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This document discusses the geology of the Nang Nuan oil field in the Gulf of Thailand. It summarizes the key findings:
1) The initial exploration concept was that high permeability zones originated from meteorically karstified buried hills. However, accumulated data from multiple wells showed conflicting evidence and unusual characteristics that did not fit this model.
2) Cores from the Nang Nuan-A02 well found oil-bearing karstified zones within alluvial fan conglomerates, rather than a residual breccia as initially believed. The conglomerates contained carbonate and sandstone clasts and were likely deposited in a syn-rift setting.
3) The karstification appears to
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Оригинальное название
Nang Nuan Oil Field, Gulf of Thailand_ Karst Reservoirs of Metoric or Deep-burial Origin
This document discusses the geology of the Nang Nuan oil field in the Gulf of Thailand. It summarizes the key findings:
1) The initial exploration concept was that high permeability zones originated from meteorically karstified buried hills. However, accumulated data from multiple wells showed conflicting evidence and unusual characteristics that did not fit this model.
2) Cores from the Nang Nuan-A02 well found oil-bearing karstified zones within alluvial fan conglomerates, rather than a residual breccia as initially believed. The conglomerates contained carbonate and sandstone clasts and were likely deposited in a syn-rift setting.
3) The karstification appears to
This document discusses the geology of the Nang Nuan oil field in the Gulf of Thailand. It summarizes the key findings:
1) The initial exploration concept was that high permeability zones originated from meteorically karstified buried hills. However, accumulated data from multiple wells showed conflicting evidence and unusual characteristics that did not fit this model.
2) Cores from the Nang Nuan-A02 well found oil-bearing karstified zones within alluvial fan conglomerates, rather than a residual breccia as initially believed. The conglomerates contained carbonate and sandstone clasts and were likely deposited in a syn-rift setting.
3) The karstification appears to
Nang Nuan oil eld, B6/27, Gulf of Thailand: karst reservoirs of
meteoric or deep-burial origin?
Alan P. Heward 1 , Supamittra Chuenbunchom 2 , Gerard Makel 2,3 , David Marsland 2 and Laurent Spring 2,3 1 Alan Heward & Assocs, Wallingford OX10 0SD, UK Present address: Lasmo Plc, 101 Bishopsgate, London EC2M 3XH, UK (email: alan.heward@lasmo.com) 2 Thai Shell Exploration and Production Co. Ltd, Bangkok, Thailand 3 Present address: Petroleum Development Oman LLC, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman ABSTRACT: Karst reservoirs in the Chumphon Basin of the Gulf of Thailand have produced oil at well rates exceeding 10 000 BBL/d. Meteorically karstied buried hills were recognized as a potential exploration play. The Nang Nuan discovery well appeared to conrm such a play, and the concept prevailed despite the accumulation of contrary and unusual data. By the time a subsequent well had produced nearly 410 6 BBL oil, there was a desire to better understand the prospectivity of the concession. The accumulated data indicate that the highs are probably syn-rift horsts and inversion features. Karst reservoirs occur in Ratburi carbonates, and Mesozoic and Tertiary clastics, apparently unrelated to subaerial exposure. The karstication appears to be primarily of deep-burial origin, as indicated by the nature of the karst, substantial pore volumes that are dicult to account for, and temperature and ow anomalies consistent with active geothermal circulation. There are granites and hot springs in the vicinity, and abundant CO 2 in this and neighbouring basins. Such deep-burial karst reservoirs have dierent implications for reserves estimation, prospect ranking and well completions. KEYWORDS: buried hill, karst, porosity, Ratburi, thermal anomaly INTRODUCTION This study of the geology of Pre-Tertiary penetrations in the Chumphon Basin was undertaken to try to understand the favourable, but unusual, production performance of the Nang Nuan-B01 well. As we dug into the records of other wells in the basin, further conicting and unusual data emerged. This case study is, in our opinion, an example of a good exploration play analogue being retained too long as anomalous data began to accumulate. It is also a typical example of how integrating data from dierent disciplines can result in a more robust geological interpretation. The Chumphon Basin is located at the western side of Gulf of Thailand (Fig. 1). The basin is one of a series of Tertiary half-graben whose origins can be linked to a regional transtensional regime induced by the Himalayan orogeny (Tapponier et al. 1986; Polachan et al. 1991; Bustin & Chonchawalit 1995). Onshore geology, well penetrations and seismic data indicate a quite complex Mesozoic history. The deepest parts of the Chumphon Basin lie in the west, close to the bounding Klong Marui fault zone. The bulk of the basin ll consists of Oligo-Miocene lacustrine and oodplain sediments. Thai Shell was awarded the B6/27 concession in 1985, seeking hydrocarbons within folded and faulted Tertiary clastics, and in Pre-Tertiary karstied carbonates. Only the latter play has been successful, in a modest way, producing to date 0.510 6 BBL 30API oil from Nang Nuan-A02, and 4.310 6 BBL 42API oil from Nang Nuan-B01 (see Appendix). The buried hill exploration concept was based on prominent Pre-Tertiary highs evident on early seismic, experience of a similar play from China, and karst towers of Permian Ratburi carbonates, which are common features of Thai scenery (Figs 2 & 3). Fracturing, seen in karstied Ratburi outcrops adjacent to the Chumphon Basin, was thought likely to add to reservoir quality. The Ratburi carbonates are 200300 m thick in the peninsu- lar Thailand and Chumphon Basin area. They are platform carbonates in which depositional facies become more restricted upwards, and dolomitization becomes increasingly common (Baird & Bosence 1993). The carbonates were extensively stabilized and karstied during the Late Permian to Early Triassic, and further cemented, dolomitized and silicied during Mesozoic burial. Remaining matrix porosity is limited (<5%). Uplift since the Late Cretaceous has allowed prolonged weathering and erosion, and the formation of tropical tower karst. These towers are hundreds of metres to a few kilometres in size and usually elongate in the prevailing fault direction (Fig. 3). These are typical landforms of SE Asia and China. Caves occur at oodplain or sea-level, and some connect via vadose pipes to dolinas on the irregular tops of the towers. Floodplain and sea-level caves, which we have observed in central and peninsular Thailand, are typically lenticular, a few Presented at GEOTHAI97, Bangkok, August 1997; 6th Archie Conference, Kerrville, Texas, February 1998; and Modern and Ancient Analogues: Uses and Abuses in the Subsurface, Aberdeen, September 1998. Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 6 2000, pp. 1527 1354-0793/00/$15.00 2000 EAGE/Geological Society, London metres high, tens of metres wide, and often extend from one side of a tower to the other (Fig. 4). There may be one or two cave levels due to uplift or subsidence, but we have not observed pervasive multilevel developments occurring through- out a tower (cf. Fei Qi & Wang Xie-Pei 1984; Ford & Williams 1989). Speleothems and some degree of sediment ll are normally evident. Estimates of cave percentage versus the total mass of a Ratburi tower, are less than 2% of the volume. NANG NUAN-A01 (NNN-1) The rst of Thai Shells wells in the basin, drilled in 1987, tested a prominent Pre-Tertiary high (Fig. 1). The well suered more than 180 000 BBL of uid losses into a highly permeable zone. There are wellsite descriptions of bit drops in this interval, but drill speed and caliper logs, and the recovery of sidewall samples, suggest a highly porous formation rather than large open cavities (Fig. 5). From sidewall samples and the logs, the Fig. 1. Location map and cross-sections of the Chumphon Basin at the west of the Gulf of Thailand. NNN=Nang Nuan, SLA-1=Salika-1, KTA-1=Katiya-1. Ko Samui, Ko Phangan and Ko Tao are oshore islands north east of Surat Thani, and Khao Muang lies close to the one of the hot spring locations marked south of Chumphon. 16 A. P. Heward et al. reservoir was interpreted to be a karstied breccia overlying the Ratburi, analogous to an example cored in the onshore Phitsanulok Basin (Legendre et al. 1988). Porosity and resistivity logs were dicult to evaluate, and only after oil stained sidewall samples were recovered was the well tested, owing dry 30API oil. Permeabilities estimated from well test are 10002000 mD, with a dual or layered permeability character. A possible oilwater contact was interpreted in the well at 3045 m ah (3016 m ss), towards the base of the porous interval. Though not highlighted at the time, temperatures of 130140C were logged over the upper part of the porous interval, 2030C higher than adjacent formation temperatures (Fig. 5). In view of Shells previous experience of karst reservoirs from the Amposta and Tarraco elds, oshore Spain (Seeman et al. 1990), the Nang Nuan discovery was developed initially using a single-well early production system (see Appendix). This was to obtain production information and minimize nancial risk. Further wells and facilities were planned to be added once favourable long-term performance had been estab- lished. The Nang Nuan-A01 well could not be used for production for mechanical reasons, and a replacement devel- opment well, Nang Nuan-A02, was drilled to a location some 43 m east at reservoir level. NANG NUAN-A02 Coring of the reservoir interval began as soon as a drilling break and losses occurred. Three 9 m cores were cut, with recoveries ranging from 87% in the more consolidated parts to 40% in the most porous. The cores consist of bedded conglomerates with two oil-bearing intervals, an upper one a few metres thick and a lower one at least ten metres thick (Figs 6 & 7). There was much controversy as to whether these deposits were a residual breccia resting on karstied Raturi, as per the play concept, or waterlaid alluvial fan conglomerates. They have, however, the sedimentary characteristics of (syn-rift) alluvial fan conglomer- ates, and recently have yielded PalaeoceneEarly Oligocene palynomorphs. Clasts are sub-angular to sub-rounded, and Fig. 2. Prominent irregular Pre-Tertiary relief apparent on seismic sections from the Chumphon Basin. This migrated section is from the Nang Nuan area. The resemblance between the Pre-Tertiary morphology and modern tower karstied Ratburi scenery is remarkable (cf. Fig. 3). Fig. 3. Tropical tower karst southeast of Phitsanulok, central Thailand. The Permian Ratburi platform carbonates are thickly bedded, with highly irregular tops to the towers and widespread vertical uting (karren). The major development of caves occurs at oodplain level. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 17 comprise about 70% Ratburi carbonates and 30% ?Mesozoic sandstones, in a calcareous sandstone matrix. The two porous and oil-stained karstied zones occur leached within the con- glomerates. Controversy again surrounded the origin of the karstication, Shell Research geologists favouring calcretization and mixing zone diagenesis of alluvial fan conglomerates, and Fig. 4. Solutionally enlarged bedding planes and a typical oodplain cave/temple entrance at Wat Choeng Pha Pa Rerai, southeast of Phitsanulok. There are no obvious abandoned higher oodplain notches and caves aecting the Ratburi towers in this area. There may be further cavernous porosity below oodplain level, but this is likely to be sediment lled. Fig. 5. Composite log display for well Nang Nuan-A01 (also NNN-1). The Early Tertiary conglomerates were originally interpreted to be a karstied breccia overlying the Ratburi, the neighbouring Nang Nuan-A02 core revealed their character (GR=gamma ray, SWS=sidewall sample depths, DSL=drill speed log in minutes per metre, calf=caliper, displayed mirrored to depict borehole diameter in inches, FDC/CNL=density and neutron porosity logs, LL9D and LL9S=deep and shallow resistivity logs, DST=drill stem test, 150 refers to a seismic marker). No open-hole logs were recorded below 3035 m ah. The bold dashed line in the left-hand track is a portion of a temperature log, run as part of the cased-hole logging suite, and shows a temperature anomaly opposite the main oil productive interval. DSTs 1 and 2 produced small volumes of fresh formation water and sea water, and DST 3, 3400 BBL/d of 30API oil. The density of the formation water is unexpectedly light at 964 kg m 3 , corresponding to a gradient of 0.418 psi ft 1 . 18 A. P. Heward et al. Fig. 6. Early Tertiary conglomerates, Nang Nuan-A02, with part of the upper oil-stained karstied zone at the top (core segments c. 1 m long each). Matrix and some clasts appear to have been leached within the karstied zone and remaining clasts fractured by compaction. The tomographic scan at 2998.7 m of a whole core sample shows the leached rock to contain considerable cm-scale pore space (black). The 40 bedding dip, evident to the right of the core photo, is a structural one. Fig. 7. Lower part of the cored Early Tertiary conglomerates, Nang Nuan-A02 (core segments c. 1 m long each). Note the progressive alteration and increase in oil staining downwards towards the main karstied interval. White patches within the leached interval are vugs lled with anhydrite. Tomographic scans at 3016.9 and 3017.82 m of whole core samples show a vuggy porosity (black) on a cm-scale, the lower scan being of core slightly deeper than that illustrated in the photo to the left. Whole core porosity measurements of leached material range from 9.916.8%. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 19 Thai Shell sta, meteoric diagenesis of a residual breccia and the underlying Ratburi carbonates. Neither of those origins appears wholly in keeping with the nature of the leaching and the diagenetic mineral assemblage present. The karstication appears to be by aggressive dissolution of clasts and matrix, with oil staining, pyritization and colour bleaching diminishing away from the leached intervals (Figs 6 & 7). Diagenetic minerals within the porous zones include an unusual assemblage of anhydrite, pyrite, chalcedony, quartz and a kandite mineral, possibly dickite. Interpretations of the diagenetic sequence were inuenced by the supposed depositional origin, i.e. anhydrite was considered to be an early formed calcrete/playa mineral. Fluid inclusion and isotope analyses of the quartz and kandite cements (O and H) indicate precipitation at around current burial depths and temperatures (135C), from low salinity uids similar to the present forma- tion water. Hydrocarbon inclusions are also present within the quartz cements. The low salinity of the diagenetic uids and present formation waters was attributed to meteoric recharge accompanying karstication. Nang Nuan-A02 produced oil at rates of 20006000 BBL/d for three months prior to water breakthrough. Following breakthrough the well produced at uneconomic rates of 1300 BBL oil/d irrespective of gross otake. This has variously been interpreted as a function of matrix imbibition, or that the thinner upper leached interval continued to produce dry oil after water breakthough in the thicker lower one. The 30API oil had a gasoil ratio of 80 SCF BBL 1 , of which 30% of the gas was carbon dioxide. Hydrogen sulphide was present at levels up to 140 ppm. There were minor equipment problems during production due to the oil being hotter than expected (142C reservoir temperature). Once water broke through, carbonate scale formed rapidly in surface pumps and meters, demonstrating a uid saturated with carbonate at the conditions within these facilities. Reservoir pressures declined only slightly during the period of production, with indications of substantial aquifer support. Material balance calculations suggest con- nected pore volumes of hundreds of millions of barrels (200120010 6 reservoir BBL). For various potential geo- graphical extents (1030 km 2 ) and thicknesses of reservoir rock, this could correspond to porosities of 323%. Such porosities are in line with those measured on whole core samples (9.916.8%), and probably the most porous reservoir was not recovered during coring. Fig. 8. Penetration chart for Pre-Tertiary wells in the Chumphon Basin showing the location of eective porous intervals in relation to the Base Tertiary unconformity. Karstication aects various carbonate and clastic formations from 43 m above, to 420 m below, the unconformity. Interestingly Triassic marls and limestones have not been karstied in any of the penetrations to date. Total losses of drilling uids (large arrows) are invariably associated with proximity to a major porous interval. The locations of temperature anomalies are also indicated. 20 A. P. Heward et al. SALIKA-1 (SLA-1), KATIYA-1 (KTA-1) AND NANG NUAN-A03 Three other wells were drilled on Pre-Tertiary highs in the period 19871991, Salika-1, Katiya-1 and Nang Nuan-A03 (Fig. 1). Salika-1 penetrated a thick sequence of Triassic marls and limestones overlying Ratburi carbonates. Losses of drilling uids began a few metres into the Ratburi and total losses occurred in a porous vuggy zone 130 m below top Ratburi and 420 m below the Base Tertiary unconformity (Figs 8 & 9). Caliper and dipmeter data indicate that the borehole is washed out on a metre-scale, and that the washouts/vugs are approxi- mately stratiform (i.e. parallel bedding). The Ratburi interval was tested and owed 3900 BBL/d sea and formation water. Spot cores of Ratburi carbonates showed matrix porosities of less than 4.5% and permeabilities of less than 11 mD. The partial losses near the top of the Ratburi may indicate a less well-developed leached interval is present, or that limited fracture permeability occurs. Katiya-1 encountered thick calcareous, uvial sandstones, of probable Mesozoic age, overlying Triassic marls and limestones (Fig. 8). The well reached total depth in Carboniferous quartz- ites, with Ratburi carbonates apparently absent. Drilling losses occurred within the Mesozoic sandstones at the top of a brecciated decalcied sandstone, and total losses occurred a little deeper. A series of cavities are present within what appear to have been calcareous sandstones, or interbedded carbonates, carbonate-rich conglomerates or evaporites. These porous intervals were again water bearing, and the main interval owed hot water during logging (20C hotter than the surrounding formations). Dipmeter data from this well indicate that these porous intervals are again sponge-like and stratiform. A series of short cores of the Mesozoic sandstones yielded porosities of 515% and permeabilities of less than 3 mD. Curious vugs present in a core of the brecciated decalcied sandstones from 15 m above the main porous interval, are similar to ones that occur occasionally in sandstone clasts in the Nang Nuan-A02 core. These vugs are irregular, sinuous, cm-long and mm-high, and the Katiya ones examined in thin section, lack any later cement ll. Nang Nuan-A03 was drilled as an appraisal well to a downhole location 270 m east and up-dip from watered-out producer Nang Nuan-A02. It was targeted using 1990, state-of-the-art, 3D seismic amplitude techniques, including calibration from the Amposta Field. Even though the most porous formation appeared to lie to the west of Nang Nuan-A02, the well was located in what appeared to be favourable seismic amplitudes. The well came in deep to prognosis and failed to encounter leached Early Tertiary conglomerates. It penetrated tight Ratburi carbonates and has the unfortunate distinction of being the only Pre-Tertiary penetration in the Chumphon Basin not to have encountered eective porosity or suered losses of drilling uids (Fig. 8). A red silty interval and underlying carbonate breccia some 40 m beneath the Base Tertiary unconformity may indicate sediment-lled karst of undetermined age. Following the disappointments of Nang Nuan-A appraisal and production performance, and the results of other Pre- Tertiary exploration wells, there was considerable pessimism as to the remaining hydrocarbon potential of the Chumphon Basin. Particularly given the typical size of the Pre-Tertiary highs still to be drilled and the range of karst porosities applied in evaluating the volumes they might contain (0.52.5%, Weber & Bakker 1981; <5%, Palmer 1995). One further commitment well remained to be drilled, for which the Nang Nuan-B high was chosen, with limited expectations of success (Fig. 1). NANG NUAN-B01 Nang Nuan-B lies 6 km north of the Nang Nuan-A accumula- tion (Fig. 1). The Nang Nuan-B01 well encountered losses shortly after penetrating Ratburi carbonates, and during the next three weeks of drilling and testing, lost 350 000 BBL of drilling uids and sea water. The potential of the formation is evident in that these losses of c. 30 000 BBL/d were incurred under oating mud-cap conditions (i.e. only a small uid head was being maintained in the well annulus). Salinity measure- ments indicate that none of the uids lost were ever noticeably produced back. The well penetrated ve or more leached porous zones, described as bit drops from the wellsite, though detailed examination of drill speed and caliper logs again indicates variably porous and washed-out formation on a metre-scale (Fig. 10). Unfortunately there is no indication as to whether the porous intervals are stratiform, as borehole image logs are badly aected by washouts and by oil in the wellbore. The possible level of any original oilwater contact is also very uncertain. After drilling, a wellbore oilwater contact was established at 3208 m ah (3181 m ss), corresponding to the bottom of a leached interval, but still above the spillpoint of the structure at around 3286 m ss. Uncertainty in initial oil and Fig. 9. SHDT log (Stratigraphic High-resolution Dipmeter Tool) for Salika-1, showing caliper (heavier dashed lines), dipmeter tadpole and microresistivity traces. Total losses began at 2395 m ah and borehole washouts occur in the interval 23952404 m ah. Note the decimetre- to metre-scale dimensions of the borehole washouts/vugs. These features appear generally stratiform and parallel the dip of the Ratburi at around 3050 to the northeast. An interpretation of the sponge-like form of the vugs is shaded, based on the varying microresistivity character around the hole. Other interpretations are possible. The paired microresistivity traces are from electrodes about 2 cm apart on 4 pads arranged 90 to each other around the wellbore. The SHDT was a forerunner of the multi-electrode borehole imaging tools. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 21 water pressures results in possible oilwater contacts deter- mined from uid gradients being up to several hundred metres deeper than the spillpoint. The well was completed with a pre-perforated, non- cemented liner, in an irregularly washed-out hole. On production test it owed 42API oil, with a gasoil ratio of 200 SCF BBL 1 . Twenty-ve percent of the gas was carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide was detected in concentrations up to 800 ppm. Pressure surveys acquired during the test, and subsequently, are anomalous in showing increasing owing tubing head pressures during owing periods, and decreasing ones during shut-in periods. The opposite of what one would normally expect. A production log (PLT) was also interpreted to show an unusual reservoir situation at virgin reservoir conditions. When the well was owing, almost all the inow appeared to come from the uppermost porous zones, and when the well was shut in, cross-ow was occurring between the porous zones in the well (Fig. 11). Temperature anomalies (+40C) were present opposite the most productive zone and at the well total depth (TD). The reservoir was described as highly unconventional, but unfortunately the PLT interpret- ation was led with no proposal to verify its observations or comment as to its possible implications. Estimates of reservoir productivity (permeability thickness) from well test data are complicated by the diculty of interpreting pressure build-ups in what appears to be a continuously cross-owing well, in combination with the problem of determining the thickness of the productive intervals. Permeability estimates are from a few tens of millidarcies to a few darcies only. The prevailing analogue concept was still one of meteoric tower karstied Ratburi, with oodplain/sea-level caves providing the reservoir volumes. It was anticipated that Nang Nuan-B01 would water out in a relatively limited time as with Nang Nuan-A02. The well was shut-in for a year before a rented early production system could be organized (see Appendix). During that time, and subsequently when the storage/shuttle tanker was unloading, it appears that the upper hot zone had cross- owed many thousands of barrels of oil into the lower, relatively cooler, zones. When producing, the well owed oil at rates of up to 10 000 BBL/d for several years. By the time it had produced around 410 6 BBL oil and alone was making a signicant contribution to Thai Shells equity production, there was renewed interest in Nang Nuan, undrilled prospects within the concession and quite what these reservoirs were really like. Just as study work began in earnest, water breakthrough occurred in January 1997. There were no facilities for handling wet production and sales volumes had to have a water content of less than 2%. This period of declining cyclic production from the well, before it became uneconomic, allowed the acquisition of much new data. More PLT data were acquired which repeated earlier anomalous ow patterns. Although the temperature dierences through the reservoir were by this time a few degrees only, the overall ngerprint was the same. There were problems during the main production period of the well due to the oil being hotter than anticipated, and the somewhat piecemeal approach to facilities that had been adopted in Fig. 10. Composite log display for well Nang Nuan-B01 (GR=gamma ray, DSL=drill speed log in minutes per metre, cal =caliper, displayed mirrored to depict borehole diameter in inches, RHOB/NPHI=density and neutron porosity logs, LL9D and LL9S=deep and shallow resistivity logs, DST=drill stem test, 150 refers to a seismic marker). No coring or sidewall sampling (SWS) was attempted. 22 A. P. Heward et al. expectation of a short lifetime. Anomalous water gradients measured in the well of 0.41 psi ft 1 (i.e. lighter than fresh water) went unappreciated, as they had in Nang Nuan-A01. Only after the water was sampled downhole was it found to be almost saturated with gas, having a gaswater ratio of 23 SCF BBL 1 (76% CO 2 and 22% CH 4 ). The pressure decline accompanying production was limited (100400 psi) and material balance calculations indicate connected pore volumes of hundreds of millions to billions of barrels (700 200010 6 BBL). Such volumes are impossible to accommo- date within the structure applying conventional karst porosities, and there is no other known aquifer. Underlying Carboniferous quartzites are tight, as are adjacent Mesozoic or Tertiary strata at such depths. Earth-tide eects evident on recent pressure build-ups using quartz gauges, also indicate substantial connected pore volumes. METEORIC TROPICAL TOWER KARST? These reservoirs were interpreted as meteorically karstied buried hills, where typical karst porosity values led to a pessimistic view of prospectivity of the concession. But increas- ingly with time, data did not t a meteorically karst analogue (Fig. 12). The karstication occurs in three dierent formations, two of them essentially clastic! (Ratburi carbonates, ?Mesozoic calcareous sandstones and syn-rift Early Tertiary con- glomerates). Karstication does not appear to relate to Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary weathering and erosion. Rather, porous zones occur from immediately above or below the base Tertiary unconformity, to at least 420 m deeper, in a basin where the buried hills typically have a relief of less than 250 m (Fig. 8). In the cored karst zones of Nang Nuan-A02 and the brecciated decalcied sandstone of Katiya-1, there is no evi- dence of speleothems, terra rosa, or siliciclastic cave sediments. Rather the cores from Nang Nuan-A02 show leaching and pyritization diminishing away from the karst zones, and a mineral assemblage which indicates at least quartz and kandite cements formed under deep-burial conditions. Carbon dioxide is present dissolved in the oil and the formation waters. Hydrogen sulphide also occurs in low concentrations in the oil. Fig. 11. Caliper logs indicating borehole shape, and production logging tool measurements and interpretations from the production test of August 1992. When the well is owing the bulk of the uids originate from the top 20 m of the Ratburi (75 and 25%), when the well is shut in, cross-ow occurs between washed out/porous layers. Borehole-image logs run in this well (FMS and FMI) also indicate oil cross-owing down the well from about 3123 m to 3200 m ah. PLT logs run in 1997 show a similar 75:25% contribution to ow when only oil is being produced at the start of a cycle, and a 55:45% contribution when wet production (oil and water) is taking place. When the well is shut-in, cross-ow continues to occur, in a manner consistent with that illustrated, though details are dicult to resolve. Prominent 40C temperature anomalies are present associated with the main productive interval at the top of the Ratburi and tantalizingly towards the well TD. It is remarkable that these contrasts can be maintained over short vertical distances. A similar temperature ngerprint, albeit with a smaller range was recorded by PLT logs run in 1997. Fig. 12. Contrasting analogues for the origin of karstication in the Chumphon Basin. See text for explanation of data that do not t the original meteoric buried hill analogue. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 23 Logs and sidewall samples from Nang Nuan-A03 may show evidence of sediment-lled karst of Permianearly Tertiary age. The irregular topography of the Pre-Tertiary on seismic has frequently been considered a reection of its karstied character and compared to the appearance of Ratburi outcrops. The resemblance is supercially remarkable (Figs 2 & 3). However, prospect-scale seismic interpretations typically result in complexly faulted structures, and well data indicate that the highs can contain a variety of Ratburi, Triassic, Mesozoic and Early Tertiary strata. Structures mapped from the three 3D surveys acquired in the concession, are now interpreted as syn-rift horsts and inversion structures rather than passively buried Pre-Tertiary hills. Petroleum engineering data indicate large active aquifers, and connected pore volumes of hundreds of millions to billions of barrels, volumes that exceed the capacity of the structures if conventional karst porosities are applied. Such volumes are also orders of magnitude greater than those we estimate can be contained in the caves of modern tower karst which we have examined in Thailand (for example, the 132.510 6 m 3 Pha Thap Pon outlier near Phitsanulok, in central Thailand, has an estimated cavernous porosity of 1.72.110 6 m 3 or 1.31.6%, which could contain only some 101510 6 BBL of uids). Permeabilities for the subsurface karst systems are only modest, 252000 mD, not those of large open cave systems. Production logs from Nang Nuan-B01 show anomalous inow and cross-ow behaviour between zones even under initial reservoir conditions. Logs run several years later indicate similar ow patterns. Pressure surveys show unusual trends during owing and shut-in periods which seem likely to be a response to changing conditions of inow and cross-ow. Most of the major oil- and water-bearing karstied zones encountered in the Chumphon Basin are associated with positive temperature anomalies (2040C). Many of the features described above are not those we would typically expect to be associated with meteoric karst and meteorically karstied reservoirs (e.g. Esteban & Klappa 1983; Bosak et al. 1989; Palmer 1991; Budd et al. 1995). DEEP-BURIAL OR HYDROTHERMAL KARST? All of these features can, however, be accommodated within the concept of deep-burial or hydrothermal karstication. Common criteria for recognizing such karst include: (1) the presence of hot uids; (2) little apparent genetic relation to exposure surfaces; (3) 3D maze, ramiform or sponge-like form of cavities, sometimes with convection cupolas; (4) porosities of 2530% over areas of hundreds of m 2 to a few km 2 ; (5) porous, altered or mineralized zones around the main conduits; (6) exotic high-temperature minerals within cavities; (7) lack of normal speleothems and cave sediments (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Ford & Williams 1989; Palmer 1995). In the context of the Chumphon Basin, such an origin seems likely to involve hot, low salinity, uids being pumped periodically out of overpressured lacustrine-basin depocentres (Cartwright 1994). Such uids migrate via major deep- rooted faults probably during periods of tectonism, and cause extensive leaching in carbonate-rich highs and anking clastics (Fig. 12). The leaching and current presence of hydrocarbons appear a likely precursor to future mineralization (Dzulynski & Sass-Gustkiewicz 1989; Fowler & Anderson 1991). The character of the leaching seen in Chumphon Basin cores and the somewhat unusual mineral assemblage present are entirely compatible with a hydrothermal karst origin (Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Hill 1990; Hulen et al. 1994). The anomalous tempera- tures and uid movements indicate that these reservoirs are part of extensive, low temperature, convecting geothermal systems (Grant et al. 1982). Temperature anomalies of 2040C, in an area with geothermal gradients typically of 45C/100 m, would imply uids circulating over hundreds of metres verti- cally. The dierent oils present in Nang Nuan A and B (which possibly reect derivation from a similar source rock at dierent levels of maturity, R. Archer pers. comm; Appendix), and dierent initial pressures and temperatures, indicate that these accumulations are part of separate uid migration systems. Similar phenomena to those described here have been documented from small oil elds in Nevada (Hulen et al. 1994), and from the Yinggehai Basin area of the South China Sea (Hao et al. 1998). A hydrothermal karst overprint is also now considered important in the Casablanca and Amposta elds, oshore Spain (M. Esteban pers. comm.). There are supportive indications that a deep-burial or hydro- thermal karst analogue is applicable. Regionally there are TriassicCretaceous granites at either margin of the basin forming the oshore islands of Ko Samui, Ko Phangan and Ko Tao, and extensive outcrops in peninsular Thailand (Fig. 1; Nakinbodee et al. 1985). There are hot springs associated with faults at the western onshore margin of the basin, accompany- ing thick veins of calcite spar (e.g. at Khao Muang), and abundant CO 2 present in gas and oil elds in the nearby Pattani and NW Malay basins (Fig. 1; Lian & Bradley 1986; Duval & Gouadain 1994). The CO 2 in such elds is partly of deep-seated origin, from its isotopic character, and occurs preferentially in proximity to major faults. The Wind and Jewel caves of South Dakota are well documented examples of 3D maze caves of probable thermal dissolution origin (Fig. 13). There are many similar cave systems in the Black Hills area, sometimes occurring in close proximity, yet not connected (e.g. the Jewel and Jasper caves). The Wind and Jewel caves have average porosities of 1030% over areas of 110 km 2 . Jewel Cave presently has 165 km of mapped passages beneath an area presently of some 310 km 2 , and Wind Cave 120 km passages in presently some 1.3 km 2 (Bakalowicz et al. 1987). Barometric evidence indicates substan- tial connected pore volumes of around 5710 6 m 3 for Wind Cave and 14010 6 m 3 for Jewel Cave, indicating that only a small percentage of each system is presently known. The formation of such 3D networks requires the distribution of solutional capacity rather uniformly over areas of several square kilometres. There is evidence of changing solutional chemistry, with both limestone and dolomite being dissolved at times, dolomite being dissolved preferentially at others, and calcite being deposited at others. These maze cave networks are aligned along joint directions and occur at a number of levels within the Carboniferous Madison limestones. They form complexly interconnected solutional galleries, with a tendency to descend in stratigraphic elevation in the direction of stratal dip. Jewel Cave has extensive wall coatings of calcite spar whilst Wind Cave has its characteristic boxwork (protruding network of veins due to dissolution of carbonate matrix). Calcites from wall coatings and boxwork have carbon and oxygen isotope ratios typical of burial/hydrothermal conditions (Bakalowicz et al. 1987). There is great similarity, supercially at least, between the Dakota examples and certain types of thermal karst system described from the Buda Mountains area of Hungary (Jakucs 1977; Dublyansky 1995). 24 A. P. Heward et al. IMPLICATIONS A deep-burial or hydrothermal karst interpretation for the origin of reservoirs in the Chumphon Basin has implications. Porosities can be higher than conventional meteoric karst ones, at least over areas of a few square kilometres. The highest porosities measured from the Nang Nuan A02 cores were 17%, and net/gross values vary between 49% in Nang Nuan-1, 16% in -A02, 12.5% in -B01, and 0% in -A03. Such porosity (5%) and net/gross ranges can accommodate within reasonable reservoir congurations, the substantial connected pore volumes indicated by material balance. Fluid contacts are often dicult to dene in karst reservoirs due to openhole logs being aected by washouts, lost uids and tight formation, and uid gradients may be dicult to obtain or ambiguous. With deep-burial karst, uid contacts may bear no relation to structural spill points at the top of a reservoir formation, and potentially lie much deeper within the forma- tion. Both these factors, increased porosity and a greater range of possible hydrocarbon column, positively inuence the estimates of hydrocarbons in-place that can be made. On the counter side, production log evidence indicates that only the uppermost zones in Nang Nuan-B01 have produced hydrocarbons, whilst other zones accept uids when the well is shut-in. It is not clear what the original uid content of these latter zones was. The temperature distribution and cross-ow behaviour seem most reasonably to indicate circulating uids extending some distance from the wellbore. The Wind and Jewel cave systems, with their extensive and irregularly con- nected ow conduits, and sometimes rather limited connec- tions between areas of porosity development, may be a useful analogue here. However, evidence of poor connectivity in this case has negative implications for sweep eciency, which is usually assumed to be high in karst reservoirs. Due to the inability to cement casing though karst reservoirs with extensive losses, typical well completions consist of slotted or pre-drilled liners or barefoots. With the multizone ow behav- iour exhibited by Nang Nuan-B01, and possibly also by Katiya-1, each interval of a multizone reservoir preferably requires testing, and possibly production, individually. Which intervals have con- tributed to production in Nang Nuan-B01 remains uncertain. External casing packers may be able to provide a greater degree of zonal isolation for future multizone wells. Applying a deep-burial karst analogue, remaining highs within the concession have a dierent ranking and risking. Fig. 13. Examples of deep-burial or hydrothermal karst systems. (A) 3D rectilinear maze cave showing in plan view a strong control by NWSE orientated joints, and in section a strong stratal inuence on the series of interconnected levels that formed towards the middle of the Carboniferous (Madison) limestone. Areas of intense development of cavities tend to be separated by areas with only few connections, often fault zones where gouge has limited uid ow and karstication (from Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Palmer 1995). Nang Nuan karstication may be of this type and intensity, though whether the cavities formed are of cave size, or smaller, remains to be established. (B) Convection cupula-form of Satorkupuszta cave, developed in Triassic carbonates of the Pilis Mountains, Hungary (Jakucs 1977). A chain of spherical cavities about 350 m long in total, as known, the great hall of which contains thick gypsum accumulations. (C) Dissolution, brecciation and mineralization occurring along the contact of the Triassic ore-bearing dolomite and limestone, Upper Silesia, Poland (Dzulynski & Sass-Gustkiewicz 1989); (ii) is more mature than (i), with collapse breccias. The lengths of arrows correspond to ow intensity. The brecciated decalcied ?Mesozoic sandstones overlying the main karst zone of Katiya-1 may be of such form. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 25 Criteria of importance now become proximity to source rock kitchens and to major deep-rooted faults, likelihood of carbonate-rich formations, and the presence of a good top and lateral seals to retain hot uids and allow them to circulate (Fig. 12). Leaching may not be conned to highs and may occur in any favourably located formation (e.g. syn-rift clastics). Overall there is a more positive view of value of concession, due to the increased oil-in-place estimates and the dierent prospect risks. If the analogues of the South Dakota or Hungarian karst are in any way appropriate, then such karsti- cation may be widespread throughout the Chumphon Basin area. The size of the hydrocarbon accumulations discovered are small compared to the connected pore volumes indicated by material balance. If one or more such pore volumes have a greater degree of hydrocarbon ll, then the size of possible hydrocarbon accumulations could be an order of magnitude larger. A deep-burial interpretation results in perhaps even greater uncertainty about how these karst reservoirs really work. Unfortunately, even with the latest 1997 high-resolution 3D seismic, the porous leached intervals cannot be imaged at depths of 30004000 m. A semiquantitative sparse-spiking inversion of part of the Nang Nuan 3D data, gives hints of low acoustic impedance zones within seismic facies attributed to Ratburi carbonates. The properties of the productive intervals are poorly known, and more focused diagenetic work could be undertaken on the Chumphon Basin core material. The degree of connectivity between porous zones is uncertain and may be able to be established by testing in future wells. A major uncertainty is the origin of the heat uxes, and where uids are owing to? Do they form part of closed-loop convection cells, and does water circulate below the oilwater contact and cause oil to circulate above? Nang Nuan-A01 seems to indicate hot oil moving above relatively cooler water (Fig. 5). Is the hot oil a very recent/active charge? If so, what about the hot water of Katiya? Material balance calculations are based on the expan- sion of uids under isothermal conditions, and the impact of the hydrothermal nature of the reservoir has not been quantied. Can uid displacements in such thermally driven reservoirs be represented by traditional oilwater displacement principles? Are the aquifers just parts of very extensive karst systems, or is there some other mechanism of pressure support from overpressured source kitchens? Despite the many uncertainties, there are lessons here in continuing to apply an analogue in the face of mounting conicting data, and potentially underestimating (or over- estimating) the value of a prospect, a eld, a concession, or a play fairway. We doubt very much that the karst reservoirs of Nang Nuan and the Chumphon Basin are unique! We are grateful to Martin Bradshaw and the management of Thai Shell Exploration and Production for their encouragement of this study and for permission to publish its results. 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Appendix Nang Nuan Field data summary Nang Nuan A Nang Nuan B Trap Type Conglomerates onlapping horst Horst Depth to crest (m ss) 2960 3090 Free water level (m ss) c. 3016 3181>3750 Oil column (m) c. 56 c. 90 few hundred Pay zone Formation Early Tertiary conglomerates Mid Permian Ratburi carbonates Gross thickness (m) 65 >188 Net/gross ratio (%) c. 40 c. 12.5 Karst porosity (%) c. 17 c. 17 Karst permeability (well test) (mD) 10002000 25500 Productivity index (BBL oil/d/psi) c. 60 c. 752000 Matrix porosity (%) 5 12 Matrix permeability Negligible Negligible Hydrocarbons Oil density (kg m 3 ) [API] 870887 [2931] 817.5 [41.5] GOR (SCF STB 1 ) 6080 200240 In situ viscosity (cP) 3.54 0.62 Wax content (%) 12 12 Pour point (C) 27 21 H 2 S content (ppm) 140 120800 CO 2 content (mol %) 30 2027 Formation water Salinity (ppm NaCl) c. 5500 25003000 Density (kg m 3 ) 964 948 GWR (SCF STB 1 ) Not measured 23 (76% CO 2 , 22% CH 4 ) Reservoir conditions Temperature (C) 142 165.5 Datum (m ss) 3016 3150 Pressure (psia) 4246 4638 Bubble point (psia) 635665 1250 Pressure gradient (psi ft 1 ) Oil 0.353 0.312 Water 0.418 0.407 Field size Area (km 2 ) 1.3 7.2 STOIIP (10 6 BBL) 29.5 47.5 Formation volume factor 1.112 1.207 Drive mechanism Strong aquifer support Strong aquifer support Recovery factor (%) 21 60 Reserves (10 6 BBL) 6 28.5 Remaining reserves (10 6 BBL) 5.5 24 Production Oil production (10 6 BBL) 0.48 (Jan.Aug. 1988) 4.31 (Oct. 1993Aug. 1997) Losses of drilling uids (10 6 BBL) Nang Nuan-A01: 0.18 Nang Nuan-B01: 0.35 Nang Nuan-A02: 0.06 Water depth (m) 32.5 34.5 Development scheme Single well, subsea, rented early production system, consisting of production jack-up, storage tanker and shuttle tankers Single well, wellhead tripod, rented early production system, consisting of production spread on a supply boat and a tanker for storage and evacuation Received 1 March 1999; revised typescript accepted 15 July 1999. Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 27