Antenna Basics Single Page

EMG4066 – ANTENNA AND
PROPAGATION
Oct 2009 © Fabian Kung Wai Lee & Gobi Vetharatnam 2009 1
Prerequisites for EMG4066
• Please drop this subject if you have not taken (or pass):
– ECT1026 – Field Theory.
– EMG2016 – Electromagnetic Theory.
– PEM1026 - Engineering mathematics II.
– PEM2036 - Engineering mathematics III.
• Assumed prior knowledge:
– Mathematics – Vector calculus, know what is gradient, divergence,
curl, Stoke’s Theorem, Divergence Theorem.
– Electrostatics – Coulomb’s Law, electric field, electric charge
distribution, electric potential, Gauss’ Law.
– Magnetostatic – Lorentz’s Force Law, Biot-Savart Law, magnetic
vector potential, Ampere’s Law, Faraday’s Law.
– Electrodynamics – Maxwell’s equations in time-domain and
frequency-domain (time-harmonic forms), uniform plane waves
propagation, refraction, reflection.
EMG4066 Main Topics
• Antenna Basics (Dr Fabian Kung) (1.5 - 2 weeks).
• Antenna Types (Dr Fabian Kung) (0.5-1 week).
• Antenna Arrays (Mr Gobi Vetharatnam) (1 week).
• Introduction to RADAR systems (Mr Gobi Vetharatnam)
(1 week).
• Radio wave propagation (Dr Deepak Kumar) (2 weeks).
Main References/Textbooks
• C. A. Balanis, “Antenna theory – analysis and design”, 3rd edition,
2005, John-Wiley & Sons.
• W. Tomasi, “Electronic communication systems – fundamental through
advanced”, 5th edition, 2003, Prentice Hall.
EMG4066 Assessment
• Lab 10% (AP1 – Antenna measurements, AP2 – Radar
measurements at Applied Electromagnetic Lab, Level 3,
FOE Building).
• Assignment 15%.
• Mid-term test 15% (30 Nov 2009, 7-8pm, covers antenna
basics to antenna array).
• Final 60% (covers all topics).
Antenna Basics
References
• MAIN REFERENCES:
• [1] D. K. Cheng, “Field and waves electromagnetic”, 2nd edition, 1989,
Addison-Wesley.
• [2] C. A. Balanis, “Antenna theory – analysis and design”, 3rd edition,
2005, John-Wiley & Sons.
• OTHER REFERENCES:
• [3] J. D. Kraus, “Antenna for all applications”, 2001, McGraw-Hill.
• [4] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, T. Van Duzer, “Field and waves in
communication electronics”, 3rd edition, 1993, John-Wiley & Sons.
• [5] Pass year EMG4066 notes.
• [6] R. E. Collins, “Foundation for microwave engineering”, 2nd edition,
1992, McGraw-Hill.
Agenda
1. Definitions, usage and types of antenna.
2. A quick review of Maxwell’s Equations.
3. Mechanism of electromagnetic (EM) radiation.
4. Finding the EM fields for antenna 1 - Potential theory for EM fields.
5. Finding the EM fields for antenna 2 - Dynamic EM fields from elemental
electric dipole and magnetic dipole.
6. Finding the EM fields for antenna 3 – Radiation Integrals and Radiated
EM fields for wire antenna.
7. Antenna in transmit mode - Radiated power density, radiation intensity
and antenna pattern.
8. More antenna parameters – Directivity, beam solid angle, gain, antenna
equivalent circuit.
9. Antenna in receiving mode and Reciprocity Theorem – Antenna
effective area.
10. Friis transmission formula for transmit/receive system.
1. Definitions, Usage and
Types of Antenna
What is an Antenna?
• An antenna is...
• That part of a transmitting system that is designed to generate
propagating electromagnetic (EM) waves in free space.
• The same structure can also be used to convert propagating
electromagnetic waves in free space into voltage and current at the
antenna terminals.
• A transducer between a guided wave propagating in a transmission line
and an electromagnetic wave propagating in an unbounded medium
(usually free space), or vice versa.
• Any conducting structure can launch/generate EM waves – or radiate –
but when the “structure” is designed to radiate efficiently with
directional and polarization properties suitable for the intended
application – that “structure” is called an antenna.
• An antenna can include purely metallic, purely dielectric or hybrid
structures.
Usage of Antenna (1)
Horn antenna
connected to
rectangular
waveguide
The figure shows how a

wave is launched by a
hornlike antenna, with the
horn acting as a transition
between the waveguide
and free space.
Usage of Antenna (2)
• A pair of antenna used in a transmit/receive system, i.e. a wireless
communication system.
Electromagnetic
Antenna (EM) fields
I1
I2
V1 V2
TX RX
Far fields
Near fields
Types of Radiating Structures (Antennas)
NOTE: Usually contains TWO pieces of

conductor
Types of Antenna (1)
I1 Monople antenna
V1
Proprietary
RF chipset
I1 Dipole antenna
Folded dipole
V1
antenna
A variant of folded dipole

on PCB (it’s actually a
monople with two conductors)
2.4 GHz DSSS

chipset
I1
Fractal patch
V1 antenna
Microstrip patch
Coaxial to waveguide
antenna adapter
I1 Rectangular
waveguide Slot antenna
V1
I1
V1
Horn antennas
Helix and fractal

I1
V1
Microstrip line
Folded dipole
antenna
Microstrip
patch antenna
Microstrip array and printed dipole array
Microstrip array
Front
Back
Ceramic chip
antenna
Bluetooth chipset
Reasons for the Wide Variety of
Antenna Types
• Operating frequency.
• Power level (maximum voltage and current).
• Efficiency.
• Bandwidth or operating frequency range.
• Cost.
• Size.
• Gain.
• Technology.
2. A Quick Review of
Maxwell’s Equations
Review of Scalar and Vector Notations
• Suppose we have a variable, call it A.
• If A is a scalar, we would just write as A.r
• If A is a vector, we would write as A or A .
• If A is a unit vector (a vector with a magnitude of 1), we would write as Â .
• In 3D Cartesian coordinate system, A and Â would be defined as
follows: x-component magnitude Magnitude of A
z r ) ) ) 2+A 2+A 2
Az A = Ax x + A y y + Az z A = Ax y z
A vector
A as depicted
in Cartesian
Unit vector along x-axis
coordinate ) ) ) Note: some books,
A Ax x + A y y + Az z
system Aˆ = like the textbook
A will use ax to denote
Ax 0 Ay = 1 )
( ) )
Ax x + Ay y + Az z ) unit vector in x-axis,
and similar notation
Ax 2 + A y 2 + Az 2 for unit vectors in y
x y and z-axis.
r
Another way to portray A: A = AAˆ = Aa A
Maxwell’s Equations (1)
• How the physical quantities of electric charge q, electric current I,
electric field E and magnetic field B (EM fields) behave and react in
space are dictated by a set of natural laws called the Maxwell’s
Equations.
• Maxwell’s Equations can be expressed in differential or integral form.
In differential form we use charge density ρv and current density J
instead of q and I. In this chapter we will predominantly use Maxwell’s
Equations in differential form.
• In either differential or integral form, the parameters in Maxwell’s
Equations are expressed as time-domain functions, since electric
charge q, electric current I, E and B fields can change with time (e.g.
they are function of time t) and location.
• However in linear dielectric medium, when the parameters dependency
on time is in sinusoidal form, the parameters can be expressed in time-
harmonic form, where the electric charge, electric current, E and B
fields are expressed as complex exponent in time or phasors.
Maxwell’s Equations (2)
• Maxwell’s Equations tells us that the presence of electric charge
causes electric field (E) to appear in the surrounding space. It also tells
us that the presence of moving electric charge (current) produces
magnetic field (B) in the surrounding space.
• From the Lorentz Force Law, the electric field in turn produces a force
on electric charge and the magnetic field in turn produces a force on
moving electric charge.
• Finally Maxwell’s Equations also describe the phenomenon of
induction, in which time-varying electric field induces magnetic field,
and time-varying magnetic field induces electric field.
• These effects are summed up in 4 differential equations involving E, B,
q and I (or ρv and J).
Maxwell Equations (Linear Medium) - Time-
Domain Form (1)
Each parameter depends on 4 independent variables
Faraday’s law r
Where: E = E x (x, y, z , t )xˆ + E y (x, y, z , t ) yˆ + E z (x, y, z , t )zˆ
r ∂
r r
∇ × E = − B (2.1a) H = H x (x, y, z , t )xˆ + H y (x, y, z , t ) yˆ + H z (x, y, z , t )zˆ
∂t r
r r ∂ r J = J x (x, y, z , t )xˆ + J y (x, y, z , t ) yˆ + J z (x, y, z , t )zˆ
∇ × H = J + D (2.1b) ρ v = ρ v ( x, y , z , t )
∂t
r Modified Ampere’s law Unit vector in x-direction
∇ ⋅ D = ρv Gauss’s law (2.1c)
x component In Cartesian coordinate system
r E – Electric field intensity

∇⋅B = 0 No name, but can
(2.1d) H – Auxiliary magnetic field
z be called Gauss’s law D – Electric flux
for magnetic field
B – Magnetic field intensity
y
J – Current density
x ρv – Volume charge density
Constitutive εo – permittivity of free space
(≅8.85412×10-12)
relations
µo – permeability of free space
(4π×10-7)
εr – relative permittivity
For linear medium µr – relative permeability
Domain Form (2)
• Maxwell Equations as shown are actually a collection of 4 partial
differential equations (PDE) that describe the physical relationship
between electromagnetic (EM) fields, current and electric charge.
• The Del operator is a shorthand for three-dimensional (3D)
differentiation:
(
∇ = ∂∂x xˆ + ∂∂y yˆ + ∂∂z zˆ )
• For instance consider the Faraday’s Law and Gauss’s Law, in
Cartesian coordinate system:  r r 
If you still remember Vector Calculus, lim ∆S→ 0  1 ∫ E ⋅ dl 
Curl the Curl is the limit of this operation:  ∆S ∆C 
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂ =  ∂E z − ∂E y   ∂E x ∂E z   ∂E y ∂E x 
r
∇× E = ∂ ∂  xˆ +  −  yˆ +  ∂x − ∂y  zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   
Ex Ey Ez
Gradient
Divergence ∂t
(
= − ∂ Bx x + B y yˆ + Bz zˆ ) ) )
∇F = ∂F x + ∂F yˆ + ∂F z
∂x ∂y ∂z
r ∂E x ∂E y ∂E z  r r 
ρ v If you still remember Vector Calculus, lim ∆V →0  1 ∫∫ E ⋅ ds 
∇⋅E = + + = the Divergence is the limit of this operation:  ∆V ∆S 
∂x ∂y ∂z ε
Domain Form (3)
• The physical meaning of Maxwell’s Equations:
Surface
Faraday’s Law : Integral form integration
r r r r ∂
r r B
∂
∇× E = − B ∫ E ⋅ dl = −
∂t ∫∫ B ⋅ ds
Differential form
∂t C Line S
integration Induced
This means circular electric field E can E field
be created by time-varying magnetic (circular)
field (the magnetic field changes in value and direction)
Modified Ampere’s Law:
r r r r r r ∂
r r I
∂
∇× H = J +ε E
∂t
∫ H ⋅ d l = I + ε
∂t ∫∫ E ⋅ ds E
Differential form C Integral form S conductor
This means that circular magnetic field H can Induced

be created by both electric current (the current density) H field
and time-varying electric field E (the electric field (circular)
changes in value and direction)
Domain Form (4)
Gauss’s Law :
r ρv r r 1 Q
∇⋅E = ∫∫ E ⋅ ds = ε ∫∫∫ ρ v dV = ε E
ε S V
Differential form
Integral form
This means electric field E can also

be created from electric charge, and
Electric charge
the field pattern is in a radial direction
Gauss’s Law for magnetic field:

r r r
∇⋅B = 0 ∫∫ B ⋅ ds = 0 Make sure you ‘grasp’ the
insights of the concepts of
Differential form S Integral form
field properly. An important
This means for the time being concept is ‘action at a distant’.
there is no natural magnetic charges
to create magnetic field in radial direction!!!
Review of Phasor (1)
• In engineering we usually deal with signals that changes with time in a
sinusoidal manner. This is because many non-sinusoidal signals can be
expressed in terms of sinusoidal components by the use of Fourier
v1(t)
Series and Fourier Transform.
Frequency Vo
• For example a voltage:
v1 (t ) = Vo cos(ωt + θ ) t
θ
Magnitude Phase 2π
ω
• This can be expressed as complex exponent via Euler’s formula:
e jα = cos α + j sin α Phasor
We normally use small letter
and italic font to represent
time-domain variable { } {
v1 (t ) = Re Vo e j (ωt +θ ) = Re Vo e jθ e jωt }
• The term V1 = Vo e jθ is called the phasor, or time-harmonic form.
• Similarly, given a phasor, we can obtain the time-domain form as follows:
– Multiply the phasor with e jωt .
– Take the real part of the product.
• Why use phasor ?
• In many engineering problems we are only interested in the steady-
state sinusoidal response of a linear system, which can be conveniently
represented in phasor form.
• Moreover using the phasor notation simplifies the integral-differential
equations describing a physical system.
• In particular the differentiation and integration with respect to time t
becomes multiplication and division with jω respectively in phasor.
Time-domain ∂v → jωV Phasor/time-harmonic 1 V
quantity
∂t quantity ∫ vdt →
jω
• For more discussion on the theory of phasor analysis and Fourier
Transform, consult your pass year notes and textbooks on circuit and
signal analysis.
• Vector quantity such as E and H fields, J can also be expressed as
phasors provided all their components’ time dependency are
sinusoidal.
• For example for a sinusoidal E field:
r
E(x, y, z, t ) =
)
Ex (x, y, z)cos(ωt +θ )xˆ + Ey (x, y, z)cos(ωt +θ ) y + Ez (x, y, z)cos(ωt +θ )zˆ
• The
r phasor is given by:
E ( x, y , z )
Re E y e jθ e jωt{ }
= E (x, y , z )e jθ xˆ + E (x, y, z )e jθ y + E (x, y, z )e jθ zˆ
x y z
) ) )
= Ex x + E y y + Ez z
Normally straight and capital letter is used to represent phasor
• Notice that the phasor now depends on (x,y,z) only (it can also
depends on frequency ω), and it is also a vector.
Harmonic Form (1)
• For sinusoidal variations with time t, we substitute the phasors for E, H, J
and ρ into Maxwell’s Equations, the result are Maxwell’s Equations in
time-harmonic form. Where: r
Each parameter depends on 3 independent variables
∂ → jω E = E x (x, y, z )xˆ + E y (x, y, z ) yˆ + E z (x, y, z )zˆ
∂t r
r r H = H x (x, y, z )xˆ + H y (x, y, z ) yˆ + H z (x, y, z )zˆ
Faraday’s Law ∇ × E = − jωB (2.2a) r
r r r J = J x (x, y, z )xˆ + J y (x, y, z ) yˆ + J z (x, y, z )zˆ
Modified
Ampere’s Law ∇ × H = J + jωD (2.2b) ρ v = ρ v (x, y, z ) E – Electric field intensity
r
H – Auxiliary magnetic field
Gauss’s Law ∇ ⋅ D = ρ v (2.2c) D – Electric flux
Gauss’s Law
r B – Magnetic field intensity
for magnetic ∇⋅B = 0 (2.2d) J – Current density
field
ρv- Volume charge density
Constitutive εo – permittivity of free space
relations (≅8.85412×10-12)
µo – permeability of free space
(4π×10-7)
εr – relative permittivity
For linear medium µr – relative permeability
3. Mechanism of
Electromagnetic (EM)
Radiation
Self-Sustaining EM Fields
• Maxwell’s Equations show that time-varying E field can induce
solenoidal H field.
• Similarly time-varying H field will induce solenoidal E field.
• It is this symmetry nature of time-varying EM fields which result in self-
sustaining EM field in free space. When the variation with respect to
time is sinusoidal, this self-sustaining EM field is usually called a
propagating EM wave or radiowave.
Example 3.1 – Radiation from Dipole
Antenna
Example 3.2 – Radiation from Horn
Antenna Driven by Rectangular Waveguide
• To be shown during lecture (hand-drawn).
4. Finding the EM fields for
Antenna 1 - Potential Theory
for Electromagnetic fields
Introduction
• In the last section we only explain the possibility of generating a self-
sustaining EM fields from time-varying currents in an antenna.
• In this section systematic procedures for finding the approximate
expressions for the electric and magnetic fields from an antenna is
presented.
• From our knowledge of Maxwell’s Equations, it is obvious that to find
the EM fields, we need to know how the current and charge are
distributed and change with time in an antenna.
• However to find the EM fields directly via Maxwell’s Equations in it’s
original form is difficult, since E and H fields being vectors, has three
components each, that brings the total unknowns to six.
• A more systematic approach to finding the E and H fields is to write the
fields in terms of a auxiliary (or secondary) quantity, traditionally called
potentials. Express the potentials in terms of charge and current, and
obtain the EM fields from the potentials.
Maxwell’s Equations Under Static Condition (1)
• In static case the EM fields, J and ρv are constant with respect to time t,
they are no longer function of time, i.e. frequency is zero, ω = 0.
r r
E ( x , y , z , t ) → E ( x, y , z )
• Maxwell’s Equations under static condition degenerate to the following
form: r
r r Electrostatics
∇ × E = − j ωB ∇×E = 0 r
r r r For linear medium r r ∇ × E = 0 (4.1a)
∇ × H = J + jωD with ω → 0 ∇×H = J r
r
∇ ⋅ D = ρv
r
∇ ⋅ D = ρv
( )
∇ ⋅ εE = ρ v (4.1b)
r r
∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅B = 0 Magnetostatics
r r
We observe that: ∇ × H = J (4.2a)
• There is a symmetry between the Electrostatics and r
Magnetostatics equations. ( )
∇ ⋅ µH = 0 (4.2b)
•The E and H fields are no longer interconnected
(decoupled).
Electrostatic, Charge and Scalar Potential
(1)
• We have learnt in field theory and basic EM theory that under
electrostatic condition, an auxiliary quantity called Electric Potential (V)
can be defined, and it is related to electric field E.
Electric potential Poisson’s Equation for
(Energy needed to bring
Electrostatic (under linear
1 Coulomb of positive r
charge from a reference point E = −∇V (4.3) homogeneous medium)
to the observation point
under electric field) 2 ρv Electrostatics
r r ∇ V=− εo in terms of V
Electrostatics
V = −∫ E ⋅ d l (4.4)
r
∇×E = 0
V(R ) = ∫∫∫
1 ρv '
r dv
( )
∇ ⋅ εE = ρ v
4πε o
Volume D
r
Potential at observation
point, reference at Solution to Poisson’s
infinity Equation
Electrostatic, Charge and Scalar
Potential (2)
• A diagram should clear up any confusion with regards to the notations
of finding electric potential V from a given charge distribution.
Integration z Observation point

domain for dv’ P(x,y,z) or P(R,θ,φ)
V(R ) = ∫∫∫
1 ρv '
R r 4πε o r dv
Volume D
ρv(r’)
r’ A distribution of
electric charge, ρv
Volume D
x
y
Magnetostatic, Current and Vector
Potential (1)
• In a similar manner we have also learnt that static magnetic field can also
be expressed in terms of another auxiliary quantity, called magnetic
vector potential A.
Magnetic vector
r r potential
H = µ1 ∇ × A Vector Poisson
(4.5) Equation for A
r r r r r r
Magnetostatics ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫∫ µH ⋅ d s
Closed surface S
2
∇ A = −µ o J
r
( )
∇ ⋅ µH = 0 (4.6)
r r r r
A(R ) = ∫∫∫
µo
∇×H = J
4π
J
r dv '
Volume
Solution to vector Poisson’s
Equation
Magnetostatic, Current and Vector
Potential (2)
• Similar to Electrostatic we can find the vector potential A from a given
current distribution.
Integration z Observation point

domain for dv’ P(x,y,z) or P(R,θ,φ)
r r
A(R ) = ∫∫∫
µo J '
R r 4π rdv
Volume D
J(r’)
r’
A distribution of
electric current, J
Volume D
x
y
Summary- Potentials in Electrostatics
and Magnetostatics
• From electrostatics and magnetostatics we have seen that E and H
fields can be expressed in terms of potentials, called scalar potential V
and vector potential A respectively.
r
E = −∇V (4.3)
r r r r
B = ∇×A or H = µ1 ∇ × A (4.5)
• Here we observe that both E and H fields are independent of each

other, E depends on V, while H depends only on A.
• The electric potential V depends on the charge distribution of the
system, while the vector potential A depends on the current distribution
of the system. Under static condition, ρv and J are independent and
thus V and A are independent.
• Knowing the charge and current in a system allows us to work out the
E and H field of static system.
Potentials in Electrodynamics (1)
• We shall now see that under electrodynamics E and H will depend on
both scalar and vector potentials.
r
• Under electrodynamics E ≠ −∇V because curl of E is no longer zero.
r r
• However divergence of B remains as zero, thus B = ∇ × A is still valid.
• By putting (4.5) into Faraday’s Law of Maxwell’s Equations:
r r
(
∇ × E = − jω ∇ × A
r r
)
(
⇒ ∇ × E + jωA = 0) (4.6)
• And using the vector identity for zero curl, the above can be expressed
as gradient of a scalar function V. To be consistent with electrostatic,
we also include the negative multiplier:
r r Here I want to reiterate
E + jωA = −∇V (4.7) that we are using
time-harmonic form
of Maxwell’s Equations
Potentials in Electrodynamics (2)
• Therefore under electrodynamics E and H can be expressed as:
r r
E = −∇V − jωA (4.8a)
Potentials formulation
r r in electrodynamics
H = µ1 ∇ × A (4.8b)
• As usual V and A are the scalar and vector potentials respectively, but
these now apply to a system with electric charge and electric current
that varies with time, e.g. in a sinusoidal fashion.
Wave Equations for Potentials (1)
• Also recall that under electrostatics and magnetics both V and A fulfill
the scalar and vector versions of the Poisson Equations, repeated
again: 2 ρv
∇ V=− ε (4.4)
r
2
r
∇ A = −µJ (4.6)
• This can be extended to electrodynamics condition. For instance
putting (4.8a) for E into Gauss’s Law of Maxwell’s Equations:
r r
( ) (
∇ ⋅ εE = ε∇ ⋅ − ∇V − jωA = ρ v
r
)
( )
⇒ ∇ V + jω ∇ ⋅ A = − 1ε ρ v
2
(4.9a)
This is a 2nd order linear partial
differential equation.
• In a similar manner using the modified Ampere’s Law in Maxwell’s
Equations, a ‘constraint’ for A in the form of 2nd order PDE can be
obtained:
r r r r
( 2 2
) (
∇ A + µεω A − ∇ ∇ ⋅ A + jµεωV = −µJ ) (4.9b)
• As usual we observed that (4.9a) and (4.9b) are coupled PDEs,
containing both A and V terms. We would like to decouple them.
• At this juncture we should pause and ponder the reason we use
potential formulation. Note that we manage to reduce the complexity of
the problem slightly, instead of 6 parameters (3 each for E and H fields
in 3D space), we manage to reduce the unknown parameters to 4 (3 for
A and 1 for V in 3D space).
• Now take note that equations (4.8a) and (4.8b) do not uniquely define
V and A. We are free to impose extra conditions on V and A as long
as nothing happens to E and H.
• The extra conditions on V and A are called Gauge Transformation (see
reference books for more info).
• Here I just wish draw your attention to a theory on vector field, the
Hemholtz Theorem which states that to uniquely define a vector field (A
in this case), one needs to define both it’s divergence and curl.
• Here we have already define the curl of A in (4.8b). Now let’s impose
further condition on A, in the form of: r
∇ ⋅ A = − jωµεV (4.10)
This is called the Lorentz’s Gauge,
note that many type of gauge can be defined.
r
For example ∇ ⋅ A = 0 is called the
Coulomb’s Gauge.
• With the Lorentz’s Gauge, equations (4.9a) and (4.9b) can be
decoupled and we finally obtained the following PDEs for the potentials
under electrodynamics condition:
2 2
∇ V + k V = − ε1 ρ v (4.11a)
2
r 2
r r
∇ A + k A = − µJ (4.11b)
r
∇ ⋅ A = − jωµεV (4.11c)
and k = ω µε (4.11d)
• The above is what we called the Wave Equations for Potentials in
Electrodynamics.
• Note with the Lorentz Gauge, E and H fields can be specified entirely in
vector potential A. r r r
jω
E = − k 2 ∇ ∇ ⋅ A − jωA ( )
Solutions for Wave Equations for
Potentials (1)
• Now we would like to know the solutions for wave equations (4.11a)
and (4.11b).
• Here we do not have the space to outline the procedures of finding the
expressions for V and A that fulfill equations (4.11).
• The motivated reader can refer to the standard electromagnetic books
or to the excellence texts by:
– [4], Chapter 12.
– C.A. Balanis, “Advanced engineering electromagnetics”, 1989 John
Wiley or [2].
– [1], Chapter 7 (this is presented in time-domain).
• In summary, the solution to (4.11) for V and A, expressed in terms of
charge and current density can be obtained using “Green Function
Theorem” for Partial Differential Equations (PDE).
Potentials (2)
• The solutions to (4.11) for dynamic case are quite similar in form to the
Electrostatic and Magnetostatic case: Note that under static
ρ v (r ') condition, (1.9a) and
V ( x, y , z ) = ∫∫∫ (4.12a)
1 − jkr
4πε r e dv' (1.9b) reduced to the
solutions for electrostatics
r r
J (r ')
and magnetostatics.
A ( x, y , z ) = ∫∫∫
µ − jkr
4π r e dv' (4.12b)
• Contrast (4.12a) and (4.12b) with the expressions for V and A for
electrostatics and magnetostatics.
• In time-domain (4.12a) and (4.12b) can be expressed as:
ρ v (r ',t − cr )
V ( x, y , z , t ) = 1
4πε ∫∫∫ r r dv' (4.13a)
These are called the
r J (r ',t − cr ) Retarded Potentials
A( x, y, z , t ) = ∫∫∫
µ
4π r dv' (4.13b)
• Where c is the speed of light in the medium.

Potentials (3)
• As usual, a diagram should clear up any confusion with regards to the
notations. This is shown for V, and should apply for A too.
Integration z
domain for dv’ Observation point
P(x,y,z)
R r
ρ v (r ' )
ρv(r’)
V ( x, y , z ) = 4πε
1
∫∫∫ r e − jkr dv'
r’ A distribution of
electric charge, ρv or
ρ v (r ',t − cr )
x
y
V ( x, y , z , t ) = 4πε
1
∫∫∫ r dv'
Main Ideas
• What equations (4.12a) and (4.12b) say is that if we know the charge
and current distribution in a system, we can predict the potentials and
subsequently the electromagnetic fields at any observation point.
• When there is a change in the charge or current distribution, this will
affect the potentials/fields at the observation point. However the affect
will not be immediate, but delayed by a factor of r/c in time-domain or kr
in frequency domain for each point source.
• We can explain this physically by noting that a ‘signal’ cannot travel
faster than the speed-of-light.
• Thus in general, if we know the charge and current in a structure,
we can predict the EM fields with time retardation taken into
account, and this is the basis of finding the radiating fields from
an antenna.
Antenna 2 - Dynamic EM
Fields from Elemental
Electric Dipole and
Magnetic Dipole
Short Electric Dipole
• Consider a Short Electric Dipole (since this structure produce mainly
electric field in it’s vicinity) with oscillating current flowing along it’s axis.
Electric charges exist at both ends to fulfill the charge continuity principle.
• The short, or elemental electric dipole is also called a Hertzian dipole, and
it is a form of antenna.
“Short” here means ∆l < 0.1λ
+ Point charges at
both ends, ±q(t). Q∆l = Electric dipole moment
∆l
Electric current flows uniformly
- along conductor, which is very thin, i(t).
i (t ) = I o cos(ωt ) or I = I oe j 0 (5.1a)
Io
i (t ) = ± dq
or Q=±
dt
jω (5.1b)
Time-domain Frequency-domain
Potentials for Elemental Electric Dipole
• Consider an elemental electric dipole oriented as shown. From (4.12),
the potentials at the observation point is then given by:
z ∆l = ∆z
P(observation point)
r
R r
A(R ) = ( )zˆ = A zˆ (5.2a)
µI o ∆z e − jkr
4π r z
r1 r2 V (R ) = Q
4πε
( )− ( ) (5.2b)
e − jkr1
r1
Q
4πε
e − jkr2
r2
NOTE:
r’ The parameters r1 and r2 can be expressed
Elemental
electric dipole in terms of r, ∆z. We will not do that now
as potential V can be written in terms of A
(4.10), so it is not needed. We will see very
x soon that V is not needed at all as the
y elemental electric dipole is normally not
used alone.
EM Fields from Elemental Electric Dipole
• For simplicity assume that r’=0, thus R = r and the dipole is at the center
of the origin.
• The vector potential A can be written in spherical coordinate system as:
r z
A(r , θ , φ ) = Ar rˆ + Aθ θˆ + Aφφˆ
= ( Az cos θ )rˆ + (− Az sin θ )θˆ
P
• Using the relation between A and H, at point P: θ
r r
H(r ) = µ1 ∇ × A (5.3a) r
= − I4o π∆z k 2 sin θ [ 1

jkr
]
+ ( jkr1 )2 e − jkrφˆ
• Knowing H we can find E from Maxwell’s Equations.
r r x φ
E(r ) = 1
jωε ∇×H
y
= − I4o π∆z ηk 2 2 cos θ [ 1
( jkr )2
]
+ ( jkr1 )3 e − jkr rˆ − I4o π∆z ηk 2 sin θ [ 1
jkr
]
+ ( jkr1 )2 + ( jkr1 )3 e − jkrθˆ (5.3b)
Example 5.1
• An example of EM fields from a elemental electric dipole at two
difference instance in time.
• Equations (5.3a) and (5.3b) for H and E fields can be converted into
time-domain respectively and plot at t = 0 and t = 0.25T, whre T =1/f.
E fields at t=0 E fields at t=0.25T
Instantaneous
E field
Vertical
Plane
Source: S. A. Schelkunoff and H. T. Friis,

“Antenna: theory and practice”, 1952 John-Wiley
and Sons.
Near and Far Fields (1)
• The EM fields can be classified depending on the distance of the
observation point to the center of the elemental electric dipole.
• Typically reactive near field is defined as the EM fields at observation
point where: 2πr
kr = << 1 (5.4a)
λ
• Far field is defined as the EM fields at observation point where:
2πr
kr = >> 1 (5.4b)
λ
• In between reactive near field and far field is the radiating near field.
No abrupt changes in
Radiating near
the field
field (Fresnel)
configurations are
region (kr > 1)
Rnear noted as the
boundaries are
Antenna crossed – but there
Rfar are distinct
differences between
the fields
Reactive near field
region (kr << 1)
Far field (Fraunhofer) region
(kr >> 1)
• For reactive near field:
r
H (r ) ≅ − I4o π∆z k 2 sin θ [ ]φˆ 1
( jkr )2
(5.5a)
r
E (r ) ≅ − I4o π∆z ηk 2 2 cos θ [ ]rˆ −1
( jkr )3
I o ∆z
4π ηk 2 sin θ [ ]θˆ
1
( jkr )3 (5.5b)
• For far field: NOTE:

r Far E and H fields
H (r ) ≅ − I4o π∆z k 2 sin θ [ ]e 1
jkr
− jkr
φˆ (5.6a) perpendicular to each other
and in phase, this indicates
r the Poynting Vector is
E (r ) ≅ − I4o π∆z ηk 2 sin θ [ ]e
1
jkr
− jkr
θˆ (5.6b) non-zero. Also
r
E (r )far -field
r =η
H (r )far -field
Why Consider Elemental Electric Dipole?
• In general any conductor can be considered as composing of many

elemental electric dipole connected together.
• Thus the EM field generated by the long conductor can be obtained by
superposition of the fields from the individual elemental electric dipole.
Long
thin
conductor
Elemental Magnetic Dipole
• A current loop is called a Magnetic Dipole (because it produce
magnetic field mainly). If the loop area is very small, it is called
elemental magnetic dipole.
• When the current within the magnetic dipole is time-varying, the
resulting H field in it’s vicinity is also time-varying and this induces a
propagating EM wave. z
Current Observation
loop with θ point P
area a
Io r
x φ
y
EM Fields for Elemental Magnetic Dipole
• Using similar procedures, e.g. finding the A of the current loop, and
then using expressions (4.8a) and (4.8b) with reasonable
approximation, one can show that the far-field E and H for the
elemental magnetic dipole are given by [1]:
r
H (r ) ≅ − ωµ4πηo m sin θ [ kr ]e − jkrθˆ (5.7a) Area
r m = Ioa
E (r ) ≅ ωµ4πo m k sin θ [1r ]e − jkrφˆ (5.7b)
r
E (r )far -field Magnetic dipole
• As in the electric dipole, r =η moment
H (r )far -field
• Examination of (5.6) and (5.7) reveals that electric and magnetic dipole
have the same pattern function and are in both space and time
quadrature. This means it is possible to combine electric and magnetic
dipoles to form an antenna that produces circular polarization EM
wave.
Concluding Remarks
• Every antenna structure can be decomposed into many short electric
and magnetic dipoles.
• Thus understanding the EM field of these elemental radiating structures
is important.
• Due to time constraint, we shall not discuss much on elemental
magnetic dipole. We shall only consider in detail antenna whose
structure can be decomposed into many elemental electric dipole.
Antenna 3 - Radiation
Integrals and Radiated EM
Fields for Wire Antenna
EM Fields from General Wire
Structures (1)
• Consider a long conductor oriented along z direction.
• By segmenting it into short segments of ∆l, the total EM fields can be
written using superposition principle and (5.3a), (5.3b):
z
θ1
segment 1 r1 P
Long r2
segment 2
r3
thin segment 3
conductor r
k2 
N
H (P ) ≅ − 4π ∑ I oi sin θ i
 i =1
[ 1
jkri
] 
+ ( jkr1 )2 e − jkri ∆z φˆ
i

∆z r ηk 2 
N
 i =1
1
i
[
E (P ) ≅ − 2π ∑ I oi cos θ i ( jkr )2 + ( jkr )3 e ∆z rˆ
1
i
− jkri 

]
2 
N
 i =1
1
[
− 4π ∑ I oi sin θ i jkri + ( jkr )2 + ( jkr )3 e ∆z θ
ηk 1
i
1
i
− jkri ˆ

]
segment N
0
EM Fields from General Wire
Structures (2)
• In the limit when N→∞ or ∆z→0, the summation operation becomes
integration: We need to know
this!
r
H ( P ) = − 4π
k2
{∫ I (z )sin(θ (z ))[
L
0
o
1
jkr
] }
+ ( jkr1 )2 e − jkr dz φˆ (6.1a)
r ηk 2
E ( P ) ≅ − 2π {∫ I (z )cos(θ (z ))[
0
L
o
1
( jkr )2
] }
+ ( jkr1 )3 e − jkr dz rˆ (6.1b)
− ηk 2
4π
{∫ I (z )sin(θ (z ))[
0
L
o
1
jkr
]
+ ( jkr1 )2 + ( jkr1 )3 e − jkr dz θˆ}
• Of course to be able to use equations (6.1a) and (6.1b) effectively to
predict the EM fields created by a thin, long conductor, we need
information of the electric current distribution along the conductor.
Far Field for General Wire Structures
• In general we are more interested in the far EM field for a structure, as
the far field represents the radiation field.
r
H ( P ) = − 4π
k2
{∫ I (z )sin(θ (z ))
0
L
o
1
jkr e − jkr dz φˆ} (6.2a)
Radiation Integrals
r ηk 2
E ( P ) ≅ − 4π {∫ I (z )sin(θ (z ))
0
L
o
1
jkr
}
e − jkr dz θˆ (6.2b)
• The above integral, representing far-field E and H in terms of the
current in the conductor are called the Radiation Integrals.
• An important observation above is that the ratio of |E| over |H| for far
field is a fixed constant, called the Wave Impedance:
r
E (P )
r =η (6.3)
H (P )
Example 6.1 – Far Field for Dipole
Antenna
• We would like to find the far field for a dipole structure as shown below.
• The determination of the exact current distribution on the dipole
conductors subjected to Maxwell’s Equation is a very difficult boundary
value problem even if the wire is assumed to be perfectly conducting.
• Usually numerical method like Method of Moments (MoM) and Finite
Element Method (FEM) is employed to find the exact current distribution
(see [2]). z
Dipole
h
i(t)
x
Example 6.1 Cont…
• For our purposes the knowledge of the exact current distribution on the
linear antenna is not of prime importance. A good estimate will give us
considerable useful information on the radiation characteristics of the
antenna.
• Here we assume a sinusoidal current distribution on a very thin, straight
dipole. Such a current distribution constitutes a type of standing wave
over the dipole and is a good approximation.
z Common sense tells
I (z ) = I m sin k (h − z ) us that current magnitude
must be large here and
Current
approach zero at the tips
phasor  I m sin k (h − z ) z > 0 of the conductor
= 
 I m sin k (h + z ) z < 0
i(t)
x
Example 6.1 Cont…
• Using (6.2b): r ηk 2
E ( P ) ≅ − 4π {∫ −h
h
I ( z )sin (θ ( z )) jkr
1
}
e − jkr dz θˆ
 h I sin (k (h − z ))sin (θ ( z )) 1 e − jkr dz 
ηk 2  ∫0 ˆ
m jkr
= − 4π  0 θ
+ ∫ I m sin (k (h + z ))sin (θ (z )) jkr
1
e − jkr dz 
z
 −h 
P (observation
point)
θ r
i(t) R
z
x
Example 6.1 Cont…
• The integration is still difficult to perform, we can make further
assumption by noting that since R >> h, the angle θ can be considered
constant along the dipole.
• Furthermore r and R can be assumed to be parallel.
z
r ≅ R − z cos θ
θ r
This term can be ignored
i(t) R without incurring much error
z
x
 h sin (k (h − z )) 
∫0
1 − jk ( R − z cosθ )
r jk ( R − z cosθ )
e dz ˆ
ηk 2 I m sin θ
E ( P ) ≅ − 4π  0 θ
+ ∫ sin (k (h + z )) jk ( R −1z cosθ ) e − jk ( R − z cosθ )dz 
 −h 
Example 6.1 Cont…
• Therefore  h sin (k (h − z )) 1 e − jk ( R − z cosθ )dz 
ηk 2 I m sin θ  ∫0
r jkR ˆ
E ( P ) ≅ − 4π  0 θ
+ ∫ sin (k (h + z )) jkR 1
e − jk ( R − z cosθ )dz 
 −h 
 h sin (k (h − z ))e jk ( z cosθ )dz 
jηkI m sin θ − jkR  ∫0 ˆ
= 4πR e  0 θ
+ ∫ sin (k (h + z ))e jk ( z cosθ )dz 
 −h 
= jηkI m sin θ − jkR h
2πR e {∫ 0
sin (k (h − z )) cos(kz cos θ )dz θˆ }
r
E (P ) ≅ [ jηkI m
2πR e − jkR
]{ cos ( kh cosθ )− cos kh
sin θ
}θˆ (6.4a)
• Using (6.3):
r
H (P ) ≅ [ jkI m
2πR e − jkR ]{ cos ( kh cosθ )− cos kh
sin θ
}φˆ (6.4b)
Example 6.1 Cont…
• For the special case of half-wavelength dipole, 2h = λ/2, the far fields
become:
r
( )
E 1 λ P ≅ 2πR e
2
[
jηkI m − jkR cos ( π2 cosθ ) ˆ
sin θ
]{ (6.5a) }θ r
r ) ˆ E (P ) ˆ
H 1 λ (P ) ≅
2
[ jkI m
2πR e − jkR
]{cos ( π2 cosθ
sin θ
}φ = η φ (6.5b)
7. Antenna in Transmit
Mode - Radiated Power
Density, Radiation Intensity
and Radiation/Antenna
Pattern
Radiated Power Density (S)
• For application involving antenna, we are only interested in the EM
fields at the far-field condition.
• We can see that the E and H fields are perpendicular to each other
under far-field condition, and their vector product produces a positive
power flow from the antenna, according to Poynting Theorem.
• The time-average power density (e.g. power per unit area) of the EM
fields in a direction n (where n is a unit vector) is given by:
r r
{
S = 12 Re E × H * ⋅ nˆ } (7.1)
Denotes complex conjugate
• For antenna, we are usually interested in S at various direction, with n̂
equals to the radial direction in spherical coordinate system.
• When equation (7.1) is applied to far field of a radiating structure with
nˆ = rˆ , the resulting S is called the Radiated Power Density.
Radiated Power Density for Hertzian Dipole
• For the Hertzian Dipole, the radiated power density is given by:
r r
{
S = 12 Re E × H * ⋅ nˆ }
= I o 2 ∆z 2
32π 2
ηk 4
( )Re[(e
(sin θ )2
k 2r 2
− jkr − j π2
e )(
ˆ jkr j π2 ˆ
θ × e e φ ⋅ rˆ )]
= I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2
32π 2
( ) W/m
1
r2
2
• Or
S (θ , φ , r ) = I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2
32π 2 ( ) W/m
1
r2
2 (7.2)
• This can be written in the form:

F(θ,φ) represents the
normalized radiated
S (θ , φ , r ) = S o (r )F (θ , φ ) W/m 2 (7.3a) power density at certain
where distance from the antenna.
The pattern function
I o2 ∆z 2ηk 2
S o (r ) = F (θ , φ ) = (sin θ )
2
32π 2 r 2
(7.3b)
Radiation Pattern
• We have seen in the previous slide the radiated power density depends
on direction.
• The normalized three-dimensional plot showing the relative strength of
the radiation (i.e. it’s radiation power density) at different observation
direction with distance fixed is given by F(θ,φ).
• The function F(θ,φ) is called the Radiation Pattern or Pattern Function
of an antenna.
• The radiation pattern can be shown in two-dimension at certain ‘cut-
plane’.
Example 7.1 – Radiation Pattern of
Short Electric Dipole
z S (θ , φ , r ) = S o (r )F (θ , φ ) W/m 2
where
I o2 ∆z 2ηk 2
S o (r ) = F (θ , φ ) = (sin θ )
2
2 2
32π r
θ
When φ is constant
(E-plane pattern)
When θ is π/2
(H-plane pattern)
x φ
y
E-plane and H-plane
• Is defined only for single linear polarized antenna.
• The radiation pattern that contains the electric field is called the E-plane
cut or E-plane pattern.
• Automatically the other plane, which contains the Magnetic field is
called the H-plane.
For the short/Hertzian dipole,

the left pattern cut is the E-
plane and the right is H-plane
E- and H-plane does not mean anything for a dual polarized or

circularly polarized antenna!
Solid Angle
• A Solid Angle is like an angle in 3 dimension. It is defined as shown
below, with a unit of Steradian.
Solid Angle Ω = A
r2
Steradian (4.4)
• A sphere has a solid angle of 4π Steradian.
Radiation Intensity (U) (1)
• In describing the radiation property of the antenna another parameter is
often used to complement the radiated power density S.
• We know that S represents the time-average power per unit area
along the observation direction. It is a scalar quantity.
• A parameter, known as Radiation Intensity (U) can be used in place of
S, it is equivalent to time-average power per unit solid angle along
the radial direction only.
Radiation Intensity (2)
• The radiation intensity U is formally defined as:
U (θ , φ ) = Radiated Power along observation direction

Unit solid angle along observation direction
= Power
Area = ( Power
Area
)r 2
= r 2
S (θ , φ ) (7.5)
r2
• U (θ,φ) has the benefit of being a scalar quantity AND independent of
observation distance, provided the EM field is in Far-Field mode.
• U (θ,φ) is usually used in place of F(θ,φ) to describe the radiation
pattern of an antenna.
• Here we will use either one, distinguished by their respective symbols.
Total Radiated Power
• The antenna can be considered as at the center of the coordinate,
being enclosed by a sphere.
• The total radiated power (Prad) from an antenna can be computed by
integrating the radiated power density or radiated intensity over all
direction on the sphere. Sphere
Prad = ∫∫ S (r ,θ , φ ) ⋅ dA = ∫∫π U (θ , φ )⋅ dΩ
A sphere enclosing 4 r dA
the antenna
2π π
=∫ ∫ U (θ , φ )sin θdθdφ (7.6) Antenna
0 0
Example 7.2 – Total Radiated Power by
Hertzian Dipole
• The radiation intensity U of Hertzian Dipole is:
I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2
U (θ , φ ) = 32π 2
W/Steradian
• Thus
2π π
Prad = ∫ ∫ U (θ , φ )sin θdθdφ
0 0
2π π I 2 ∆z 2ηk 2
=∫ ∫ o
32π 2
(sin θ )3 dθdφ
0 0
I o2
=
2
[
80π 2 ( ∆λz )
2
] (7.7)
Exercise 7.1
• (a) Find the radiated power density and radiation intensity of a half-
wave dipole.
• (b) Sketch it’s radiation pattern.
• (c) Also find it’s total radiated power.
Radiated power density and intensity of half-wave dipole, using (6.5a) and (6.5b):
r r*
S dipole = 1
2
(
E × H ⋅ rˆ ≅ ) [ jηkI m
2πR e − jkR
][
− jkI m
2πR e jkR
]{ sin θ
} (θˆ × φˆ ⋅ rˆ)
cos ( π2 cosθ ) 2
⇒ S dipole = 4π 2 R 2
{
ηk 2 I m 2 cos ( π2 cosθ )
sin θ
}2
U dipole = 4π 2
{
ηk 2 I m 2 cos ( π2 cosθ
sin θ
)
} 2
F(θ,φ)
So(R)
ηk 2 I m 2 2π π cos (π cosθ ) 2
2π π
Total radiated power Prad = ∫0 ∫0 U (θ , φ )sin θdθdφ = 4π 2 ∫0 ∫0 sinθ sin θdθdφ ( 2

)
of half-wave dipole:
η k 2 I m 2 2π π cos (π cosθ ) ηk 2 I m 2 π cos (π cosθ )
2 2
⇒ Prad =
4π 2 ∫0
dφ ∫
0 sin θ dθ =
2π
2
∫0 sin θ dθ 2
ηk 2 I m 2
⇒ Prad = 1.219 Evaluated using numerical
Oct 2009
2π integration
© Fabian Kung Wai Lee & Gobi Vetharatnam 2009 90
Exercise 7.1 Cont…
• The radiation pattern of half-wave dipole.
When φ is constant
(E-plane pattern) When θ is π/2
The dotted blue line is the (H-plane pattern)
E-plane pattern for Hertzian
Dipole, for comparison.
Example 7.3 – Radiation Pattern for a Horn
Antenna
The main lobe
3D pattern
This is the spatial
distribution of
power radiated –
Side lobes also called power
pattern
Major Lobe and Minor Lobe
• Major lobe is also called main lobe.
• Defined as “the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum
radiation”.
• In certain antennas, such as multi-lobed or split beam antennas,
there may exist more than one major lobe.
• Minor lobe - A radiation lobe in any direction other than that of the
major lobe.
• When its adjacent to the main lobe its called side lobe.
• Side lobe level – maximum relative directivity of the highest side
lobe with respect to the maximum directivity of the antenna.
• Back lobe – refers to a minor lobe that occupies the hemispheres in
a direction opposite to that of the major lobe.
Example of Radiation pattern lobes
8. More Antenna Parameters
- Directivity, Beam Solid
Angle, Gain, Antenna
Equivalent Circuit.
Directivity
• A commonly used parameter to measure the overall ability of an
antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction is the Directivity.
• Directivity is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in the direction of
interest over the average radiation intensity.
U (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ )
D(θ , φ ) = = Prad = 4π (8.1)
U average 4π
Prad
• The maximum Directivity is usually denoted as Dmax or Do.

U max
Do = D(θ , φ )max = 4π (8.2)
Prad
• Directivity is a measure that describe the directional properties of an

antenna, therefore it is controlled by the radiation pattern.
Beam Solid Angle
• Beam Solid Angle (ΩA) is the solid angle through which that all the
power would be radiated if the radiation intensity U equals the
maximum value over the beam area ΩA.
Prad = Ω AU max (8.3)

• Using (8.2) and (8.3): 4πU
max
= Ω AU max 4π
Do ⇒ ΩA = (8.4)
Do
• Thus the larger the maximum Directivity, the smaller is the Beam Solid
Angle of an antenna.
Gain
• Another useful measure describing the directional properties of an
antenna is the Gain. It is defined as [2]:
U (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ )
G (θ , φ ) = Pin
= 4π (8.5)
4π
Pin
where Pin = Total input (accepted)
power into the antenna
• Note that there is a subtle difference between Gain and Directivity

since Pin ≠ Prad as there is some power loss in a practical antenna.
U (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ )
G (θ , φ ) = 4π = 4π ≤ D(θ , φ ) (8.6)
Pin Prad + Ploss
• Under lossless condition the Gain and Directivity will be equal.
Radiation Resistance
• A useful measure of the amount of power radiated by an antenna is the
Radiation Resistance (Rrad).
• The Radiation Resistance of an antenna is the value of a hypothetical
resistance that would dissipate an amount of power equal to the
radiated power Prad when the current in the resistance is equal to the
maximum current along the antenna.
• Naturally a high Radiation Resistance is a desirable property for an
antenna.
2π π
Prad = ∫ ∫ U (θ , φ )sin θdθdφ = 12 I m2 Rrad (8.7)
0 0
Equivalent Circuit for Antenna
• Usually the voltage across the antenna and the current into an antenna
are not in phase. Thus we can model the antenna as a complex
impedance at a particular frequency.
To account for loss in the

RL antenna
jXA
ZA = (RL+Rrad)+jXA
Account for electrical
Rrad power being converted
to radiation power
ZA = Antenna impedance
Example 8.1
• Find the Directivity, maximum Directivity, Beam Solid Angle and
Radiation Resistance for the Hertzian Dipole.
I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2
U (θ , φ ) = Directivity:
32π
I o2 ∆z 2ηk 2
2
D(θ , φ ) = 4π [ I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2

32π 2
]/ [
I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2
12π
]
Prad = 12 (sin θ )2
12π = 32π ⋅ 4π = 3
2 (sin θ )2
µ
η= ε ≅ 120π In free space Maximum Directivity and Beam Solid Angle:
Do = D(θ , φ )max = 3 8π
2 ΩA = = 8.378
3
80π 2 2 ∆z 2
Radiation
Resistance Prad = 12 I o2 Rrad = I o2 ∆z 2ηk 2
12π ≅
2
Io ( λ )[ ] Watt
⇒ Rrad = ∆z 2ηk 2
6π ≅ 80π 2
[( ) ]
∆z 2
λ
Ohm
Exercise 8.1
• Find the Directivity, maximum Directivity, Beam Solid Angle and
Radiation Resistance for the long Dipole (Half-wave dipole).
Directivity: GD (θ , φ )dipole = 4π U (θ , φ ) Prad = ( 2

1.219
)[ sin θ
]
cos ( π2 cos (θ )) 2
⇒ GD (θ , φ )dipole = 1.641 [ ]
cos ( π2 cos (θ )) 2
sin θ
Max value is 1
Max Directivity: Do = 1.641
Beam solid angle: 4π

ΩA = = 7.658
Ddipole
Radiation resistance: 2 Prad 1.219ηk 2

Rrad = 2 =
Im π
Polarization of an Antenna
• In a given direction from the antenna, the polarization of the wave
transmitted by the antenna.
• Polarization of a wave describes the shape and locus of the tip of the E
field vector at a given point in space as a function of time.
• General locus is ellipse – elliptically polarized.
• Under certain conditions – ellipse becomes a circle – circular
polarization, or straight line – linear polarization.
Polarization of a Wave
• When E field is traced in clockwise direction – right-hand polarization,
otherwise left-hand polarization.
• Note that polarization rotation is opposite the direction of rotation of E
field as a function of distance at a fixed point in time.
• Common usage is with linear polarization, vertical and horizontal.
• Both antenna and wave polarization must match for maximum power
transfer.
Polarization and Propagation Direction
Example of Polarization Mismatch
Horizontally
polarized E field Vertically
polarized E field
Take two horn antennas, one is horizontally polarised

and the other is vertically polarised.
Example 8.2 – Classification of
Radiation Pattern
Omni-directional
Omni-directional pattern
Omni-directional pattern
pattern
Directional
pattern
Directional
pattern
9. Antenna in Receiving
Mode and Reciprocity
Theorem – Antenna
Effective Area.
Reciprocity Theorem for Antenna (1)
• The discussion until now generally implied that the radiating system
was to be used as a transmitting antenna, exciting EM waves in space
from some high frequency energy source.
• The same system useful for transmission are also useful for reception,
and it will be seen that the quantities already calculated (such as the
radiation pattern, directivity, antenna impedance for transmission) are
also the useful parameters in the design of a receiving system.
• In transmitting antenna, a generator is applied at localized terminals,
and waves that are set up propagate in space approximately as
spherical wavefronts.
• In receiving antenna, a wave coming in from a distant transmitter
approximates a portion of a uniform plane wave, and so sets up an
applied electric field on the antenna system, quite different from that
associated with the localized sources in the transmitting case.
• Reciprocity Theorem for antenna systems provides the ties between
the transmit and receive phenomena and it states that:
– The antenna pattern for reception is identical to that for
transmission.
– The input impedance of the antenna on transmission is the internal
impedance of the equivalent generator representing a receiving
system.
– An Effective Area (Ae) for the receiving antenna can be defined, and
by reciprocity, is related to the Directivity.
• Due to the scope of this subject, we are not able to go in depth into the
proof of the above statements. The Reciprocity Theorem for antenna
originates from the same theorem for EM fields in linear medium (see
[6]).
• The motivated student can refer to references [1], [2] or [4] for more
details.
• The equivalent circuits for transmit (TX) and receive (RX) antenna.
Uniform plane wave
NOTE: Important concepts for Reciprocity

Theorem for antenna:
• Reciprocal devices – devices that exhibit the
same radiation pattern for transmission
as for reception.
• Reciprocity may not hold for solid-state
antenna composed of non-linear
semiconductor devices or ferrite materials
and active antenna.
• Allows measurement to be made in either
transmission mode or receiver mode,
depending on convenience.
ZA
ZA
+
- Vs
Transmit and Receive System (1)
• Based on Reciprocity Theorem, and using the equivalent circuit of an
antenna, a transmit/receive (TX/RX) system can be modeled as shown.
I1
I2
To load ZL2
V1 V2
RX
TX
I1 I2
Linear 2-port
V1 ZL2 V2
network
• The relationships between the voltages and currents can be expressed

using Z network parameters as:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2
(9.1)
V2 = Z 21 I1 + Z 22 I 2
Transmit and Receive System (2)
• The impedance Z12 is due to current induced in RX antenna causes EM
wave that propagate back to the TX antenna. Usually this effect is
small and we can ignore it.
• Thus V ≅ Z I
1 11 1
V2 = Z 21 I1 + Z 22 I 2
I1
I2
To load ZL2
V1 V2
TX RX
I1 I2
Z22
+
V1 Z11 I1Z21 ZL2 V2

-
Effective Aperture (Ae) (1)
• From the equivalent circuit above for TX/RX system, the power
2
dissipated at load ZL is given by PL = 12 I 2 RL .
• The power removed by the RX antenna can be thought of as an
Effective Area (Ae) multiplied by the average Radiated Power Density
at the antenna.
PR = S average Ae (9.2)
• Ae provides an indication of the antenna ability to absorb the incident

EM wave power density, and to deliver it to the load, thus the larger the
better.
• If we can measure the output power from an antenna in receive mode,
and knowing the incoming EM wave power density, we can calculate
the effective area using equation (9.2).
Effective Aperture (Ae) (2)
• The role of TX and RX antenna can be reversed, thus each antenna
has an effective area.
I1
I2
To load ZL2
V1 V2
Forward condition Ae2
RX
TX
I2
I1
To load ZL1
V1 V2
Ae1 Reverse condition
RX
TX
I1 I2
Z11
+
V1 ZL1 I2Z12 Z22 V2

-
Ratio of Ae to D
• By considering the equivalent circuit for ‘forward’ and ‘reverse’
condition and using the definition of Ae, we can show that, when the
antenna is matched to the load (i.e. ZL2 = Z22*, ZL1 = Z11*):
Ae1 Ae 2
=
D1 D2 (9.3)
• Where D1 and D2 are the respective Directivity or TX and RX antenna.

• In general equation (9.3) applies to ALL antenna and the ratio of
Effective Area to Directivity is a universal constant. By working out the
ratio for a few antenna, it can be shown that:
Ae λ2
= (9.4)
D 4π
10. Friis Transmission
Formula for
Transmit/Receive System
Power Captured by RX Antenna in
TX/RX System
• Consider a RX/TX system, separated by distance R.
• Assume both antenna are at the direction for maximum sensitivity (e.g.
max radiation intensity).
R
I1
I2
To load ZL2
V1 V2
RX
TX
Radiated power density
PRX = Ae 2 S 21 from antenna 1 (TX) to Transmit power
antenna 2 (RX). from Antenna
• Thus S 21 = UR212 U 21 = D1 ( )
Pt 1
4π
1 (TX)
Ae 2 Ae1
PRX = 2 2 Pt1 (10.1) Radiation intensity
from antenna 1 (TX) to
Directivity of Antenna 1
Rλ antenna 2 (RX).
Effective Area of
Antenna 1
4πAe1
D1 = λ2
Friis Transmission Formula
• Another version of equation (10.1) in the form of Directivity is:
D2 D1λ2 (10.2)
PRX = Pt1
(4πR )2
• Both (10.1) and (10.2) are generally referred to as the Friis

Transmission Formula.
Example 10.1
• 100W is fed into a TX antenna, with the RX antenna at a distance of
10km away. Assume both TX and RX antenna as half-wavelength
dipole, operating at a frequency of 879 MHz.
– (a) Determine the received power at the RX antenna output.
Assume both antenna to be impedance matched, pointed to each
other at their maximum radiated intensity direction.
– (b) Repeat part (a) if both antenna has a radiation efficiency of 90%.
RADAR
• A RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a TX/RX system in which
the TX and RX antenna are at the same location and pointing towards
the same direction. Sometimes the TX and RX antenna consist of just
one antenna.
Pt
Si = 2
DTX
4πR
Pt TX
R
RX 1
Sr = 2
(Siσ s ) Object
4πR
RADAR cross section
Object ASSUMED to
scatter the incident EM wave
Plane wave isotropically (D=1)
from TX antenna
RADAR Equation and Cross Section
• Assume both TX and RX are same type of antenna, or same antenna,
thus DTX = DRX = D.
• From (10.2) with D1 = 1 (for the object) and D2 = D, the receive power
Pr at the RADAR is then:
Dλ2 Dλ2 Pt D
Pr = ( S σ ) = ⋅ σ ⋅
(4πR )2 i s (4πR )2 s 4πR 2
D 2 λ2σ s
⇒ Pr = P (10.3)
(4π ) R
3 4 t
• Equation (10.3) is called the RADAR Equation, it can also be taken as

the definition for RADAR or Back-scatter Cross Section σs of an object.
• The larger the back-scatter cross section of an object, the larger is the
receive power at the RADAR.

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EMG4066 – ANTENNA AND

The figure shows how a

NOTE: Usually contains TWO pieces of

A variant of folded dipole

2.4 GHz DSSS

Helix and fractal

Microstrip array and printed dipole array

r E – Electric field intensity

This means that circular magnetic field H can Induced

This means electric field E can also

Gauss’s Law for magnetic field:

Integration z Observation point

Integration z Observation point

• Here we observe that both E and H fields are independent of each

• Where c is the speed of light in the medium.

= − I4o π∆z k 2 sin θ [ 1

E fields at t=0 E fields at t=0.25T

Source: S. A. Schelkunoff and H. T. Friis,

• For far field: NOTE:

• In general any conductor can be considered as composing of many

• This can be written in the form:

For the short/Hertzian dipole,

E- and H-plane does not mean anything for a dual polarized or

U (θ , φ ) = Radiated Power along observation direction

Total radiated power Prad = ∫0 ∫0 U (θ , φ )sin θdθdφ = 4π 2 ∫0 ∫0 sinθ sin θdθdφ ( 2

The main lobe

• The maximum Directivity is usually denoted as Dmax or Do.

• Directivity is a measure that describe the directional properties of an

Prad = Ω AU max (8.3)

• Note that there is a subtle difference between Gain and Directivity

To account for loss in the

D(θ , φ ) = 4π [ I o 2 ∆z 2ηk 2 (sin θ )2

Directivity: GD (θ , φ )dipole = 4π U (θ , φ ) Prad = ( 2

Max Directivity: Do = 1.641

Beam solid angle: 4π

Radiation resistance: 2 Prad 1.219ηk 2

Take two horn antennas, one is horizontally polarised

Uniform plane wave

NOTE: Important concepts for Reciprocity

• The relationships between the voltages and currents can be expressed

V1 Z11 I1Z21 ZL2 V2

• Ae provides an indication of the antenna ability to absorb the incident

V1 ZL1 I2Z12 Z22 V2

• Where D1 and D2 are the respective Directivity or TX and RX antenna.

• Both (10.1) and (10.2) are generally referred to as the Friis

RADAR cross section

• Equation (10.3) is called the RADAR Equation, it can also be taken as

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