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Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England:
John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot:
Ashgate, 200.
Intro
- !"hetoric and music
#t is generally agreed that an understanding o$ rhetoric and its relation ot music is a
prere%uisite to the understanding o$ baro%ue music theory and aesthetics.
&'
Although
a re$ined application o$ rhetoric to musical composition $irst appears in (oachim
)urmeister*s Hy#omnematum musicae #oeticae (+,--), the lin. bet/een music and
oratory /as the cornerstone o$ humanist music discourse $rom the $i$teenth century
on/ards.
&,
#ndeed, the bonds o$ rhetoric and music in the "enaissance ha0e been
the core o$ the studies o$ the relation bet/een humanism and music $or the last
decades.
&1
2he discussion o$ the musico-rhetorical association in "enaissance
liturgical music tradition is mainly concerned /ith polyphony3 but there are aspects o$
contemporary chant /hich ha0e not been detected as directly or indirectly related to
rhetoric and oratory. 2his boo. /ill obser0e those aspects, thereby de$ining the
rele0ance o$ rhetoric 4 the rele0ance o$ #ronuntiatio or deli0ery 4 to the chant
practice3 more speci$ically, a reinterpretation o$ BCPN in the boo. /ill be a case study
to sho/ the ine5tricable union o$ music /ith principles o$ classical and humanist
rhetoric in ecclesiastical monophonic music.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the
reform of sacred music in early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the
Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, +1-.)
- !FN74: 7or bibliographical in$ormation on the relation o$ music and rhetoric /hich
co0ers the .ey primary and secondary sources issued by the early +-&0s, see 8. (.
)uelo/, 9:usic, "hetoric, and the ;oncept o$ the A$$ections: A Selecti0e
)ibliography*, Notes: Journal of the Music $ibrary %ssociation& <0 (+-&<): 2,0-,-3
)uelo/, 9"hetoric and :usic*, in 'he Ne( )ro*e +ictionary of Music and Musicians&
ed. S. Sadie, 20 0ols. (=ondon: :acmillan, +-0), 0ol. +1, pp. &-<-0<3 8. (. )uelo/
et al., 9"hetoric and :usic*, in 'he Ne( )ro*e +ictionary of Music and Musicians& ed.
S. Sadie, 2- 0ols. (=ondon: :acmillan, 2
nd
edn, 200+), 0ol. 2+, pp. 210-&,3 H. Krones,
9:usi. und "hetori.*, +ie Musik in )eschichte und )egen(art: allgemeine
En,yklo#die der Musik- ed. =. 7inscher (Kassel: )renreiter, 2
nd
edn, +--'-),
Sachteil (+--&), 0ol. 1, pp. +'-,2. 7or $urther ma>or researches on this sub>ect in
?nglish-spea.ing scholarship, see ;. @. Aalisca, 9)eginnings o$ )aro%ue :usic, #ts
1
"oots in the Si5teenth-;entury 2heory and Aolemics*, Ah. B. diss. (Har0ard
Cni0ersity, +-,<)3 H. =enneberg, 9(ohannes :attheson on A$$ect and "hetoric in
:usic*, Journal of Music 'heory& 2 (+-,):'&-', +-<-2<13 :. (oiner, 9:usic and
"hetoric in ?nglish Brama o$ the =ater Si5teenth and ?arly Se0enteenth ;enturies*.
Ah. B. diss. (Cni0ersity o$ ;ambridge, +-1&)3 ;. @. Aalisca, 9.t /ratoria Musica: 2he
"hetorical )asis o$ :usical :annerism*, in 'he Meaning of Mannerism& eds. 7. D.
"obinson E S. 8. Fichols, (r. (Hano0er, FH: Cni0ersity Aress o$ Fe/ ?ngland, +-&2),
pp. <&-1,3 8. =e;oat, 'he 0hetoric of 'he %rts& 1!112! (7ran.$urt: A. =ang,
+-&,)3 D. Kir.endale, 9;iceronians 0ersus Aristotelians on the "icercar as ?5ordium,
$rom )embo to )ach*, J%M3& <2 (+-&-): +-''3 C. Kir.endale, 92he Source $or )ach*s
Musical /ffering: 2he 4nstitutio oratoria o$ Guintilian*, J%M3, << (+-0): -+'+3 (.
Ber.son, 9+e imitatione: 2he 7unction o$ "hetoric in 8erman :usical 2heory and
Aractice (+,10-+1+0)*. Ah. B. diss. (Cni0ersity o$ 2oronto, +-2)3 ). @ic.ers, 97igures
o$ "hetoricH 7igures o$ :usicI*, 0hetorica& 2 (+-'): +-''3 D. Kir.endale, 9Circulatio1
2radition, Maria $actans& and (os%uin as :usical Jrator*, %cta Musicologica& ,1
(+-'): 1---23 B. Harrn, 9?legance as a ;oncept in Si5teenth-;entury :usic
;riticism*, 05, '+ (+-)3 '+<-<3 :. 7romson, 9A ;on>unction o$ "hetoric and :usic:
Structural :odeling in the #talian ;ounter-"e$ormation :otet*, Journal of the 0oyal
Musical %ssociation& ++&H2 (+--2): 20-'13 ). :. Dilson, 9.t oratoria musica in the
Dritings o$ "enaissance :usic 2heorists*, in 6esta Musicologica: Essays in Honor of
)eorge J- Buelo(- ed. 2. (. :athiesen E ). @. "i0era (Stuy0esant, FK: Aendragon
Aress, +--,), pp. <'+-13 B. Harrn, 92o/ard a "hetorical ;ode o$ ?arly :usic
"hetoric: Miserere mei& Beus and Jther :otets*, in 'he Jos7uin Com#anion& ed. ".
Sherr (J5$ord: J5$ord Cni0ersity Aress, 2000), pp. '-,-,<0.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah.
Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England: John Merbecke
the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200,
+1-&.)
2
Ch. 4
- !A Fe/ Approach to :erbec.e Studies
#n 9:usic History and #ts "elation to the History o$ #deas (+-'1)* ?d/ard =o/ins.y
stresses 9a sel$-e0ident but sadly neglected principle o$ analysis*: 9understanding o$
the /hole must precede analysis o$ the parts*.
'&
=o/ins.y dra/s attention to this
principle, /arning about /hat has o$ten happened in research centring on a single
composer: that is, the general stylistic phenomena in a musical genre current among
an entire group /ere claimed to be characteristic o$ the composer alone. =ea0er*s
approach to :erbec.e and BCPN is a case in point. As /ill be seen, the musical
character o$ BCPN and its a$$inity /ith =uther*s +eudsche Messe are not >ust limited
to the t/o liturgical conte5ts3 they illustrate characteristic insights o$ the humanist
re$orm o$ plainchant o$ the day.
'
6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of
sacred music in early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of
Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, --+0.)
- !FN47: ?. ?. =o/ins.y, 9:usic History and #ts "elation to the History o$ #deas*, 'he
Music Journal& ' (+-'1): 2&, ,<-', rpt., in Music in the Culture of 0enaissance and
/ther Essays& 2 0ols. ?d. ). (. )lac.burn (;hicago: ;hicago Cni0ersity Aress, +--),
0ol. +, pp. <-,, at '.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in
early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier
Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, -.)
Ch. 4
- !2he abo0e-noted principle is premised on the thesis that all technical and stylistic
changes in the history o$ music re$lect the changing outloo. o$ humans and human
society.
'-
As =o/ins.y discusses, the thesis is true o$ a great deal o$ polyphonic
music o$ the :iddle Ages and o$ the "enaissance, /ritten $or speci$ic social and
religious $unctions. Jne can go $urther to argue that music*s role as a 9$unctional art*,
/hether the main body to control the $unctions is ;hurch or court, is not only to re$lect
its outloo., but also to intensify it. As e5cellent e5ample o$ these dual $unctions o$
music can be $ound in "e$ormation musical history. Buring the "e$ormation, music
ser0ed an ideological and pedagogical purpose 4 the proclamation and intelligibility
o$ the 9Dord o$ 8od*. #n 8ermany, $or instance, songs /ere a signi$icant means o$
9spreading* "e$ormation ideas to the illiterate, up to -0 per cent o$ the population.
,0
6
3
(Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England:
John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot:
Ashgate, 200,+0.)
Ch. 4
- !=i.e language, thus, music /as used as a 0ehicle $or con0eying ideas in
"e$ormation ?urope. Dhat most preoccupied composers committed to the music o$
the "e$ormation /as the matter o$ the intelligibility o$ liturgical te5ts chanted and sung
at the ser0ices. 2heir emphasis on this matter, as /ill be discussed intensi0ely by the
$inal chapter o$ this boo., is associated /ith contemporary humanist enthusiasm $or
classical rhetoric, especially /ith the notion o$ deli0ery (#ronuntiatio) and the
rele0ance o$ deli0ery to musical composition and per$ormance.
,+
2/o %uestions may
be raised here in terms o$ the stylistic and technical issues o$ music /ith /hich those
composers /ere /ell ac%uainted: $irst, /hat /as meant by #ronuntiatio at that time3
and second, in /hat manner /as the rele0ance o$ deli0ery to the te5t and conte5t o$
music embodied by the composersI 2o ans/er the %uestions, thus, it is essential to
discuss brie$ly the notion o$ deli0ery, a concept /hich lies at the core o$ the classical
and humanist rhetoric.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in
early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier
Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, +0.)
Ch. 4
- !#t is generally agreed that rhetoric, 9the art o$ persuasi0e communication*, had
played a .ey role in shaping the identity and goals o$ "enaissance humanism.
,2
According to ancient te5ts on rheotirc /hich pro0ided the basis $or humanist rhetoric,
deli0ery is the most important $actor in oratory.
,<
:arcus 7abius Guintilian (c.<,-c.+00
;?) 4 /ho became the best instructor $or the ancient ars rhetorica in the "enaisance
4 o$$ers an anecdote to support this point: /hen as.ed to ran. elements o$ oratory in
importance, Bemosthenes streses that deli0ery is the most, the second most and
third most important.
,'
#n this 0ie/, Guintilian remar.s that 9e0en a mediocre speech,
made attracti0e by the po/er o$ deli0ery, /ill carry more /eight that the best speech
depri0ed o$ this help*.
,,
#n classical rhetoric, #ronuntiatio, or deli0ery, is di0ided into t/o: 90oice* (*o8) and
9motion* (motus).
,1
#n Guintilian*s terms, these t/o elements o$ deli0ery are
o0erlapped /ith t/o parts o$ music.
,&
Guintilian discusses $our $eatures o$ deli0ery,
,
that is, accuracy, clarity, elegance and compatibility: by accuracy, the condition o$ the
0oice, $aultless pronunciation, and breathing3 by clarity, proper enunciation and
4
punctuation3 by elegance, the natural in$le5ion and modulation o$ the 0oice3 and by
compatibility, the appropriate e5pression o$ ideas and emotions.
,-
7or Guintilian, the
9appropriateness* in deli0ery 4 decorum 4 is the most essential 0irtue o$ elocution
(elocutio).
10
2o achie0e these $our attributes o$ deli0ery is indispensable $or rhetoric,
especially as a teaching method. :ost humanists /ere engaged in education as
masters or tutors. 7or them, it /as a prere%uisite to obtain the s.ills o$ #ronuntiatio&
/hate0er the content o$ ideas that they presented.
As obser0ed, most re$ormers /ere either humanists or theologians hea0ily in$luenced
by humanist scholarship. 2he sermon, the sacred oratory, enhanced by the po/er o$
#ronuntiatio& /as indeed a critical $actor o$ the success o$ the "e$ormation.
Pronuntiatio& /hich concerns the /ay 8od*s Dord is proclaimed, con0eyed and
instructed, /as thus the .ey principle $or re$orming e5isting liturgical per$ormance in
/hich the inherent $unction o$ language to deli0er and communicate ideas had been
phased out.
"eco0ering the lost $unction o$ the 9di0ine language* /as essential to the re0i0al o$
9authentic* ;hristianity (Christianismus renascens) in the time o$ the "e$ormation. 7or
this purpose, it /as necessary $or the re$ormers to reorganiLe the substructure o$ the
traditional liturgy and ceremonies in $orm and content. 2he te5tual part o$ liturgical
per$ormance 4 reading, preaching, chanting and singing 4 lay at the core o$ the
re$orming programme o$ the traditional liturgy. #n such a conte5t, the $our attributes o$
deli0ery /ere applied not only to the art o$ preaching and reading but also to that o$
musical composition and per$ormance needed $or the re$ormed liturgy. #n $raming
regulations $or deli0ery through music, the composers o$ the "e$ormation oscillated
bet/een technical and semantic considerations. 2heir e$$orts in doing so made a
practical contribution to the rein$orcement o$ the basis o$ music practice o$ cathedral
and collegiate churches, especially plainchant.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the
reform of sacred music in early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the
Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, ++-2.)
- !FN53: 2he earliest e5tant te5t on rhetoric is Aristotle*s 'he %rt of 0hetoric (c.<<,
);?), trans. E ed. H. ;. =a/son-2ancred (=ondon: Aenguin )oo.s, +--+). 2he ma>or
medie0al te5ts on rhetoric /ere ;icero*s o/n +e in*entione and the pseudo-
;iceronian 0hetorica ad Herennium- #n +'+1 the $ull te5t o$ Guintilian*s 4nstitutio
oratoria /as disco0ered, and in +'22 ;icero*s +e oratore- J$ classical te5ts on
rhetoric, these t/o /ere most /idely disseminated in the $irst hal$ o$ the si5teenth
century: Guintilian*s 4nstitutio oratoria& $irst printed in "ome in +'&0, had at least +
5
editions by +,00, and at least +<0 more by +100. ;icero*s +e oratore /as $irst printed
in +'1,, and '1 commentaries on ;icero*s rhetorical /or.s /ere published in +,'+
alone. ;$. ). @ic.ers, 97igures o$ "hetoricH7igures o$ :usicI*, 0hetorica& 2 (+-'): '.6
(Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England:
John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot:
Ashgate, 200, ++.)
Ch. 4
- !#n rethin.ing the intellectual and religio-cultural conte5t o$ :erbec.e*s /or., $inally,
it is important to stress that "enaissance humanism /as an international mo0ement
and phenomenon. #ndeed, 2udor humanism cannot be properly understood in
isolation $rom the de0elopment o$ humanist learning in continental ?urope.
1,
2he =ast
point o$ this introduction there$ore concerns the general $eature o$ "enaissance
humanism as an intellectual techni%ue /hich is o$ten discussed in its comparison
/ith scholasticism. #n reassessing humanist-scholastic con$licts /ithin the conte5t o$
northern ?urope, Fauert demonstrates that humanism as an intellectual method
challenged traditional academic tradition.
11
His .ey points may be summariLed as
$ollo/s: +) humanist rhetoric undermined the 0alue o$ the dialectic o$ scholasticism in
see.ing 9absolute truth*3 2) humanist philology and te5tual criticism in treating
%uestions o$ 9te5tual authenticity* e0entually posed a $undamental challenge not only
in the liberal arts but also in the three higher $aculties. An e5ample o$ this is the
humanist antipathy to the old academic climate in theology, e0ident in the biblical and
patristic scholarship o$ t/o o$ the greatest $igures o$ northern ?uropean humanism,
(ac%ues =e$M0re d*?taples and Besiderius ?rasmus.
1&
#ntriguingly enough, the humanist-scholastic con$lict in theological method is directly
related to contemporary church music practice, especially plainchant practice. :ost
o$ all, the humanist-scholastic debate on plainchant illustrates t/o di$$erent
approaches to music: one approach based on the rhetorical notion o$ music3 the
other based on the mathematical notion o$ music. #n other /ords, the humanist-
scholastic con$lict in the conte5t o$ plainchant signi$ies 9the battle o$ music and /ords
in the "enaissance*.
1
7urthermore, it is important to be a/are that the humanist
re$orm o$ plainchant based on the precepts o$ classical rhetoric anticipated the
liturgical monophonic music o$ the "e$ormation.
2he humanist theological approach pa0ed the /ay $or the "e$ormation in inspiration
and programme. Arguably, the methodology o$ 9humanist theology*, /hich is in
parallel /ith contemporary musical humanism, is o$ $undamental importance in
6
relation to the stylistic characteristics o$ "e$ormation liturgical music. #t is my intention
to e5plore :erbec.e*s chant, one o$ the .ey musical mani$estations o$ the
"e$ormation, through an understanding o$ the relation o$ humanist musical ideas and
"e$ormation attitudes to/ards music. #n 0ie/ o$ such theological, historical and
aesthetical bac.drops to the liturgical chants o$ the "e$ormation as a /hole, the
present study /ill unco0er :erbec.e*s humanist scholarly tendency underlying his
chant music $or the re$ormed liturgy. #n terms o$ a con>unction o$ rhetoric and music
grounded in humanist music aesthetics, thus, the study see.s to reinterpret
:erbec.e*s musical style and language in BCPN /hich became a paradigm $or
Anglican plainchant tradition.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred
music in early modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of
Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, +<-,.)
Ch. 4
- !"enaissance humanism /as an international mo0ement in si5teenth-century
?urope. ?specially in relation to the "e$ormation, the ideal o$ northern ?uropean
humanism directed to/ards the corporate re0i0al o$ the ;hristian ;hurch is o$ prime
signi$icance.6 (Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early
modern England: John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted
(1!". Aldershot: Ashgate, 200, +,.)
Ch. 4
- !FN76: 7or .ey studies o$ the relation o$ humanism and music, see B. A. Dal.er,
9:usical Humanism in the Si5teenth and ?arly Se0enteenth ;enturies,* Music
0e*ie(& 2 (+-'+): +-+<, +++-2+, 220-2&, 2-<03 < (+-'2): ,,-&+3 A. J. Kristeller,
9:usic and =earning in the ?arly #talian "enaissance*, Journal of 0enaissance and
Baro7ue Music& + (+-'&): 2,,-&'3 H. Albrecht, 9Humanismus und :usi.*, in +ie
Musik in )eschichte und )egen(art- ed. 7. )lume. +' 0ols. E 2 supplements (Kassel:
)renreiter, +-,&), 0ol. 1, pp. -,--+3 ?. ?. =o/ins.y, 9Humanism in the :usic o$ the
"enaissance63 F. Airrotta, 9:usic and ;ultural 2endencies in +,
th-
;entury #taly*,
J%M3, +- (+-11): +2&-1+3 D. ?lders, 9Humanism and ?arly "enaissance :usic*,
'i9dschrift *an de *erenigung *oor nederlandse mu,iekgeschidenis& 2& (+-&&): 1,-
+0+3 D. ?lders et al., 9Humanism and :usic in the ?arly "enaissance*, in 9Humanism
and :usic*, in 0e#ort of the '(elfth Congress Berkeley 1:;;- eds. B. Hearts E ).
Dade (=ondon: 2he American :usicological Society, +-+), pp. &0--<3 ;. @.
Aalisca, Humanism in 4talian 0enaissance Musical 'hought (Fe/ Ha0en: Kale
Cni0ersity Aress, +-,)3 B. Harrn, <ord1'one 0elations in Musical 'hought from
%nti7uity to the 3e*enteenth Century- :SB '0 (Hnssler-@erlag: A#:, +-1)3 Harrn,
7
4n 3earch of Harmony: Hebre( and Humanist Elements in 3i8teenth1Century Musical
'hought- :SB '2 (Stuttgart: Hnssler-@erlagHA#:, +-)3 ". Strohm, 9:usic,
Humanism, and the #dea o$ a !"ebirth6 o$ the Arts*, in 'he Ne( /8ford History of
Music 444- i: Music as Conce#t and Practice in the $ate Middle %ges- eds. ". Strohm E
). (. )lac.burn (=ondon: J5$ord Cni0ersity Aress, 200+), pp. <'1-'0,.6 (Kim, Hyun-
Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England: John
Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot:
Ashgate, 200, +&-.)
Ch. 4
- !;hristian Humanism
Be$initions and #nterpretations o$ "enaissance Humanism
)oth terms, 9"enaissance* and 9humanism*, ha0e gi0en rise to constant contro0ersy
and disagreement amongst scholars. =et us consider brie$ly the term 9"enaissance*
$irst.
,
#n +ie =ultur der 0enaissance in 4talien (+10), (acob )urc.hardt (++--&)
used the 7rench term to designate the literary and artistic re0i0al in #taly during the
$ourteenth and $i$teenth centuries.
,-
#n 2erms o$ the di$$usion o$ the #talian
"enaissance to the rest o$ ?urope, the )urc.hardtian concept o$ the "enaissance is
0alid in current scholarship3 but it does not mean that as an international mo0ement
the "enaissance /as homogenous. As )ur.e notes, 9the reception o$ the #talian
"enaissance abroad is a proper sub>ect $or comparati0e history, pro0ided the
historians attend to di$$erences as /ell as similarities and discriminates bet/een
regions and meida*.
10
As to the term 9humanism*, in +0 7. (. Fiethammer, a 8erman educator, coined the
term humanism (humanismus) to designate a pedagogical $rame/or. $ocused
particularly on 8ree. and =atin classics.
1+
;ontemporary historians such as (.
:ichelet and 8. @oigt applied it to the period o$ the "enaissance /hich sa/ the
re0i0al o$ classical learning.
12
A$ter the +10 monumental publication o$ )urc.hardt
that established the traditional modern interpretation o$ the "enaissance, the study o$
humanism became a recogniLed academic enterprise3 it /as 0ie/ed as the ne/
philosophy o$ the "enaissance3 the disco0ery o$ human 0alues 4 indi0idualism,
secularism, moral autonomy and so on.
1<
2he )urc.hardtian interpretation o$ the "enaissance as essentially secular in culture
and spirit had been suspected since the mid-t/entieth century. #n his study
8
0enaissance 'hought (+-1+), Aaul J. Kristeller (+-0,---), one o$ the most in$luential
"enaissance scholars, challenged the e5isting ideological and philosophical
interpretation o$ "enaissance humanism. According to him, although "enaissance
humanism had important philosophical implications and conse%uences, it /as not a
philosophy but a cultural and educational mo0ement3 it pursued the impro0ement o$
society by reasserting the 0alue o$ the studia humanitatis& a cluster o$ $i0e sub>ects 4
grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy.
1'
#n this 0ie/, Kristeller
stresses the multi-$aceted characteristic o$ the religious, philosophical and political
ideas o$ the humanists3 that is, no single idea dominated the mo0ement:
"enaissance humanism as a /hole can not be identi$ied /ith a particular set o$ opinions or
con0ictions, but is rather characteriLed by a cultural ideal and a range o$ scholarly, literary, and
intellectual interests that the indi0idual humanist /as able to combine /ith a 0ariety o$
pro$essional, philosophical, or theological con0iction.
1,
Kristeller endorses the core o$ )urc.hardt*s 0ie/ that 9a number o$ important cultural
de0elopments o$ the "enaissance originated in #taly and spread to the rest o$ ?urope
through #talian in$luence*.
11
Dhilst )urc.hardt en0isaged the "enaissance as 9a ne/
ci0iliLation* based on classical anti%uity in discontinuity /ith the medie0al period,
ho/e0er, Kristeller does not dismiss the medie0al in$luence on the rise o$
"enaissance humanism:
Jne /as the $ormal rhetoric or ars dictaminis /hich had $lourished in medie0al #taly as a
techni%ue o$ composing letters, documents, and public orations, and as a training $or the class
o$ chancellors and secretaries /ho composed such letters and documents $or popes, emperors,
bishops, princes, and city republics. 2he second medie0al in$luence on "enaissance humanism
/as the study o$ =atin grammar as it had been culti0ated in the medie0al schools, and
especially in the 7rench schools, /here this study had been combined /ith the reading o$
classical =atin poets and prose /riters. 2his in$luence /as $elt in #taly to/ards the 0ery end o$
the thirteenth century, /hen the study and imitation o$ classical =atin authors came to be
considered as the prere%uisite $or the elegant composition o$ those letters and speeches /hich
the pro$essional rhetorician /as supposed to /rite.
1&
2he .ey point o$ Kristeller*s 0ie/ lies in the emphasis that "enaissance humanism
/as essentially a rhetorical mo0ement, inspired by classical elo%uence. 2hat is, the
purpose o$ humanist classical learning, $irst and $oremost, concerned the promotion
o$ elo%uence in its 0arious $orms. 8ray success$ully demonstrates the preoccupation
/ith elo%uence as the identi$ying characteristic o$ "enaissance humanism.
1
2he core
9
o$ Kristeller*s de$inition, thus, as put succinctly by :c8rath, lies in that 9the di0ersity
o$ ideas /hich is so characteristic o$ "enaissance humanism is based upon a
general consensus concerning ho( to deri*e and e8#ress those ideas>-
1-
A
representati0e e5ample o$ the humanist stylistic imitation o$ classical elo%uence is
;icero, /hose treatises /ere standard te5tboo.s $or humanist learning.
&0
#ndeed, ad
fonts 4 9to the sources* 4 became the slogan o$ humanistic intellectualism across
?urope, /hose central emphasis /as on bonae litterae 4 in both /ritten and spo.en
elo%uence. 2he promotion o$ elo%uence did not mean >ust to be an e5pert in rhetoric3
encyclopedic .no/ledge, 0irtue, and /isdom /ere main $actors in pursuing true
elo%uence.
&+
Kristeller*s philological approach, though regarded as a narro/ de$inition by some
scholars, mar.ed a turning point in the historiography o$ "enaissance humanism.
&2
Kristeller emphasiLed particularly the need $or more research 9on the religious ideas
o$ the humanists and also on their )iblical, patristic, and historical scholarship as it
a$$ected the theology o$ the "e$ormation period and $inally on the humanist
bac.ground o$ the si5teenth-century theologians*.
&<
2rin.aus* cultural-historical
approach to "enaissance humanism contributed to $illing this gap, by demonstrating
the #talian humanists* concerns $or biblical scholarship and 0arious religious matters.
&'
As :c8rath notes, "enaissance humanism concerned the 9rene/al rather than the
abolition o$ the ;hristian church*.
&,
Such humanist acti0ities committed to biblical and
theological matters and ecclesiastical re$orm is part o$ the "enaissance religious
culture, /hich is o$ten termed as 9;hristian humanism* (or 9biblical humanism*).
&1
(Kim, Hyun-Ah. Humanism and the reform of sacred music in early modern England:
John Merbecke the orator and the Booke of Common Praier Noted (1!". Aldershot:
Ashgate, 200, <+-,.)
10