is the discovery of a new
particle!
Excluded region
mH=126 Gamma(H)=4.21MeV Gamma(H)=4.21MeV
H!bb 0.561
H!"" 0.0615
H!## 0.000214
H!cc 0.0283
H!gg 0.0848
H!$$ 0.00228
H!Z$ 0.00162
H!WW 0.231
H!ZZ 0.0289
0.999614
56%
6%
0%
3%
8%
0%0%
23%
3%
Chart 1
H!bb H!"" H!## H!cc H!gg
H!$$ H!Z$ H!WW H!ZZ
7
[GeV]
H
M
100 200 300 400 500 1000
H
i
g
g
s

B
R

+

T
o
t
a
l

U
n
c
e
r
t
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
1
L
H
C

H
I
G
G
S

X
S

W
G

2
0
1
1
b b
! !
c c
t t gg
" "
" Z
WW
ZZ
FIG. 2: Higgs branching ratios and their uncertainties for the full mass range.
[GeV]
H
M
100 200 300 400 500 1000
H
i
g
g
s

B
R

+

T
o
t
a
l

U
n
c
e
r
t
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
1
L
H
C

H
I
G
G
S

X
S

W
G

2
0
1
1
! , llll, l=e,
llll, l=e,
eeee
ee
=any # , ! , , l=e, # # ll
=any # , , l=e, # # ll
# e # e
# # e
FIG. 3: Higgs branching ratios for the dierent H 4l and H 2l2 nal states and their uncertainties for the full mass
range.
mH=126 Gamma(H)=4.21MeV Gamma(H)=4.21MeV
H!bb 0.561
H!"" 0.0615
H!## 0.000214
H!cc 0.0283
H!gg 0.0848
H!$$ 0.00228
H!Z$ 0.00162
H!WW 0.231
H!ZZ 0.0289
0.999614
56%
6%
0%
3%
8%
0%0%
23%
3%
Chart 1
H!bb H!"" H!## H!cc H!gg
H!$$ H!Z$ H!WW H!ZZ
arXiv.org > hep-ph > arXiv:1107.5909
H
Higgs Decays
The true Higgs boson is a spin-0 particle
Higgs Decays
Slgnal sLrengLh by decay mode
A1LAS: = 1.3 +/- 0.3
CMS: = 0.88 +/- 0.21
8oLh experlmenLs conslsLenL wlLh SM wlLhln abouL 1.3! for all decay modes
ulphoLon slgnal raLes hlgher Lhan expecLed
11/21/12 L. leng - Plggs Comblnauon and roperues [ PC/PC 10
Slgnal sLrengLh by decay mode
A1LAS: = 1.3 +/- 0.3
CMS: = 0.88 +/- 0.21
8oLh experlmenLs conslsLenL wlLh SM wlLhln abouL 1.3! for all decay modes
ulphoLon slgnal raLes hlgher Lhan expecLed
Vector-Boson and Fermion Coupling
Cauge secLor vs. ?ukawa secLor
8oLh experlmenLs nd asymmeLrlc double mlnlma ln (!
v
, !
l
)
A1LAS prefers desLrucuve lnLerference beLween weak bosons and
fermlons (posluve !
l
) as expecLed ln SM
CMS prefers consLrucuve (negauve !
l
)
Crlucal noLe: ueLermlnlng Lhe slgn of lnLerference
Can measure slgn of lnLerference because W and Lop lnLerfere ln
P->!!
8uL oLher decay modes, especlally P->ZZ, also aecL slgn of lnLerference
lndlrecLly because slmulLaneous L Lo (#
v
, #
l
)
Changlng Lhe slgn also changes Lhe besL-L magnlLudes of #
v
and #
l
~ k
y
2
= |1.28 k
W
- 0.28 k
L
|
2

Crlucal noLe: ueLermlnlng Lhe slgn of lnLerference
Can measure slgn of lnLerference because W and Lop lnLerfere ln
P->!!
8uL oLher decay modes, especlally P->ZZ, also aecL slgn of lnLerference
lndlrecLly because slmulLaneous L Lo (#
v
, #
l
)
Changlng Lhe slgn also changes Lhe besL-L magnlLudes of #
v
and #
l
~ k
y
2
= |1.28 k
W
- 0.28 k
L
|
2

Interference between three different
diagrams involving vector bosons (W)
and fermions (t):
One can measure the sign of the
coupling and constructive or destructive
(SM) interference.
Cauge secLor vs. ?ukawa secLor
8oLh experlmenLs nd asymmeLrlc double mlnlma ln (!
v
, !
l
)
A1LAS prefers desLrucuve lnLerference beLween weak bosons and
fermlons (posluve !
l
) as expecLed ln SM
CMS prefers consLrucuve (negauve !
l
)
Cauge secLor vs. fermlon secLor (by channel)
CMS also overlald conLours for besL-L coupllngs from each decay mode
1hls ls a nlce way Lo lllusLraLe Lhe relauve lmpacL of daLa - we should do Lhls Loo
Peavlly consLralned by P->!! as expecLed
8lghL ploL assumes agaln desLrucuve lnLerference beLween weak bosons and fermlons
Summary
Things to remember:
# Gauge invariance + Higgs Mechanism explain the structure of the
electro-magnetic and the weak interaction.
# This is The Standard Model ( " QCD)
# The Standard Model is very predictive and well tested.
# The Higgs boson was the last missing ingredient.
32
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Building Hadrons
1
Building a Wave Function
Quarks carry various quantum numbers: position/momentum, flavour,
spin, colour. The full wave function of a hadron is a product of four
wave functions, each defined in its own space. For example a meson
has
!(r,S) = !Flavour " !Space(r) " !Spin (S1,S2) " !Colour(C1,C2)
where r is the relative position of the quark and antiquark, S1,2 are their
spins and C1,2 are their colours.
Bosons must have a symmetric wave functions.
Fermions must have an antisymmetric wave function!
Note: !Colour is always antisymmetric!
2
Spin Wave Function for Mesons
! Start with Spin as we learn about flavour (iso-spin) as well.
! Spin-0 state: one projection, SZ = 0.
! Spin-1 state: three projections: SZ = +1, 0, -1
! Spin-# state has two projections: SZ = +#, $#; or ! and ".
Two spin-# particles can be in four different states:
!!, !", "!, ""
The first and last form the two extreme projections of a spin-1 state. They are clearly
symmetric, hence the symmetric combination of the two middle ones should form the
zero-projection of the spin-1 state. This leaves the antisymmetric combination as the
spin-0 state:
!Spin(0) = 1/%2 (!" $ "!); !Spin(1) = !!, 1/%2(!" + "!), "" .
The spin-0 wave function is antisymmetric (i.e. changes sign when swapping 1 and 2)
while the spin-1 wave function is symmetric.
Parity: PSpin =(-1)
S+1
, where S is the total spin of the two-fermion state.
3
! Simple rules
Mesons: qq&
Baryons: qqq or q&q&q&
! Three quarks for muster
Mark
! Fundamental representation of
SU(3)flavour:
down triangle for quarks and
up triangle for anti-quarks
Strong-isospin of the
higher charge is +#
s-quark is S = $1 (!)
! Generators:
case of the weak Isospin SU
(2): Pauli spin matrices
SU(3): Gell-Mann matrixes '
Flavour: Building Hadrons out of Quarks
36. SU(3) isoscalar factors and ... 3
abc f
abc
abc d
abc
abc d
abc
123 1 118 1/
3 355 1/2
147 1/2 146 1/2 366 1/2
156 1/2 157 1/2 377 1/2
246 1/2 228 1/
3 448 1/(2
3)
257 1/2 247 1/2 558 1/(2
3)
345 1/2 256 1/2 668 1/(2
3)
367 1/2 338 1/
3 778 1/(2
3)
458

3/2 344 1/2 888 1/
3
678

3/2
The
a
s are
1
=
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0

2
=
0 i 0
i 0 0
0 0 0

3
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
4
=
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0

5
=
0 0 i
0 0 0
i 0 0

6
=
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
7
=
0 0 0
0 0 i
0 i 0

8
=
1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
Equation (36.7) denes the Lie algebra of SU(3). A general d-dimensional representa-
tion is given by a set of d d matrices satisfying Eq. (36.7) with the f
abc
given above.
Equation (36.8) is specic to the dening 3-dimensional representation.
July 14, 2006 10:37
I
3
I
3
S S
-! ! ! -!
u d d# u#
s
s#
-1
+1
4
Meson Combinations
! List isospin I3, strangeness and charge of every combination
! Combine them to the Meson Nonet!
BRIEF ARTICLE
THE AUTHOR
q q Q S Meson
u u 0 0
0
u
d 1 0
+
d u -1 0
d 0 0
u s 1 1 K
+
d s 0 1 K
0
s u -1 -1 K
d 0 -1 K
0
s s 0 0
1
I
3
I
3
S S
-! ! ! -!
u d d# u#
s
s#
-1
+1
5
Mesons in a World with only u and d Quarks
Two light quarks u and d are usually considered as two states of the same quark.
Similarly as two spin states - projections - of a fermion: they are said to have
isospin projection IZ = +# for u and $# for d (hence the names of the
quarks!).
For anti-quarks its the other way around: u&has IZ = $#, d&has IZ = +#.
The full |I IZ> wave functions are
In a two-quark world there will be four possible mesonic spin-0 states
(pseudoscalars):
ud&, uu&, dd&, du&
Grifths 5.8
u = |
1
2
1
2
>

d = |
1
2
1
2
>
d = |
1
2

1
2
> u = |
1
2

1
2
>
6
Mesons in a World with only u and d Quarks
ud&, uu&, dd&, du&
Similarly to the spin case, the first (-ud&) and the last combination have isospin
projections +1 and -1 respectively and can be considered as two extremes of an
isotriplet state with I = 1. These can be identified as (
+
and (
$
.
The middle projection of this state, !
0
, will be the mixture (uu " # dd " )/$2.
-ud&= | 1 1 > (uu&$ dd&)/%2 = | 1 0 > du&= | 1 -1 >
The other mixture (uu " + dd " )/$2 is the isosinglet with I = 0, | 0 0 >. Lets call it
%. In reality there are s-quarks involved, too:
) = (uu&+ dd&$ 2ss&)/%6 ) = (uu&+ dd&+ ss&)/%3
Four more mesons will exist with identical quark content, but spin 1 (i.e. vector).
The isotriplet states are &
+
, &
0
, &
#
and the isosinglet state is '.
* = (uu&+ dd&)/%2 + = ss&
7
Conservation of Angular Momentum
A particle with spin S has 2S+1 different components (projections, polarisations).
Apart from the intrinsic angular momentum - spin S - particles can have good old
orbital angular momentum L relative to each other.
Two-particle system: spins S1, S2, orbital momentum L. The total spin S is the
vector sum of the two spins, calculated according to quantum-mechanical rules:
S = S1 + S2
The spin of the hydrogen atom can be either 0 or 1 with the matching number of
components:
2 ! 2 = 1 " 3
The total angular momentum J of the system is the vector sum of the total spin S
and the orbital momentum L:
J = S + L
! A combination of two fermions is a boson because the orbital momentum must
be a whole number.
! Angular momentum conservation means that the total angular momentum
|J| must be conserved, as well as its projection JZ - but not spin or orbital
momentum separately.
8
The Spin of Mesons and Baryon
! Ground state mesons will have L = 0 and J = S (0 or 1), depending on the
value of the total spin:
An antisymmetric spin wave function corresponds to total spin 0. With L = 0
the total angular momentum (i.e. spin of the meson) will be 0.
A symmetric spin wave function corresponds to total spin 1. With L = 0 the
total angular momentum (i.e. spin of the meson) will be 1.
9
Space Wave Function
! The space part depends on the relative coordinate(s) between quarks and
antiquarks inside the hadron and hence their relative orbital angular momentum L
! The lowest energy state (ground state) will have a spherically symmetric wave
function corresponding to zero orbital momenta, L = 0.
! Thus the mesons and baryons with the lowest mass have symmetric space wave
functions.
! Excited mesons and baryons may have L=1 or higher. ( Upsilon)
! In general a wave function corresponding to orbital momentum L has parity (-1)
L
.
! The total angular momentum of the bound state J - the spin of the hadron as a
whole - is calculated as a vector sum of L and S: J = L + S.
10
(P-)Parity of Mesons
A fundamental fermion has no definite intrinsic parity but the intrinsic parities of
fermions and anti-fermions are opposite. The parity of the proton is taken as +1.
When all three spatial dimensions are inverted all ground state meson wave
functions will change sign. This is because they all consist of a fermion and an
anti-fermion without an additional contribution coming from the space part of the
wave function as L = 0.
In general the parity P of any meson is P=(-1)
L+1
.
11
C-Parity of Mesons
Charge conjugation flips all internal quantum numbers. Only particles that are their
own anti-particles are eigenstates of the C-operator.
The photon has C-parity -1.
Charge conjugation for mesons that are their own antiparticles:
Quark $ antiquark is equivalent to swapping them (-1)
L+1
and swapping their
spins (-1)
S+1
.
The colour wave function remains unaffected.
Thus the C-parity of a meson is C=(-1)
L+S+2
= (-1)
L+S
.
Spin-0 mesons: J
PC
= 0
$+
. They are C-even pseudoscalars.
Spin-1 mesons: J
PC
= 1
$$
. They are C-odd (true) vectors.
Grifths 4.7
12
G-Parity of Mesons
C-Parity is not a very useful quantum number for the strong interaction. For
example C|!
+
> = |!
!
> : Charged particles are not eigenstates of the particle - anti-
particle operator.
It is useful to introduce the G-parity operator that adds an isospin rotation to the
charge conjugation: G = exp(-i!I
2
) C
Remember that an isospin moves between isospin partners (!
!
, !
0
, !
+
), in this case
exp(-i!I
2
) |!
+
> = " |!
!
>. The combination with the charge conjugation now gives
The G-parity ($1 for the !) is a good quantum number: the strong interaction
conserves isospin, thus G-parity is conserved as well.
However, the weak interaction and the electromagnetic interaction violate isospin
and G-parity!
to
G|
+
> = |
+
>
G|
0
> = |
0
>
G|
> = |
>
13
Meson
Decays
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Particle Physics
BRIEF ARTICLE
THE AUTHOR
+
Table 1. default
Name Mass Width I
G
J
P
C Decay mode Branching
(MeV) (MeV) ratio (%)
+
139.6 0 100
0
135.0 8eV 1
+ 98.84
e
+
e
1.16
548.8 2.6keV 0
+
0
+ All neutral 71
0
+
+
29
765 135 1
+
1
100
783.9 10 0
0
89.7
1.2
9.0
1019 4 0
K
+
K
49.1
K
L
K
S
30.7
0
17.5
2.6
1
14
Meson Decays
! ): The )-meson has a very narrow width. This cannot be explained by other
selection rules but G-parity. J
P
=0
!
means that this ground state iso-singlet
meson cannot decay into 2! because of parity conservation of the strong
interaction (P(!)="). The ) has only enough mass for 3 pions in the final
state. The G-parity of this final state however is $ while G())=+. Thus the
strong decay #$!
+
!
!
!
0
is forbidden as well. The ) has a long lifetime and a
small width.
! ,: The , meson has J
P
=1
!
and is decaying into 2! with L=1 between them. The
parity of the 2! system is therefore P = P(
2
($1)
L
= $1. Having G(,)=+ this
decay conserves J, P and G and can proceed via the strong interaction. Hence
the , has a very large width.
! *: The * meson has J
P
=1
!
like the ,, but G(*)=$ in contrast to the ,. Thus the
strong 2! decay mode is forbidden for the *. (However, the electromagnetic
interaction can violate isospin and G-parity.)
! +: The + has the same quantum numbers as the *. The above holds true as
well, just that Kaon decays are possible, too. The OZI (Okubo, Zweig, Iizuka)
rule suppresses the 3! decay.
! J/-: The J/- is too light to decay into DD mesons. The OZI-rule suppresses the
3! decay as well.
15
Baryon Octet and Decuplet
BRIEF ARTICLE
THE AUTHOR
q q Q S Meson
u u 0 0
0
u
d 1 0
+
d u -1 0
d 0 0
u s 1 1 K
+
d s 0 1 K
0
s u -1 -1 K
d 0 -1 K
0
s s 0 0
Table 1. Meson nonet built out of the combination of the fundamental

representation of SU(3) for 3 quarks.
qqq Q S Baryon
uuu 2 0
++
uud 1 0
+
udd 0 0
0
ddd -1 0
uus 1 -1
+
uds 0 -1
0
dds -1 -1
uss 0 -2
0
dss -1 -2
sss -1 -3
Table 2. Baryon decuplet built out of the combination of the fundamental

representation of SU(3) for 3 quarks.
1
Q = I
3
+
1
2
Y
Y = B+S
B: baryon number
16
Baryons in a World with only u and d Quarks
Lets start with spin (/! baryons, which have fully symmetric spin wave functions
and fully anti-symmetric colour wave functions.
As lowest energy states in their sector, they are supposed to have lowest possible
angular momentum, too, which means the spatial part of the wave function is also
fully symmetric. This makes the full wave function antisymmetric and hence will
allow all quarks to have the same flavour.
Remember: Identical fermions must have antisymmetric wave functions!
Hence we have four possible spin-./% baryons:
uuu (/
++
), uud (/
+
), udd (/
0
), ddd (/
$
)
17
Baryons in a World with only u and d Quarks
Spin ) baryons:
The spin wavefunction of the two quarks in a spin-0 state is anti-symmetric and
combined with the anti-symmetric colour wavefunction and a symmetric spatial
wave function yield a symmetric state of those two quarks.
Hence, in spin-# baryons those two quarks which have zero combined spin cannot
have identical flavour! They must be different and hence in a two-quark world we
only have two possible spin-# baryons:
udu (proton), udd (neutron)
where the first two quarks ud are in a spin-0 state (!" - "!)/%2.
In fact, these symmetry properties of baryonic wave functions were one of the
reasons of introducing the concept of colour in the first place!
18
The Spin of Baryons
! Ground state baryons will have J=# or ./%, depending on the spin wave
function.
If the first two quarks formed a spin-1 state adding a third quark will give a
spin-./% baryon. This spin state is fully symmetric for all three permutations:
12, 13 and 23.
If the first two quarks formed a spin-0 state, adding the third will give a spin-
# baryon. This spin state has mixed symmetry properties: antisymmetric
between 1 and 2, symmetric between 13 and 23.
19
Quantum Numbers of Quarks
Property d u s c b t
B baryon number +
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
Q electric charge
1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3
I isospin
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
I
z
isospin z-component
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
S strangeness 0 0 1 0 0 0
C charm 0 0 0 +1 0 0
B bottomness (beauty) 0 0 0 0 1 0
T topness 0 0 0 0 0 +1
Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula: Q = I
z
+
B+S+C+B+T
2
For antiquarks, all numbers change signs (except isospin).
Particle Physics
Mesons in 4-quark World
s
D
0
D
s
D
D
0
K
!
!
+
K
K
(a)
s
D
D
D
s
D
"
# +
#
K
(b)
*
0
K
*
"
*
+
K
*
0
D
0
*
D
*
"
*
"
*
+
"
*
+
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
ud
"
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
0
#
$
% & J/
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
+
D
+
+
K
0
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
du
"
du
"
0
D
'
'(
'
c
!
0
ud
"
K
0
*
C
I
Y
Here are the 16-plets of pseudoscalar (a) and vector (b)
mesons, built out of 4 quark avours.
Each level (oor) contains mesons with
a particular value of charm.
Adding b-quarks would make the plot 4-dimensional. . .
The two groups of four mesons in the centres are
various mixtures of q q states: u u, d
d, s s, c c.
In pseudoscalar sector,
c
is almost pure c c,
but and
are mixtures of
u u+d
2
and s s.
In vector mesons, the mixing is close to ideal:
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c.
Particle Physics
20
Mesons in a World with 4 Quarks
Here are the 16-plets of pseudoscalar and
vector mesons, built out of 4 quark flavours.
Each level contains mesons with a particular
value of charm.
Adding b-quarks would make the plot
4-dimensional
The two groups of four mesons in the
centres are various mixtures of qq&states:
uu&, dd&, ss&and cc&.
In pseudoscalar sector )c is almost pure cc&
but ) and ) are mixtures of and ss&.
In vector mesons the mixing is close to
ideal:
u u+d
2
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c
B baryon number +
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
Q electric charge
1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3
I isospin
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
I
z
isospin z-component
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
C charm 0 0 0 +1 0 0
T topness 0 0 0 0 0 +1
z
+
B+S+C+B+T
2
Particle Physics
s
D
0
D
s
D
D
0
K
!
!
+
K
K
(a)
s
D
D
D
s
D
"
# +
#
K
(b)
*
0
K
*
"
*
+
K
*
0
D
0
*
D
*
"
*
"
*
+
"
*
+
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
ud
"
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
0
#
$
% & J/
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
+
D
+
+
K
0
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
du
"
du
"
0
D
'
'(
'
c
!
0
ud
"
K
0
*
C
I
Y
d, s s, c c.
c
is almost pure c c,
but and
are mixtures of
u u+d
2
and s s.
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c.
Particle Physics
B baryon number +
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
Q electric charge
1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3
I isospin
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
I
z
isospin z-component
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
C charm 0 0 0 +1 0 0
T topness 0 0 0 0 0 +1
z
+
B+S+C+B+T
2
Particle Physics
s
D
0
D
s
D
D
0
K
!
!
+
K
K
(a)
s
D
D
D
s
D
"
# +
#
K
(b)
*
0
K
*
"
*
+
K
*
0
D
0
*
D
*
"
*
"
*
+
"
*
+
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
ud
"
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
0
#
$
% & J/
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
+
D
+
+
K
0
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
du
"
du
"
0
D
'
'(
'
c
!
0
ud
"
K
0
*
C
I
Y
d, s s, c c.
c
is almost pure c c,
but and
are mixtures of
u u+d
2
and s s.
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c.
Particle Physics
Spin 0
Spin 1
21
Baryons in a World with 4 Quarks
Here are the spin-# baryons (a) and spin-./%
baryons (b).
Again, each floor contains baryons with one
value of charm.
The octet of charmless spin-# baryons lies on
the ground floor of (a).
The decuplet of charmless spin-./% baryons lies
on the ground floor of (b).
In each multiplet same letters denote similar
quark content but different isospin projection.
Some baryons have identical quark content but
different spins. The one with spin-./% then
acquires a star, e.g. 0c
*++
.
Baryons in 4-quark World
!
++
ccc
"
++
cc
"
+
cc
!
+
cc
#
++
c
"
+
c
"
0
c
!
$
"
0
#
+
%
+
%
0
%
$
#
$
"
$
%
++
(b)
"
+
c
#
++
c
"
0
n p
"
c
0
(a)
ddc
dsc
udc
usc
uuc
uud
uus
uss
dss
udd
dds
ddd
dss
dds
uss
uus
uud
udd
uds
ssc
usc
dsc
uuc
ucc
scc
dcc
!
+
cc
"
++
cc
"
+
cc
#
0
c
uuu
#
0
"
$
#
$
#
+
&,#
0
udc
#
+
c
&
+
c
,
c
#
+
!
0
c
#
0
c
dcc ucc
ddc
uds
ssc
scc
sss
!
0
c
Here are the spin-1/2 baryons (a)
and spin-3/2 baryons (b).
Again, each oor contains baryons with
one value of charm.
The octet of charmless spin-1/2 baryons
lies on the ground oor in (a).
The decuplet of charmless spin-3/2 baryons
lies on the ground oor of (b).
In each multiplet, same letter denotes
similar quark content, but dierent
isospin projection.
Some baryons have identical quark contents,
but dierent spins. The one with spin-3/2
then acquires a star, e.g.
++
c
.
Particle Physics
From Feynman Diagrams to Quark Flow
Lets try and draw a diagram
describing
+
+p elastic scattering.
All the space between the quark and
antiquark lines is understood to be
lled with QCD interactions
a shnet of gluon-quark-aniquark lines.
We cannot hope to use perturbation theory as
s
is rather large in soft processes, and
we dont even attempt to count QCD vertices, but we know they are there.
Note that all rules used in drawing Feynman diagrams are still valid, simply gluons are not
plotted and are just ignored, unless at least one line in the vertex is hard, i.e. has a
large k
2
.
In this particular diagram, we expect to see a peak in the cross section at s = M
2
, but
there are other possible diagrams too: e.g. t-channel exchange of a meson, or simply
two gluons exchanged in the t-channel (why not just one gluon?).
Incidentally, the right half of the above diagram represents quark ow in the main decay
of baryon: +p.
Particle Physics
Spin !
Spin "!
22
Summary
Building hadrons is
tedious
but its just combinatorics
Colour is needed to
explain the observed baryons (/
++
)
keep the Pauli principle
Again symmetries have shown us the way
SU(3) flavour symmetry
- broken by quark masses
- accidental symmetry
symmetric / antisymmetric wave functions
23
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Hadron Structure
1
Recap
With some tedious work and anti-
symmetrisation it is possible to construct most
of the hadrons we see (and more!) from very
simple symmetry principles (SU(3)flavour).
Exercise 2!
I
3
I
3
S S
-! ! ! -!
u d d! u!
s
s!
-1
+1
B baryon number +
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
+
1
3
Q electric charge
1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3

1
3
+
2
3
I isospin
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
I
z
isospin z-component
1
2
1
2
0 0 0 0
C charm 0 0 0 +1 0 0
T topness 0 0 0 0 0 +1
z
+
B+S+C+B+T
2
Particle Physics
s
D
0
D
s
D
D
0
K
!
!
+
K
K
(a)
s
D
D
D
s
D
"
# +
#
K
(b)
*
0
K
*
"
*
+
K
*
0
D
0
*
D
*
"
*
"
*
+
"
*
+
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
ud
"
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
0
#
$
% & J/
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
"
cd
cu
"
cs
"
+
D
+
+
K
0
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
du
"
du
"
0
D
'
'(
'
c
!
0
ud
"
K
0
*
C
I
Y
d, s s, c c.
c
is almost pure c c,
but and
are mixtures of
u u+d
2
and s s.
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c.
Particle Physics
Spin 0
Spin 1
2
Are Quarks Real?
When the Quark Model was proposed there was no direct evidence for the
existence of spin-! point-like charged constituents inside hadrons!
Gell-Mann used symmetry principles to explain the properties of the hadrons
but was cautious about claiming any physical reality for the SU(3) basis states.
Isospin symmetry is an accidental consequence of the u and d quarks having
nearly identical mass and " ! "S!
Large mass splittings between isospin multiplets in the same super-multiplet is due
to the s quark mass being much larger than u and d masses.
The Quark Model enjoyed some notable successes:
Existence of missing members of supermutiplets - the most famous being the
S = #3 $
#
baryon in the spin-%/" decuplet.
Accurate calculations of the magnetic moments of the hadrons.
Computation of the small mass splittings within isospin multiplets.
3
Evidence for the Existence of Quarks & Gluons
11
Nachweis der Gluonen
Gluonen wurden, ebenso wie Quarks, nie als freie Teilchen nachgewiesen.
Aufgrund des confinements der starken Wechselwirkung entstehen aus den
auslaufenden Quarks und Gluonen jeweils eine Anzahl von Hadronen,
die als kollimiertes Teilchenbndel (Jet) im Detektor sichtbar sind.
Man kann die Abstrahlung eines Gluons von einem Quark in der -Streuung
untersuchen. In fhrender Ordnung entsteht ein -Pa
e e
qq
! "
180
3 2
ar, das zu zwei Jets fhrt,
die unter auseinanderfliegen.
Wenn eines dieser Quarks ein Gluon abstrahlt, dann sieht man einen dritten Jet.
Das Verhltnis der Raten fr -Jet- zu -Jet-Ereignissen
ist
#
30 40 0.14
1
durch die starke Kopplungskonstante bestimmt.
Die Messung bei einer Schwerpunktsenergie von GeV ergab .
Aus der Winkelverteilung der Jets ergibt sich, dass die Gluonen Spin haben.
Die A
s
s
$
$ " %
3
2. 3.
bbildung rechts (TASSO-Experiment an PETRA, DESY) zeigt fr
Eregnisse mit Jets die Verteilung des Winkels des hchstenergetischen Jets
gegenber der Achse von und Jet (Energiegeordnet) in deren
3. Schwerpunktsystem. Der Gluon-Jet ist am wahrscheinlichsten der , d.h.
der mit der geringsten Energie. Dadurch ist diese Verteilung sensitiv auf den
Spin des Gluons.
11
Nachweis der Gluonen
Gluonen wurden, ebenso wie Quarks, nie als freie Teilchen nachgewiesen.
Aufgrund des confinements der starken Wechselwirkung entstehen aus den
auslaufenden Quarks und Gluonen jeweils eine Anzahl von Hadronen,
die als kollimiertes Teilchenbndel (Jet) im Detektor sichtbar sind.
Man kann die Abstrahlung eines Gluons von einem Quark in der -Streuung
untersuchen. In fhrender Ordnung entsteht ein -Pa
e e
qq
! "
180
3 2
ar, das zu zwei Jets fhrt,
die unter auseinanderfliegen.
Wenn eines dieser Quarks ein Gluon abstrahlt, dann sieht man einen dritten Jet.
Das Verhltnis der Raten fr -Jet- zu -Jet-Ereignissen
ist
#
30 40 0.14
1
durch die starke Kopplungskonstante bestimmt.
Die Messung bei einer Schwerpunktsenergie von GeV ergab .
Aus der Winkelverteilung der Jets ergibt sich, dass die Gluonen Spin haben.
Die A
s
s
$
$ " %
3
2. 3.
bbildung rechts (TASSO-Experiment an PETRA, DESY) zeigt fr
Eregnisse mit Jets die Verteilung des Winkels des hchstenergetischen Jets
gegenber der Achse von und Jet (Energiegeordnet) in deren
3. Schwerpunktsystem. Der Gluon-Jet ist am wahrscheinlichsten der , d.h.
der mit der geringsten Energie. Dadurch ist diese Verteilung sensitiv auf den
Spin des Gluons.
The most direct observation of quarks and
gluons is via jets: as quarks cannot exist on
their own and are confined within hadrons we
see hadronic jets instead of single quarks.
Three jet events are an indication for a gluon
being emitted from one of the quarks!
From the angular distribution of
qq& jets one can deduce that
the quark has spin !.
From the angular distributions
of the gluon-jets one can
deduce that the gluon is a
spin-1 particle (like all the other
exchange particles!)
4
Hadrons Hadrons
Hadrons
Hadrons
Hadrons
Scalar
Vector
Probing the Proton Structure: Deep Inelastic Scattering
Deep Inelastic scattering is characterized by
! transfer of large amount of energy and momentum by the virtual photon (E,p " mp),
! several hadrons in the final state. The scattering cannot be described by a single
scattering angle anymore as energy is consumed. This leads to the introduction of
two structure functions F1 and F2 for the scattering:
x: fraction of the proton momentum carried by the parton
Q: momentum transfer
E: energy of the outgoing electron
$: (solid) scattering angle
Deep Inelastic Kinematics
e
(p
1
) + p(p
2
) e
(p
3
) + X(p
4
)
q = (, q) p
1
p
3
q
2
= q
2
2
Q
2
> 0
In deep inelastic scattering, the photon is
deeply virtual, with Q
2
very large, 10 GeV
2
.
The quantity 1/
Q
2
is the measure of the spatial resolution and/or of the shutter speed
achieved, and is hence very small. So, at large Q
2
we get information about the deep
structure of the proton. But, in the best traditions of the uncertainty principle, this info
comes at the price of completely destroying the proton. . .
If the quark hit by the photon was initially carrying the fraction x of the protons
4-momentum, k
1
= xp
2
, then its nal 4-momentum is k
2
= k
1
+ q = xp
2
+ q. But in
QCD, we expect the quark to be (almost) free, hence the electron-quark scattering is
elastic and the quarks mass should remain the same, k
2
1
= k
2
2
:
k
2
2
= (k
1
+ q)
2
= k
2
1
+ q
2
+ 2x(p
2
q) x =
q
2
2(p
2
q)
=
Q
2
2M
p
x = Q
2
/M
p
, is called Bjorkens scaling variable.
Particle Physics
d
dE
=

2
4E
2
sin
4
/2
1
cos
2

2
F
2
(x, Q
2
) + sin
2

2
Q
2
xM
2
F
1
(x, Q
2
)
5
(DIS)
This generalized Rosenbluth Formula is
derived from very general principles, like
Lorentz- and gauge invariance!
Structure Functions
To a certain extend the structure functions contain all our ignorance about the
proton structure. The cross section is the one of eletron-muon scattering multiplied
by some unknown functions to be determined in experiments.
However, the structure functions also have a physical interpretation. The proton
may be a point particle, have constituents (3 quarks?) or be homogeneous: the
structure functions will tell us.
Assemble the cross sections of each of the (point-like) constituents of the proton,
the probability density for each flavour to carry the fraction x of the protons
momentum, weighted by the charge(-square).
In the naive parton model there would be only 3 valence quarks, for the proton
uud.
F
2
(x, Q
2
) =
a
e
2
a
xf
a
(x)
6
35
Modell
Messung
35
Modell
Messung
Structure Functions
7
Structure Functions
The reality is more complicated than the
simple three valence quark picture: qq&pairs
of any flavour may be created/destroyed at any
given moment.
A relatively recent compilation of the
composition of the proton:
! u quarks carry most of the momentum of the
proton
! u and d quark distributions peak roughly at #
! the u quark distribution has about twice the
amplitude of the d quark distribution (uud)
! sea quarks are abundant at low momentum
! Surprise: gluons carry about 46% of the
proton momentum
inferred indirectly as the sum must be 1
the LHC is actually a gluon collider!
Quark Disrtibutions in a Proton
Due to isotopic symmetry, u-quarks in a proton have the same distribution as d-quarks in
a neutron, and deep inelastic en scattering can be observed if deuterium target is used.
Similar deep inelastic processes are possible with initial neutrinos, via charged weak
interactions. Here, ( ) will mainly see d and u (u and

d) quarks inside protons and
neutrons, thus giving enough information to determine all quark and antiquark
distribution functions independently.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
x

f
(
x
)
Figure shows valence u, d and
sea u, d, s, c distributions, as
well as gluon distribution g.
In the sea, u = u etc.
Roughly half of momentum is
taken away by gluons, only
about 30% by valence quarks.
Particle Physics
8
Scaling Invariance
The character of the partons manifests itself in a different way, too:
! For low Q
2
the photon wavelength is too large to resolve quarks. The photon
sees the proton as whole; it scatters elastically.
! For higher Q
2
quarks are resolved. If the quarks are point-like the proton
structure does not depend on the wavelength (= energy scale) of the photon
anymore.
! This predicted scaling invariance was first observed at SLAC in 1969 and was the
first clear evidence for the correctness of the quark model.
29
! "
2
2
/ 2 Diese dimensionslosen Strukturfunktionen hngen nur noch von dem Verhltnis ab, und
nicht mehr von und einzeln, so wie es fr elastische Streuung von punktfrmigen Teilchen zu erwarten ist.
Q m
Q
#
#
2
Beim bergang von der elastischen Streuung am ausgedehnten Proton zur Streuung
bei hohen , bei der die Partonen im Proton aufgelst werden knnen und tatschlich Elektron-Parton-Str Q
tiefinelastischen
! " ! "
! " ! "
2
2
2
1 1
2
2 2
2
2
,
,
2
euung
stattfindet, vereinfachen sich also die Strukturfunktionen in folgender Weise
mit
Wir erwarten also, dass fr festes die Strukturfunktion
groes Q
groes Q
MW Q F x
W Q F x
Q
x
M
x W
#
# #
#
# #
$$$$%
$$$$%
&
! "
2
2
,
0.25
fr tiefinelastische Streuung nicht mehr von abhngt. Die rechts
dargestellte Messung fr zeigt, dass dies auch beobachtet wird.
Mann nennt diese Tatsache, die auf die Existenz punktfrmige
Q
Q
x '
r Partonen
im Proton fhrte und als Bjorken-Skalenvariable.
Nun wird das Proton aus mehreren Partonen bestehen. Fr die weitere Diskussion begeben wir uns in den sogenannten "infinite
x Bjorken- Skaling
momentum frame",
ein Bezugssystem, in dem der Protonimpuls viel grer als alle beteiligten Massen ist. Damit knnen wir auch die Bewegung der Partonen im Proton
senkrecht zu dessen Impuls vernachlssig
0 0
en und den Impuls eines Partons einfach dadurch angeben, dass es einen Anteil des Protonimpulses trgt.
In diesem Bezugssystem fhrt die relativistische Zeitdilatation dazu
L L
T T
x
p x p
p p ' '
Proton Parton
!
!
, dass die Wechselwirkung
der Partonen untereinander soweit verlangsamt ist, dass man die Partonen fr die Zeit
der Wechselwirkung mit dem Elektron als praktisch frei ansehen kann.

xp !
! " 1 x p ( !
9
Scaling Invariance Violation
Q
2
-dependence of the Structure Function
Q
2
(GeV
2
)
F
2
(
x
,
Q
2
)

*

2
i
x
H1
ZEUS
BCDMS
E665
NMC
SLAC
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
-1
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Figure shows F
2
(x, Q
2
) at various x
values, versus Q
2
.
If scaling is exact, all the curves on the
plot will be horizontal straight lines.
In fact, we see that at small x values,
F
2
increases with increasing Q
2
.
At large x F
2
decreases with Q
2
,
while at intermediate values around
x 0.1 it is almost constant.
Perturbative QCD cannot predict the exact
shape of F
2
, but given F
2
(x, Q
2
0
) at some
Q
2
= Q
2
0
, it can predict the evolution of
F
2
with increasing Q
2
.
Particle Physics
Scaling invariance holds well for medium
momentum fractions of about 0.05 # 0.4;
beyond that scaling invariance is violated.
! For very high Q
2
dynamic processes
involving gluons become visible and
scaling invariance is violated: In addtion
to '
*
q $ q we also observe '
*
q $ qg
and '
*
q $ qq&.
! The higher the photon momentum the
better the resolution of the sea. Thats
why F2 increases for low x.
! The log(Q
2
) dependence of F2 (DGLAP =
Dokshitzer-Gribov-Lipatov-Altarelli-Parisi
Equation) was correctly predicted in QCD
and was one of its first successes.
10
x
Q
2
Summary of Evidence
Quarks Quarks Gluons Gluons Colour Colour
Exist. Spin ! Exist. Spin 1 Exist. Forces
Hadron states X
Hadron spins X
Quark statistics (%
++
, %
"
,&
"
) X
R for e
+
e
"
annihilation X X
2-jet angular distribution in e
+
e
"
$ had X
inelastic lepton-nucleon scattering X X X X
3 jets in e
+
e
"
$ hadrons X X
Mean lifetime of !
0
X
Observation of only qq!, qqq, q!q!q! X
Charmonium X
11
R for e
+
e
#
Annihilation
Cross section e
+
e
!
" qq#
(u u) = (cc) = (t
t) =
4
9
3 (e
+
e
)
(d
d) = (ss) = (b
b) =
1
9
3 (e
+
e
)
R
(e
+
e
q q)
(e
+
e
)
=
3Q
2
q
=
3Q
2
q
1 +

s
$
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Particle Physics
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Particle Physics
12
!p Cross Section
You can see the (
++
resonance in the )
+
p
cross sections and also the (
0
resonance
in the )
#
p cross section, as well as a
number of higher mass baryonic
resonances.
Why do you think *elastic at the peak is
much less than *total for )
#
p, but not for
)
+
p?
Note that the energies do not go as far as
in pp, pp&or even ee collisions, because all
)p are fixed-target experiments: no
colliding pion beams so far...
p Cross Section
10
10
2
10
-1
1 10 10
2
!
+
p
total
!
+
p
elastic
"
P
lab
GeV/c
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
b
)

10
10
2
10
-1
1 10 10
2
!

d
total
!

p
total
!

p
elastic
"
"
P
lab
GeV/c
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
b
)

!s GeV
!d
!p
1.2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40
2.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
You can see the
++
resonance in
+
p cross sections, and also the
0
resonance in
p cross
section, as well as a number of
higher-mass baryonic resonances.
Why do you think
elastic
at peak
is much less than total for
p,
but not for
+
p?
Note that the energies do not
go as far as in pp, pp or even
e
+
e
collisions, because all p are

xed-target experiments: no colliding
pion beams so far. . .
Particle Physics
28
Nucleon-Nucleon Interactions
!Bound states (e.g. Protons and Neutrons) are
COLOURLESS (COLOUR SINGLETS).
!They can only interact via COLOURLESS intermediate
states - i.e. not by single gluons. (conservation of colour
charge)
!Interact by exchange of PIONS
!One possible diagram shown below :
u
u
d
u
u
d
u
u
d
u
u
d
u u
p p
p p
0
!Nuclear potential is YUKAWA potential with
!Short range force : range
Range
Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004
13
We cannot hope to use perturbation theory as "s is rather large in soft processes
and we dont even attempt to count QCD vertices, but we know they are there.
Note that all rules used in drawing Feynman diagrams are still valid, simply gluons
are not plotted and are just ignored unless at least one line in the vertex is hard,
i.e. has a large k
2
.
In this particular diagram we expect to see a peak in the cross section at s = M(
2
,
but there are other possible diagrams, too: e.g. t-channel exchange of a + meson, or
simply two gluons exchanged in the t-channel (why not just one gluon?).
Incidentally, the right half of the above diagram represents quark flow in the main
decay of the ( baryon: ( $ ) + p.
Lets try to draw a diagram describing )
+
+
p elastic scattering. All the space between
the quark and antiquark lines are
undestood to be filled with QCD
interactions: a fishnet of gluon-quark
lines.
Baryons in 4-quark World
!
++
ccc
"
++
cc
"
+
cc
!
+
cc
#
++
c
"
+
c
"
0
c
!
$
"
0
#
+
%
+
%
0
%
$
#
$
"
$
%
++
(b)
"
+
c
#
++
c
"
0
n p
"
c
0
(a)
ddc
dsc
udc
usc
uuc
uud
uus
uss
dss
udd
dds
ddd
dss
dds
uss
uus
uud
udd
uds
ssc
usc
dsc
uuc
ucc
scc
dcc
!
+
cc
"
++
cc
"
+
cc
#
0
c
uuu
#
0
"
$
#
$
#
+
&,#
0
udc
#
+
c
&
+
c
,
c
#
+
!
0
c
#
0
c
dcc ucc
ddc
uds
ssc
scc
sss
!
0
c
Here are the spin-1/2 baryons (a)
and spin-3/2 baryons (b).
Again, each oor contains baryons with
one value of charm.
The octet of charmless spin-1/2 baryons
lies on the ground oor in (a).
The decuplet of charmless spin-3/2 baryons
lies on the ground oor of (b).
In each multiplet, same letter denotes
similar quark content, but dierent
isospin projection.
Some baryons have identical quark contents,
but dierent spins. The one with spin-3/2
then acquires a star, e.g.
++
c
.
Particle Physics
Lets try and draw a diagram
describing
+
+p elastic scattering.
All the space between the quark and
antiquark lines is understood to be
lled with QCD interactions
a shnet of gluon-quark-aniquark lines.
We cannot hope to use perturbation theory as
s
is rather large in soft processes, and
we dont even attempt to count QCD vertices, but we know they are there.
Note that all rules used in drawing Feynman diagrams are still valid, simply gluons are not
plotted and are just ignored, unless at least one line in the vertex is hard, i.e. has a
large k
2
.
In this particular diagram, we expect to see a peak in the cross section at s = M
2
, but
there are other possible diagrams too: e.g. t-channel exchange of a meson, or simply
two gluons exchanged in the t-channel (why not just one gluon?).
Incidentally, the right half of the above diagram represents quark ow in the main decay
of baryon: +p.
Particle Physics
Exercise 1!
14
Top Quarks
Top Quarks were finally discovered 1995 at the
Tevatron at Fermilab.
Protons and anti-protons collide with a centre-of-mass
energy of ~2TeV - for the first time enough energy to
produce a tt &pair with mt , 175 GeV.
Top quark mass
lepton+jet channel:
1 unknown (p
z
!
)
3 constraints
m(l!) = m(qq) = m
W
m(l!b) = m(qqb)
t
p
p
t
b
W
W
b
t
q
q
l
!
b q q b l t t ! "
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
Iargest systematics
jet energy 4.0 GeV
dominated by
gluon radiation
Background-rich
Signal-rich
Top quark mass
lepton+jet channel:
1 unknown (p
z
!
)
3 constraints
m(l!) = m(qq) = m
W
m(l!b) = m(qqb)
t
p
p
t
b
W
W
b
t
q
q
l
!
b q q b l t t ! "
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
m
t
= 173.35.65.5 GeV
Iargest systematics
jet energy 4.0 GeV
dominated by
gluon radiation
Background-rich
Signal-rich
15
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
QCD
1
Recap
We can build hadrons (mesons and baryons) out of the static combination of
quarks:
We have also seen from Deep Inelastic Scattering that those hadrons are
complicated objects and not static at all.
Today: Look at the dynamics of quarks/hadrons: Gluons & Quantum Chromo
Dynamics (QCD)
I
3
I
3
S S
- ! ! -
u d d! u!
s
s!
-
+
s
D
0
D
s
D
D
0
K
!
!
+
K
K
(a)
s
D
D
D
s
D
"
# +
#
K
(b)
*
0
K
*
"
*
+
K
*
0
D
0
*
D
*
"
*
"
*
+
"
*
+
"
cd cu
"
cs
"
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
ud
"
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
0
#
$
% & J/
uc
"
sc
"
dc
"
"
cd cu
"
cs
"
+
D
+
+
K
0
us
"
ds
"
su
"
sd
"
du
"
du
"
0
D
'
'(
'
c
!
0
ud
"
K
0
*
C
I
Y
d, s s, c c.
c
is almost pure c c,
but and
are mixtures of
u u+d
2
and s s.
=
u u + d
2
, = s s, J/ = c c.
Particle Physics
Quark Disrtibutions in a Proton
Due to isotopic symmetry, u-quarks in a proton have the same distribution as d-quarks in
a neutron, and deep inelastic en scattering can be observed if deuterium target is used.
Similar deep inelastic processes are possible with initial neutrinos, via charged weak
interactions. Here, ( ) will mainly see d and u (u and

d) quarks inside protons and
neutrons, thus giving enough information to determine all quark and antiquark
distribution functions independently.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x
x

f
(
x
)
Figure shows valence u, d and
sea u, d, s, c distributions, as
well as gluon distribution g.
In the sea, u = u etc.
Roughly half of momentum is
taken away by gluons, only
about 30% by valence quarks.
Particle Physics
2
What are Gluons?
Gluons are the gauge bosons of the SU(3)colour gauge symmetry.
Define a wave function for the 3 different kinds of colour:
Follow the same recipe as for building the qq meson-octet for SU(3)flavour:
R
=
1
0
0
,
G
=
0
1
0
,
B
=
0
0
1
G R
B
GB
_
RB
_
RG
_
BG
_
GR
_
BR
_
1/"2 (RR-GG)
_ _
1/"6 (RR+GG-2BB)
_ _ _
G R
B
_ _
_
_
3 ! 3 = 8 " 1
_
3
What are Gluons?
Gluon Vertex:
There is no such thing as a white, colourless gluon (or quark for that matter).
On the other hand leptons, photons, W and Z are all colourless.
Like the photon, W and Z gauge bosons the gluon has spin 1.
Gluons are massless. They do not carry electric charge and have no coupling with
photons, W or Z. They only participate in strong (QCD) interactions.
The structure and properties of QCD interactions are such that coloured objects
cannot propagate far (farther than ~ 1fm) from each other
Confinement
Only colourless, white states, can propagate far from the interaction point.
q
G
q
R
"#
S
GR
_
4
QCD Vertices & Self-Coupling
Photons themselves carry no charge, thus there was no direct photon-photon
interaction.
Colour is the QCD analog of electric charge and gluons are coloured, so direct
gluon-gluon interactions exist. Here are the three QCD vertices:
(a) A quark-(anti)quark-gluon vertex, similar to the interactions we've seen before,
with coupling g
s
=!"
s
.
(b) A three-gluon vertex: the trademark QCD interaction (gluon splitting)
with coupling g. All three gluons must be different.
(c) A four-gluon vertex with higher order coupling g
2
, similar to four-boson vertices
in weak theory.
QCD Vertices
Photons carry no charge, hence there was no direct photon-photon interaction.
Colour is the QCD analog of electric charge, and gluons are coloured, so direct
gluon-gluon interactions exist. Here are the three QCD vertices:
a) A quark-(anti)quark-gluon vertex, similar to other interactions weve seen before, with
coupling g.
b) A three-gluon vertex: the trademark QCD interaction, with coupling g.
All three gluons must be dierent.
c) A four-gluon vertex has higher-order coupling g
2
, similarly to four-boson vertices in
other theories.
Particle Physics
s
5
Digression: Charmonium Decays
J/!(3097) and !(3770) are
examples of charmonium, cc"
bound states, mesons with
hidden charm.

!(3770) is the excited state, (just) heavy enough to decay into two open charm
mesons D
+
and D
#
as shown in quark flow diagram (b).
J/!(3097) is well below this threshold, so it can only decay via cc" annihilation.
Various selection rules forbid annihilation into one and two gluons, so the diagram
(a) is the leading one.
We draw a proper QCD diagram here because J/! is quite heavy, and some k
2
in
this process are as large as !10 GeV
2
, so we would hope to be able to use QCD
perturbation theory, with $s % 0.2.
Further hadronisation of the three gluons happens softly, i.e. they produce
many qq" pairs with small invariant masses, which somehow combine into a few
final state pions etc. This should not require any more hard QCD vertices.
p Cross Section
10
10
2
10
-1
1 10 10
2
!
+
p
total
!
+
p
elastic
"
P
lab
GeV/c
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
b
)

10
10
2
10
-1
1 10 10
2
!

d
total
!

p
total
!

p
elastic
"
"
P
lab
GeV/c
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
b
)

!s GeV
!d
!p
1.2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40
2.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
You can see the
++
resonance in
+
p cross sections, and also the
0
resonance in
p cross
section, as well as a number of
higher-mass baryonic resonances.
Why do you think
elastic
at peak
is much less than total for
p,
but not for
+
p?
Note that the energies do not
go as far as in pp, pp or even
e
+
e
collisions, because all p are

xed-target experiments: no colliding
pion beams so far. . .
Particle Physics
Charmonium Decays
J/(3097) and (3770) are
examples of charmonium,
c c bound states, mesons
with hidden charm.
(a) (b)
(3770) is the excited state, (just) heavy enough to decay into two open charm
mesons D
+
and D
, as shown in quark ow diagram (b).

J/(3097) is well below this threshold, so it can only decay via c c annihilation.
Various selection rules forbid annihilation into one and two gluons, so the diagram (a) is
the leading one.
We draw a proper QCD diagram here because J/ is quite heavy, and some k
2
in this
process are as large as 10 GeV
2
, so we would hope to be able to use QCD perturbation
theory, with
s
0.2.
Further hadronisation of the three gluons happens softly, i.e. they produce many q q
pairs with small invariant masses, which somehow combine into a few nal-state pions
etc. This should not require any more hard (i.e. small!) QCD vertices.
Particle Physics
6
QCD Potential & Charmonium
Charmonium is a bound state with quark content cc. c-quarks are quite heavy and most
of the mass of the charmonium is in the constituent quark mass. That means that
within the charmonium the c-quarks are non-relativistic.
We can use the Schrdinger-Equation and calculate energy levels just as we can for the
hydrogen atom or the positronium.
T. Barnes, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A21 (2006)
Some of the
charmonium
masses are lower
than 2 c-quarks.
The energy levels tell
us about the QCD
colour potential.
7
QCD Phenomenology:
Gauge Boson Exchange Potential
Compare the three force carriers photon, W/Z, gluon:
A 3D Fourier transform of the amplitude gives an equivalent potential V(r).
QED:
Weak interaction: Yukawa type potential:
Gluons are much like photons as they are massless, but the three-gluon vertex
(non-Abelian) and colour confinement result in some important differences.
QCD:
M
e
2
q
2
M
W,Z
V (r) =
e
2
4r
e
Mr
V
e
2
4r
M
e
2
q
2
V (r)

s
r
+
s
r
8
10
Eine weitere experimentelle Mglichkeit zur Untersuchung des Potentials der starken Wechselwirkung
ist die Quarkonium-Spektroskopie: die Vermessung der bergnge zwischen verschiedenen
Anregungszustnd
! "
en von Quark-Antiquark-Paaren.
Die Existenz solcher Anregungszustnde ist ein weiterer Hinweis darauf, dass da Quarkmodell richtig ist.
Besonders interessant ist die Spektroskopie von Charmonium und cc
! "
Bottomium , da diese
Systeme aus schweren Quarks als nichtrelativistisch betrachtet werden knnen.
Die Abfolge der Energieniveaus ist generell hmlich wie beim Positronium. Im Detail finden sich jedoc
bb
h
Unterschiede, die insbesondere durch den linearen Term im Potential beschrieben werden knnen.
The QCD Potential
The QCD potential between a qq pair is the sum of a
single gluon exchange potential and a linear confining
term
in contrast to QED Coulomb potential V(r) ! !/r
!
s
is the strong coupling constant
k is a calculable constant that depends on colour
combinations involved
" constant measured experimentally: & ~ 1 GeV/fm
At long distances (or low-Q', r > 1.0 fm): the 1/r term is
negligible and the linear term dominates - this gives rise
to confinement
At short distances (or high-Q', r < 0.1 fm): the linear
term is negligible and 1/r term dominates.
However, this picture is complicated by the fact that !
s
is
not constant but !s actually varies with Q" - becoming
weaker at higher Q' - so that V(r) $ 0 as r $ 0 i.e.
asymptotic freedom
e
2
4
=>
g
2
4

s
V (r) k
s
r
+
s
r
9
The Standard Model

e
-
-
+
-
+
-
+
- +
-
+
-+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
The Electromagnetic Force.
The bare charge is screened by positive
charges. Screening increases with distance.
The Strong Force.
Because gluons have colour, there
is an anti-screening effect. The
colour-charge builds with quark
separation. As 2 quarks are pulled
apart, the colour field between
them accrues energy, until it has
enough to create more quarks.
h
a
d
r
o
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
Laura, 2
nd
year:
10
Running Coupling in QED
There are higher order corrections to our simple picture of the single photon
exchange (for a photon m=0, of course):
Looks like an effective mass term m
eff
=m
2
"#(q
2
). Luckily #(q
2
)=0 for q
2
=0 (required
by gauge invariance).
If we include the coupling to the electron we get a running coupling constant:
Consequence: We never measure the bare charge of an electron that appears in
the Lagrangian, we only ever measure the renormalised charge and coupling !.
However, we can measure the electron charge at various q
2
and also calculate the
running of the coupling.
# # #
e
+
e
!
1
q
2
m
2
1
q
2
m
2
(q
2
)

e
2
q
2
(1 + I(q
2
))
(q
2
) =

0
1 + I(q
2
)
11
Running Coupling ! in QED
45
Laufende Kopplungskonstante der QED
e
-
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
+
e
-
F(0) F(Q
2
)
! "
! "
2 2
2
Fr eine bestimmte Photonvirtualitt ergibt sich ein bestimmter Beitrag der Schleifen und
damit ein bestimmter Wert von . Damit hat die Renormierung zur Folge, dass die
Kopplungskonstante
Q I Q
e Q
e # $
! " ! " ! " ! "
! "
! "
! "
2 2
2 2 2 2 4
0 0
2 2 2
0
2
2
2 2
/ 4
1
1
1
log
3
der QED von der Skala abhngt: sie "luft".
Die Gleichung
ist der Anfang einer geometrischen Reihe, die summiert werden kann:
Fr groe ist
Q
e Q e I Q O e
e Q e
I Q
M
Q I Q
%
#
%
$ & '
( )
* + $
* +
'
, -
.
! "
2
2 0
2
0
2
0
1 log
3
, wobei wie weiter oben der Abschneideparameter fr
den in der Schleife umlaufenden Impuls ist. Damit haben wir
Wir knnen das infinitesimale und das willkrliche
M
Q
Q
Q
M
#
#
#
%
#
( )
* +
, -
$
( )
&
* +
, -
! "
2 0
2
0
2
1 log
3
2
, das gegen unendlich gehen muss,
eliminieren, indem wir eine als Referenz whlen:

Die Kombination der beiden Gleichungen liefert einen Ausdruck, der nu
M
M
/
#
# /
# /
%
$
( )
&
* +
, -
Renormierungsskala
! "
! "
! "
! "
2
2
2
2
2
1 log
3
r noch messbare endliche
Gren enthlt.
Q
Q
# /
#
# /
% /
$
( )
&
* +
, -
45
Laufende Kopplungskonstante der QED
e
-
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
-
e
+
e
+
e
-
e
+
e
-
F(0) F(Q
2
)
! "
! "
2 2
2
Fr eine bestimmte Photonvirtualitt ergibt sich ein bestimmter Beitrag der Schleifen und
damit ein bestimmter Wert von . Damit hat die Renormierung zur Folge, dass die
Kopplungskonstante
Q I Q
e Q
e # $
! " ! " ! " ! "
! "
! "
! "
2 2
2 2 2 2 4
0 0
2 2 2
0
2
2
2 2
/ 4
1
1
1
log
3
der QED von der Skala abhngt: sie "luft".
Die Gleichung
ist der Anfang einer geometrischen Reihe, die summiert werden kann:
Fr groe ist
Q
e Q e I Q O e
e Q e
I Q
M
Q I Q
%
#
%
$ & '
( )
* + $
* +
'
, -
.
! "
2
2 0
2
0
2
0
1 log
3
, wobei wie weiter oben der Abschneideparameter fr
den in der Schleife umlaufenden Impuls ist. Damit haben wir
Wir knnen das infinitesimale und das willkrliche
M
Q
Q
Q
M
#
#
#
%
#
( )
* +
, -
$
( )
&
* +
, -
! "
2 0
2
0
2
1 log
3
2
, das gegen unendlich gehen muss,
eliminieren, indem wir eine als Referenz whlen:

Die Kombination der beiden Gleichungen liefert einen Ausdruck, der nu
M
M
/
#
# /
# /
%
$
( )
&
* +
, -
Renormierungsskala
! "
! "
! "
! "
2
2
2
2
2
1 log
3
r noch messbare endliche
Gren enthlt.
Q
Q
# /
#
# /
% /
$
( )
&
* +
, -
(Q
2
) =
(
2
)
1
(
2
)
3
log(
Q
2
2
)
where is a reference scale
remember: !(m
e
) = 1/137
The full formalism involves calculating the
integral over all possible electron momenta
running around in the loop. But here is the
result:
!(Q
2
) grows with increasing Q
2
. The em-
interaction is stronger at short distances!
The coupling in QED is more walking than
running.
12
Running of !
s
in QCD
46
Laufende Kopplungskonstante der QCD
S. Bethke, hep-ex/0004021 20 Apr 2000
R F(0)
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
F(Q
2
)
R
In der QCD funktioniert die Renormierung in der gleichen Weise. Hier gibt es aufgrund der
Selbstwechselwirkung der Gluonen jedoch weitere Schleifen. Die -Schleife fhrt auf den
gleichen Koeffizienten
qq
! "
2 2
log 2, vor dem -Term wie in der QED (bis auf einen Faktor
der durch die Konvention in der Definition der Kopplungskonstante der QCD gegenber
begrndet ist). Da diese Schleife fr jede Quarkflav
s
Q #
$
$
! "
! "
! "
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 5 16 log
4 3
our auftritt, erhlt der Koeffizient einen
Multiplikator , die Zahl der Flavours. Darber hinaus gibt es jedoch Schleifen aus Gluonen.
Im Ganzen ergibt sich
f
s
s
s
f
n
Q
Q
n
$ #
$
$ #
% #
&
' (
' (
) * )
+ , +
- .
- .
! "
2 2
16 6
log
s
Man sieht, dass sich fr weniger als Quark flavours (wir kennen ) gegenber der QED ein
umgekehrtes Vorzeichen vor dem -Term ergibt. Damit wird die starke
Kopplungskonstante mit wachsende
Q #
$
,
2
r Skala oder entsprechend kleineren Abstnden immer
kleiner. Dies nennt man die der QCD. Wenn die Skala
andererseits immer kleiner wird, dann divergiert die Kopplungskonstante
Q asymptotische Freiheit
! " ! "
! "
! "
2 2
2
2
2
2
12
exp
33 2
12
33 2 log
, und zwar bei der Skala
Damit knnen wir auch schreiben
Die Skala stellt also gewissermaen die Grenze dar zwischen dem perturbativen Bereich,
f s
s
f
n
Q
Q
n
%
#
$ #
%
$
' (
)
+ , / &
+ ,
)
- .
&
' (
)
+ ,
/
- .
/ in dem
die Kopplungskonstante klein ist und dem nicht-perturbativen Bereich, in dem wir es mit gebunden
Zustnden aus Quarks und Gluonen zu tun haben, die strungstheoretisch nicht berechnet werden
kn 200 nen. liegt im Bereich von MeV. /
46
Laufende Kopplungskonstante der QCD
S. Bethke, hep-ex/0004021 20 Apr 2000
R F(0)
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
F(Q
2
)
R
In der QCD funktioniert die Renormierung in der gleichen Weise. Hier gibt es aufgrund der
Selbstwechselwirkung der Gluonen jedoch weitere Schleifen. Die -Schleife fhrt auf den
gleichen Koeffizienten
qq
! "
2 2
log 2, vor dem -Term wie in der QED (bis auf einen Faktor
der durch die Konvention in der Definition der Kopplungskonstante der QCD gegenber
begrndet ist). Da diese Schleife fr jede Quarkflav
s
Q #
$
$
! "
! "
! "
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 5 16 log
4 3
our auftritt, erhlt der Koeffizient einen
Multiplikator , die Zahl der Flavours. Darber hinaus gibt es jedoch Schleifen aus Gluonen.
Im Ganzen ergibt sich
f
s
s
s
f
n
Q
Q
n
$ #
$
$ #
% #
&
' (
' (
) * )
+ , +
- .
- .
! "
2 2
16 6
log
s
Man sieht, dass sich fr weniger als Quark flavours (wir kennen ) gegenber der QED ein
umgekehrtes Vorzeichen vor dem -Term ergibt. Damit wird die starke
Kopplungskonstante mit wachsende
Q #
$
,
2
r Skala oder entsprechend kleineren Abstnden immer
kleiner. Dies nennt man die der QCD. Wenn die Skala
andererseits immer kleiner wird, dann divergiert die Kopplungskonstante
Q asymptotische Freiheit
! " ! "
! "
! "
2 2
2
2
2
2
12
exp
33 2
12
33 2 log
, und zwar bei der Skala
Damit knnen wir auch schreiben
Die Skala stellt also gewissermaen die Grenze dar zwischen dem perturbativen Bereich,
f s
s
f
n
Q
Q
n
%
#
$ #
%
$
' (
)
+ , / &
+ ,
)
- .
&
' (
)
+ ,
/
- .
/ in dem
die Kopplungskonstante klein ist und dem nicht-perturbativen Bereich, in dem wir es mit gebunden
Zustnden aus Quarks und Gluonen zu tun haben, die strungstheoretisch nicht berechnet werden
kn 200 nen. liegt im Bereich von MeV. /
: energy scale
Nf: number of active flavours
(: QCD scale, ~ 220 MeV
!
s
is really running fast
Connement and Asymptotic Freedom
Here is the formula describing -dependence of the strong coupling
s
at leading order:
s
() =
4
0
ln(
2
/
2
)

0
= 11
2
3
N
q
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
1 10 10
2
GeV
!
s
(
)
N
q
is the number of active quark avours
(i.e. those with masses below /2), which
changes from 3 at low to 5 at M
Z
.
is the QCD scale parameter, with a measured value
of about 220 MeV, which corresponds to
s
(M
Z
) 0.12.
At very large values,
s
becomes small quarks feel (almost) free when probed deep
inside hadrons. This is called asymptotic freedom.
On the contrary, at small strong interactions become really very strong, not allowing
quarks and gluons to get out of a hadron at large distances. This provides a (qualitative)
explanation of colour connement.
Particle Physics
The situation in QCD is slightly different:
Virtual qq production has the same long
distance screening effect as in QED. But as the
gluon carries colour itself there is also anti-
screening: a quark that is probed may emit
gluons thus hiding its true colour.
Mathematically: there are more 1 loop
diagrams to be added.
Result:
s
(
2
) =
12
(33 2N
f
)ln(
2
/
2
)
_
13
Confinement and Asymptotic Freedom
Here is the formula describing the scale () dependence (running) of the
strong coupling at leading order:
Nq is the number of active quark flavours (i.e. those with masses below ~/2)
which changes from 3 at low to 5 at ~ MZ.
# is the QCD scale parameter with a measured value of about 220MeV that
corresponds to $s(MZ) ~ 0.12
At very large $s becomes small quarks feel (almost) free when probed deep
inside hadrons: when a high-Q' probe (e.g. a virtual photon in DIS) examines the
partonic composition of a nucleon the struck quarks behave as if they are free (not
bound). This is called asymptotic freedom Scaling Invariance
On the contrary at small strong interactions become very strong, not allowing
quarks and gluons to get out of a hadron at large distances. This provides a
(qualitative) explanation of colour confinement. The long range linear confining
term in the QCD potential arises for the same reason as the running of $s - the
antiscreening property of QCD. Perturbation theory is not applicable
anymore.
s
(
2
) =
12
(33 2N
f
)ln(
2
/
2
)
14
Cross section e
+
e
#
! qq"
(u u) = (cc) = (t
t) =
4
9
3 (e
+
e
)
(d
d) = (ss) = (b
b) =
1
9
3 (e
+
e
)
R
(e
+
e
q q)
(e
+
e
)
=
3Q
2
q
=
3Q
2
q
1 +

s
%
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Particle Physics
(e
+
e
hadrons)
(e
+
e
)
10
-1
1
10
10
2
10
3
1 10 10
2
!
"
#
!
J/$
$(2S)
Z
R
S GeV
Particle Physics
15
Hadronisation II
Lets observe the evolution fragmentation
of say, a c c pair produced in e
+
e
annihilation:
The colour strings continue breaking up as long
as there is enough energy (inv. mass) available.
Then, the produced quarks combine with
nearest antiquarks (diquarks)
to produce nal mesons (baryons).
Those secondary quark-antiquark
pairs are usually light, i.e.
u u or d
d, sometimes s s.
Thats why the leading hadrons those at the ends of the chain usually contain the
initial quarks (whichever avour they were), while the rest are nearly always pions.
Particle Physics
Fragmentation
The leading hadrons usually contain the original quarks while the rest are nearly
always pions.
There is no unambiguous theory of hadronisation - but several successful models
exist - the large value of $s precludes a perturbation theory approach to
calculations
quarks produced in e
+
e
#
$ qq" move apart
a new qq pair is created
potential energy stored in the colour field between
them also grows until the potential energy is greater
than the rest mass energy of a qq"pair
quarks and antiquarks
combine with neighbours into
colour singlet bound states -
hadrons
gluons can split into further qq"or gg
pairs (via the ggg vertex)
_
16
Quark Flow Diagrams
Because of the strong coupling of $s at small distances there is a
permanent exchange of gluons. It is pointless to draw all of those in a
Feynman diagram. However, only the W
boson can change the quark

flavour.
Thus we can still draw Quark Flow Diagrams accounting for the
constituent quarks responsible for the quantum numbers of the
hadron and accounting for the quark flavours.
Feynman vs Quark Flow
The Feynman diagram (or the colsest thing to F.d. we can draw in QCD), equivalent to
the process on the previous slide, looks like this:
The space between the quark-antiquark lines
is understood to be lled with virtual gluon
shnet. But counting vertices does not make
sense: the coupling is too strong!
In these circumstances, including all those
gluonic interactions in the Feynman diagrams
is pointless, and those soft gluons are just
ignored. Feynman diagrams thus become quark-ow diagrams, showing only constituent
quarks, i.e. those which determine the quatum numbers of the hadrons, not the sea of
virtual q q pairs and gluons which is always present inside hadrons. But electroweak
vertices still have to be shown explicitly.
On the contrary, it is thought that the hadronisation proceeds without any suppression,
i.e. the probability of ending up in some nal hadronic state is equal to unity. The
problem is, we cannot predict probabilities of specic nal congurations very well. . .
Particle Physics
Worksheet 5, Q1
17
15
!
!
! !
!
"
# "
$%&
'
#
"(
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit fr die Abstrahlung eines Gluons mit einem
Transversalimpuls relativ zum hchstenergetischsten Jet nimmt also
mit ab. Fr
! ! ""#
$
%
% %
! ! ""
%
%
&
'
&(
( (
(
(
!
"
!
#
+ $
+ $
%
%
& '
=
( )
* +
!
!
!
"( $%&
festes nimmt sie jedoch mit wachsender
Schwerpunktsenergie logarithmisch zu.
Wie wir wissen luft wie
und damit wrde die
-Abhngigkeit in obiger Formel herausfallen. Dies ist jedo
%
$ $
(
'
'
'
" " !
! ! ! !
!
)
)
ch nicht so,
weil wir es hier mit einem Prozess mit zwei Skalen zu tun haben,
und mit Die relevante Skala fr ist
Die aus den Quarks und dem Gluon entstehenden Hadronen werden
dies
% %
$ %
' ( ( '
( "
"
er - Verteilung folgen. Die Abbildung zeigt Messungen an PETRA
fr verschiedene Werte von als Funktion von . Die Referenzachse ist
hier die sogenannte Thrustachse. Das ist die Achse fr die die Su
%
%
(
'
(
2
mme
der Longitudinalimpulse aller Hadronen des Endzustands maximal wird.
Sie entspricht der Richtung des Quarks in der Abbildung auf der letzten Seite.
Man sieht sowohl den Abfall mit als auch die -
%
(
' Abhngigkeit.

Gluon Radiation
The probability for gluon emission is
highest for
! soft gluons (low momentum)
! small angles
Compared to photon brems the emission
of a gluon is a factor of $s/$ = 15 more
likely.
18
Building Hadrons with QCD
Quarks can radiate (or swallow) a gluon and change its colour. Quark flavour will
remain intact; the W-boson is still the only one capable of changing quark flavour.
Every flavour of quark can exist in three colour states:
Correspondingly antiquarks can exist in three anticolour states
There are three ways of constructing a colourless (white) object out of coloured
quarks:
The first one clearly needs a quark and an antiquark this is a meson.
The second can only be formed from three quarks; this is a baryon.
The last one must contain three antiquarks and is an antibaryon.
1
3
|R
R +G
G+B
B >
1
6
|RGB GRB +BRGRBG+GBR BGR >
1
6
|

R
B

G
B +

B
G

R
G+

G
R

B
R >
R,

G,

B
R, G, B
19
Summary
We have a theory of the strong interaction based on SU(3)colour
The theory is qualitatively able to explain asymptotic freedom and
confinement.
There are some very successful quantitative calculations at high
energies that are in good agreement with the theory.
There are embarrassingly few calculations that one actually can do as
most of the QCD regime is not accessible by perturbation theory.
20
Dr. Harald Fox
Faraday Building
B45
Beyond the Standard Model
1
The Standard Model
One Corner stone is still missing:
! Where is the electro-weak symmetry breaking coming from?
The intrinsic strength of electromagnetic and weak interactions are similar.
The weak interaction appears weak because of the mass of the W/Z boson.
W/Z are massive because of the Higgs mechanism.
The Higgs boson also keeps the WW scattering amplitude finite.
Where is the Higgs boson?
2
Open Questions of the Standard Model
! Why are there 3 generations?
! Where are the particle masses coming from?
The Higgs mechanism cannot explain the
structure.
! Why does the weak interaction has this chiral
(left handed / right handed) structure?
! Where is CP violation coming from?
! Is there enough CP violation in the Standard
Model?
! How do we get Baryon number violation?
! Where is the quark mixing coming from?
! Where is the neutrino mixing coming from?
! What is the dark matter?
! What dark energy?
! How are the couplings of the interaction
related? Where is the weak mixing angle
coming from?
! What is the quantum field theory of gravity?
! How are leptons and quarks related?
PHYS311 Name: Mark : Initials:
Lancaster University Department of Physics
PHYS311 - Particle Physics
Michaelmas Term 2007 Sheet 3 - Solutions
*****************************************************************************
1. Write down the Standard Model of particle physics.
What particles are there? How are they grouped? What interactions exist among them?
How do the interactions couple to the particles? Did you think of handedness?
Solution:
Generation Quantum Numbers coupling
I II III Q T
3
Y W
Z
0

e
e
L
0
1
+
1
2
1
2
1
1 Q
g
W
(1
5
)
g
W
(1
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
)
e
+

e
R
+1
0
+
1
2
1
2
+1
+1
Q
g
W
(1 +
5
)
g
W
(1 +
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
+ g
A
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
+ g
A
5
)
e
R
1 0 2 Q
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
e
+
L

+
L

+
L
+1 0 +2 Q
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
u
d
c
s
t
b
L
+2/3
1/3
+
1
2
1
2
+1/3
+1/3
Q
g
W
(1
5
)
g
W
(1
5
)V
ff
g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
g
A
5
)

d
u
s
c
R
+1/3
2/3
+
1
2
1
2
1/3
1/3
Q
g
W
(1 +
5
)
g
W
(1 +
5
)V
ff
g
Z
(g
V
+ g
A
5
)
g
Z
(g
V
+ g
A
5
)
u
R
d
R
c
R
s
R
t
R
b
R
+2/3
1/3
0
0
+4/3
2/3
Q
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
d
L
u
L
s
L
c
L
b
L
t
L
+1/3
2/3
0
0
+2/3
4/3
Q
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
2g
Z
Qs
2
W
where g
V
= T
3
2Qs
2
W
with s
2
W
= sin
W
and g
A
= T
3
. The electric charge Q is
a composite of the weak isospin and the hypercharge Y in the combined electroweak
model: Q = T
3
+ Y/2.
quark masses
3
Dark Energy
Einsteins equation
If the energy density dilutes as Universe
expands, it must slow down
Need something that gains in energy as
Universe stretches
i.e, negative pressure
The cosmological constant ! has the
equation of state w=p/"=1
Generically called Dark Energy

No Big Bang
1 2 0 1 2 3

expands forever
-1
0
1
2
3
2
3
c
l
o
s
e
d
recollapses eventually
Supernovae
CMB
Clusters
o
p
e
n
f
l
a
t
Knop et al. (2003)
Spergel et al. (2003)
Allen et al. (2002)
Supernova Cosmology Project

R
R
2
=
8
3
G
N
4
SUSY
Supersymmetry provides
possible solutions for remaining
problems of the Standard Model:
Dark Matter Candidate
Unification of em, weak and strong

forces at high energies
Fine tuning of corrections to the

Higgs mass
5
Supersymmetry (SUSY)
Supersymmetry is a symmetry that relates
Fermions and Bosons. As spin is a relativistic
effect coming from the Poincare group of
symmetries, SUSY is a space-time symmetry,
too.
Every particle has an identical
supersymmetric partner (the sparticle) that
just differs in spin by #:
Leptons and quarks have spin-0 partners
(sleptons and squarks)
Photons, W, Z, gluon and Higgs have spin-#
partners (photino, wino, zino, gluino,
higgsino). Actually, supersymmetric partners
with the same quantum numbers mix to
create charginos and neutralinos.
Graviton (spin 2) has a spin-$/" partner
(gravitino).
Obviously Supersymmetry must be broken
and super-partners are much heavier than
there standard model counterparts.
6
Supersymmetry
The unification of the coupling constants works better with Supersymmetry.
The unification scale is higher. That increases the proton lifetime. SU(5) +
Supersymmetry is still possible!
Local invariance against supersymmetric transformation includes gravity!
R-parity conserving SUSY provides a candidate for dark matter: the LSP (lightest
supersymmetric particle, usually the lightest neutralino.)
The success of the Standard Model is retained.
5 Higgs bosons are predicted, the lightest should be < 130 GeV
6 15. Grand Unied Theories
the Higgs mass bound itself.
Figure 15.1: Gauge coupling unication in non-SUSY GUTs on the left vs. SUSY
GUTs on the right using the LEP data as of 1991. Note, the dierence in the
running for SUSY is the inclusion of supersymmetric partners of standard model
particles at scales of order a TeV (Fig. taken from Ref. 21). Given the present
accurate measurements of the three low energy couplings, in particular
s
(M
Z
),
GUT scale threshold corrections are now needed to precisely t the low energy data.
The dark blob in the plot on the right represents these model dependent corrections.
At present, gauge coupling unication within SUSY GUTs works extremely well. Exact
unication at M
G
, with two-loop-RG running from M
G
to M
Z
, and one-loop-threshold
corrections at the weak scale, ts to within 3 of the present precise low-energy data. A
small threshold correction at M
G
(
3
3 to 4%) is sucient to t the low-energy
data precisely [2224].
2
This may be compared to non-SUSY GUTs, where the t
misses by 12 , and a precise t requires new weak-scale states in incomplete GUT
multiplets, or multiple GUT-breaking scales.
3
2
This result implicitly assumes universal GUT boundary conditions for soft SUSY-
breaking parameters at M
G
. In the simplest case, we have a universal gaugino mass
M
1/2
, a universal mass for squarks and sleptons m
16
, and a universal Higgs mass m
10
, as
motivated by SO(10). In some cases, threshold corrections to gauge coupling unication
can be exchanged for threshold corrections to soft SUSY parameters. See for example,
Ref. 25 and references therein.
3
Non-SUSY GUTs with a more complicated breaking pattern can still t the data.
For example, non-SUSY SO(10) SU(4)
C
SU(2)
L
SU(2)
R
SM, with the second
breaking scale of order an intermediate scale, determined by light neutrino masses using
the see-saw mechanism, can t the low-energy data for gauge couplings [26], and at the
same time survive nucleon decay bounds [27], discussed in the following section.
July 14, 2006 10:37
6 15. Grand Unied Theories
the Higgs mass bound itself.
Figure 15.1: Gauge coupling unication in non-SUSY GUTs on the left vs. SUSY
GUTs on the right using the LEP data as of 1991. Note, the dierence in the
running for SUSY is the inclusion of supersymmetric partners of standard model
particles at scales of order a TeV (Fig. taken from Ref. 21). Given the present
accurate measurements of the three low energy couplings, in particular
s
(M
Z
),
GUT scale threshold corrections are now needed to precisely t the low energy data.
The dark blob in the plot on the right represents these model dependent corrections.
At present, gauge coupling unication within SUSY GUTs works extremely well. Exact
unication at M
G
, with two-loop-RG running from M
G
to M
Z
, and one-loop-threshold
corrections at the weak scale, ts to within 3 of the present precise low-energy data. A
small threshold correction at M
G
(
3
3 to 4%) is sucient to t the low-energy
data precisely [2224].
2
This may be compared to non-SUSY GUTs, where the t
misses by 12 , and a precise t requires new weak-scale states in incomplete GUT
multiplets, or multiple GUT-breaking scales.
3
2
This result implicitly assumes universal GUT boundary conditions for soft SUSY-
breaking parameters at M
G
. In the simplest case, we have a universal gaugino mass
M
1/2
, a universal mass for squarks and sleptons m
16
, and a universal Higgs mass m
10
, as
motivated by SO(10). In some cases, threshold corrections to gauge coupling unication
can be exchanged for threshold corrections to soft SUSY parameters. See for example,
Ref. 25 and references therein.
3
Non-SUSY GUTs with a more complicated breaking pattern can still t the data.
For example, non-SUSY SO(10) SU(4)
C
SU(2)
L
SU(2)
R
SM, with the second
breaking scale of order an intermediate scale, determined by light neutrino masses using
the see-saw mechanism, can t the low-energy data for gauge couplings [26], and at the
same time survive nucleon decay bounds [27], discussed in the following section.
July 14, 2006 10:37
7
Grand Unification
! Electro-weak unification: SU(2) Isospin rotation
! Can we do the same thing again, just include coloured quarks (dr, dg, db) this
time?
! The states that belong into a single family and can be rotated into each other
are

e
e
= Isospin t
3
=
+1/2
1/2
(d
r
, d
g
, d
b
, e
+
,
e
)
! In addition to the gluons transforming
dr dg db and the W
boson
transforming e
+
%&e we need two
more charged bosons X and Y with
charge '#/$ and '% for dx e
+
and
dx %&e.
! The masses of those new bosons are
about Mx ( 10
15
GeV where Mx is the
unification scale that also unifies the
coupling constants:
8
SU(5) GUT
Mathematically the rotations of five elements belong to the group SU(5) which
contains the Standard Model:
SU(5) ! SU(3) ) SU(2) ) U(1)
This model has some very nice features:
! Electron and quark charges are related: the sum of electric charges in each family
is 0:
3Qd + e = 0.
This finally would explain why the proton and positron charges are identical.
! Running the couplings backwards from unification scale to low energies one can
determine one of the couplings, one ratio. The Georgi-Glashow model predicts the
weak mixing angle
sin
2
*w = 0.21 0.01
! Baryon number and lepton number are not conserved in these models, but the
combination B ' L = const is.
! Another prediction is the proton decay
p & !
0
+ e
+
Given that the decay width will have Mx4 in the denominator the proton lifetime is
very long though: 10
30
- 10
33
years.
There are other GUTs: SO(10), E8, SUGRA...
Disagrees with experiment
Disagrees with experiment
9
Gravity vs QFT
Symmetry is underlying General Relativity:
Physics should be identical in every system, inertial system or not.
In order to counteract a generic co-ordinate transformation one has to introduce a
gravitational field - just as the photon field was introduced to counteract local
phase transformation.
There is a problem though: Particle gauge theory is a theory happening on a fixed
background metric, the Minkowski metric
General Relativity is the physics of the metric itself.
To complicate things, GR is non-abelian: the energy density of the gravitational
field adds to the bending of space time.
g
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

1
2
g
R = 8GT
10
Gravity as Gauge Theory
Youre probably not surprised anymore that one can write gravity as field (gauge)
theory with a perturbative Ansatz:
Space-time is flat with only small local deviations from flatness (weak field
expansion):
where +% is the usual flat Minkowski metric of special relativity and h% is the small
disturbance by the gravitational field: the graviton! Here the graviton behaves like
any other field (photons, W,Z bosons) in flat space time.
One can also find a propagator and vertices for the gravitons.
The only problem:
(This) Gravity is non-renormalizable!
The self-interaction leads to infinities that cannot be absorbed into renormalised
couplings and masses.
g
+h
11
Extra Dimensions: Kaluza - Klein Theories
Using gravity as model to explain the other interactions (unified field theory).
1914 Nordstrom and 1921 Kaluza proposed to unify gravity and electromagnetism
by adding a fifth dimension to the 4D Einstein theory
1926 Klein modified the proposal: the 5
th
dimension might be compactified, a
curled up circular dimension.
Are there Extra Dimensions (ED) of space?
ED are a prediction of Strings
Can stabilize the Higgs mass
Can provide a DM candidate
each point in space would have
additional dimension attached to it
Gravity flux in ED ! Newtons law modified: for k=0
This lowers the fundamental Planck scale dep. on size & number of ED
if d =2,6
Solution to Hierarchy problem <==> New problem: Why R so large?
12
Extra Dimensions
From symmetry principles the circular 5
th
dimension has the symmetry U(1).
Asking for co-ordinate invariance - that physics does not depend on the position in
the 5
th
dimension - one gets back the Maxwell theory: this 5-dimensional theory
contains gravity and electro-magnetism!
The 5D metric would look something like this:
where g% is the usual 4D metric from GR, A is the electro-magnetic vector
potential and g55 is an extra scalar field. Theories trying to identify g55 with the
Higgs field run under the name Gauge-Higgs Unification
g
MN
=
g
55
13
5 to 11 Dimensions
In principle adding some higher dimensional space to our 4 dimensions that has
the symmetry SU(3) ) SU(2) ) U(1) would give us gravity and the standard
model. It has been shown that 7 extra dimensions are needed.
Unfortunately all theories constructed that way do not reproduce our world.
This idea is brought back to life now and then in different forms:
String theory, M-theory
In string theory particles are described as 1-dimensional objects that live in a
higher dimensional space. Strings and particles are identified by a certain string
tension and by vibrational modes of the string.
Additional the (up to 11) dimensional space may be partitioned into world-sheets
of lower dimensions (branes)
14
Randall-Sundrum Models
In Randall-Sundrum Models there are 2 branes, 1 brane at the GUT scale and all
mortals confined on a separate brane, the TeV brane.
In this model gravitons would be the only particles that can travel in the bulk
between the two branes.
Gravity would have the same coupling strength as all the other interactions, but in
the projection onto the TeV brane gravity looks weak.
Randall-Sundrum Models
In Randall-Sundrum Models there are 2 branes, 1 brane at the GUT scale and all
mortals confined on a separate brane, the TeV brane.
In this model gravitons would be the only particles that can travel in the bulk
between the two branes.
Gravity would have the same coupling strength as all the other interactions, but in
the projection onto the TeV brane gravity looks weak.
Space is compact, of size 2 L, with orbifold conditions x, y x,-y
Brane at y = 0 ( UV or Planck Brane) Brane at y = L (IR or TeV Brane)
Non-factorizable metric: solution to 5d Einstein equations
Newtons law modified: 5d Planck mass relates to M
Pl:
Natural energy scale at the UV brane: Fundamental Planck scale
At the TeV brane, all masses are affected by an exponential warp factor:
.
Assuming fundamental scales all of same order:
Solution to Hierarchy problem :
Higgs field lives on the TeV brane
with kL ~30
Warped Extra Dimensions

ds
2
= e
!2k| y|
"
#
dx
dx
v
+ dy
2
) 1 (
2
) (
2
3 .
2 kL
fund
Pl
Pl
e
k
M
M
!
! =
. fund
Pl
M !
e
!kL
<<1
M
Pl
! M
Pl
fund.
! k

v~
!
k ! k e
-kL
" M
Pl
e
-kL
~ TeV
UV~ M
Pl
IR ~TeV
B
U
L
K
Randall, Sundrum99
H
i
g
g
s
15
Summary
The Standard Model is highly successful.
However, it cannot be the full story. Some obvious patterns are not
explained. First experimental evidence comes in that there is more out
there.
There are plenty of theories out there. Some look very promising but
ultimately do not agree (completely) with data.
Some theories can predict everything and thus predict nothing at all.
Can the LHC shed some light on the problem? Find SUSY or other new
particles?
Stay tuned!
16

Particle Physics Notes

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311 - Particle Physics

Dr. Harald Fox

1 for electromagnetic force: "

2 for weak force: W

8 for strong force: g

The World Formula:

Highly predictive model!

1 for electromagnetic force: "

2 for weak force: W

8 for strong force: g

The World Formula:

Highly predictive model!

Missing: 1 Higgs Boson

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

< 0.19 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 +1/ 1 0

< 18.2 stable 1/2 0 +1/ 1 0 0 +1/ 1

Scalar product (dot product):

! = "# is a maximal velocity that is identical

, following the Lorentz transformation (in the rest frame z

Hence, the mean decay length in the lab frame is l = c.

decay has mean life 10

do not live long enough to leave a track in most detectors!

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

illustrate the Barkas

and ultra-relativistic ! (>1000 GeV)

4/4 C. D'Ambrosio, T. Gys, C. Joram, M. Moll and L. Ropelewski CERN PH/DT2

and ultra-relativistic ! (>1000 GeV)

emit TR of detectable intensity.

illustrate the Barkas

(958) < 4.2 10

[b] < 8.3 10

X [b] (11.4 1.3 ) %

need to be at least 4 % 4 matrices. The choice of explicit matrices is not unique.

need to be at least 4 % 4 matrices. The choice of explicit matrices is not unique.

need to be at least 4 % 4 matrices. The choice of explicit matrices is not unique.

need to be at least 4 % 4 matrices. The choice of explicit matrices is not unique.

absorption of particle with -p

absorption of anti-particle with p