1

A THESIS REPORT
On
HIGHLY EFFICIENT ANALOG MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
(AMMPT) IN A PHOTOVOLTAIC SYATEM
Submitted to the KIIT University, Bhubaneswar in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Master of Technology
In
POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVE
Submitted By
SHASHANK VERMA
Roll No. 1152010
Under the guidance
Of
Asst. Prof. SRIKANTA MOHAPATRA
School of electrical Engineering



KIIT UNIVERSITY
BHUBANESWAR-751024, Orissa, India.
Session 2011-2013


2




DECLARATI ON



I hereby declare that the thesis work entitled Highly efficient analog
maximum power point tracking algorithm (AMPPT) in a photovoltaic
system submitted to the School of Electrical Engineering, KIIT University is
prepared by me and was not submitted to any other institution for award of any
other degree for the best of my knowledge.



SHASHANK VERMA
Roll No. - 1152010
M. Tech. in Power electronics and drive.
KIIT Bhubaneswar






3



CERTIFICATE



This is to certify that the thesis entitled Highly efficient analog maximum power point tracking
algorithm (AMPPT) in a photovoltaic system being submitted by SHASHANK VERMA
bearing Roll no.: 1152010, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
Master of Technology in POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVE is a bonafide work carried
out under my supervision. The matter embodied in this report is original and has not been submitted
for the award of any other degree.

Prof. Abhijit. Dasgupta Asst.Prof. SRIKANTA MOHAPATRA
Dean Assistant Professor
(School of electrical Engineering) (School of Electrical Engineering)


Examiner(s)

Name Signature

1.
2.
3.
4.

4




ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Thesis has been a dedicated effort towards development of a new and efficient
algorithm for optimum power point tracking for solar panel, which primarily would not have
been possible at the first place without the apt guidance of the respected Asst. Prof. Srikant
mahapatra. His motivation and encouragement during the seminar made me go further than
expected in the development process and the redaction of this current report.
This dedication would not be complete without expressing my gratitude towards my family
members and my dear friends for their interest and curiosity towards my seminar.




SHASHANK VERMA
Roll No. - 1152010
M. Tech. in Power electronics and drive.






5

Contents
Certificate.3
Acknowledgement4
Abstract.6
List of figures7
Chapter-1
1.0 Introduction9
1.1Working principle of PV cell11
1.2Photovoltaic array.12
Chapter-2
2. Literature survey.14
2.0 Outline of literature..14
2.1 Characteristic of PV module ....15
2.2 Dc to Dc Boost converter18
2.3 Full bridge inverter.20
2.4 Proposed circuit of MPPT controller..20
Chapter-3
3.0 Commonly used MPPT techniques..23
3.1 Proposed MPPT algorithm...24
3.2 Flowchart of proposed MPPT algorithm...27
3.3 Flowchart of global MPPT..28
Chapter-4
4. Simulation and results.29
4.0 Simulation circuit of boost converter with PV cell..29
4.1 Simulik result of boost converter with PV cell.30
4.2 Simulation circuit of Inverter-grid connection31
4.3 Simulink result of Inverter-grid connection.32
6

Chapter-5
5.0 Conclusion ..33
5.1 Future scope34
References..35












7


ABSTRACT
.
A compact-size analog maximum power point tracking (AMPPT) technique is
proposed in this paper for high power efficiency in the photovoltaic (PV) system.
Combining existing MPPT approaches, we present a fast and accurate tracking
performance. Here, a wide-range current multiplier, which tracks the maximum power
point (MPP) in the solar power system, is implemented to detect the power slope condition
of the solar panel. Experimental results show that the proposed technique can rapidly
track the MPP with a high tracking accuracy of 97.3%. Furthermore, the proposed
system can connect to the grid-connected inverter to supply ac power.
It is important to track the maximum power point of the Photovoltaic panel, as the
electrical power supplied by solar array depends on insulation, temperature and load.
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a Power electronic system that operates the
photovoltaic modules to produce maximum power. MPPT varies the electrical operating
point of the modules and enables them to deliver maximum available power. Normally Pulse
width modulation type dc to dc converters are used as the impedance matching b e t we e n
t he PV arrays and loads. A new modified perturb and observation MPPT control
algorithm is proposed to track the maximum power point. Unlike the cont r ol of PV
voltage or current in normal P&O method the duty ratio of the dc to dc boost converter
is directly controlled in the proposed algorithm.






8


LIST OF FIGURES


Fig1. Block diagram of photovoltaic system..9
Fig2 Photovoltaic array..13
Fig3. Equivalent circuit of photovoltaic module..15
Fig4. Characteristic curve under different ambient temperature16
Fig5. Characteristic curve under different irradiation level17
Fig6. Circuit diagram of Dc to Dc boost converter.18
Fig7. Boost converter controller with proposed MPPT circuit19
Fig8. Simple circuit diagram of full bridge inverter20
Fig9. Proposed circuit of MPPT controller20
Fig10 Illustration of the proposed MPPT algorithm.25
Fig11. Illustration of variable step perturbation technique.25
Fig12. Timing diagram of the proposed MPP tracking algorithm..25
Fig13. Flowchart of the proposed MPPT algorithm..27
Fig14. Flowchart of global MPPT..28
Fig15. Simulation circuit of boost converter with PV cell..29
Fig16. Simulink result of boost converter with PV cell.30
Fig17.Simulation circuit of inverter-grid connection31
Fig18. Simulink result of inverter-grid connection32

9



CHAPTER: 1
1.0 I ntroduction




Fig 1. Block diagram of photovoltaic system.

The global warming crisis has recently drawn world- wide public attention to issues
related to energy consecration and alternative energy. Several energy conservation
methods, such as energy recycling and energy harvesting techniques, have been
proposed t o reduce unnecessar y energy waste from commercial appliances. In
addition, alternative energy, such as thermal, wind, or solar energy, is renewable and
addresses pollution problems. Solar energy presents the advantages of low maintenance
cost and pollution free characteristics. These are keys to solving worsening global
warming and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, this alternative energy has been
gaining increasing popularity in numerous countries. Solar energy may not be the most
efficient choice with regard to energy production. Nevertheless, it still outweighs other kinds
of energy, such as nuclear, coal, and gas energy, because it causes zero pollution, has no
moving parts, and allows for easy maintenance. Despite these advantages, the overall energy
production cost for solar energy is still too high compared with that incurred from gas or oil
10

production. High costs restrict the wide-ranging global application of solar power systems.
Generally, the low power efficiency of a solar power system is attributed to two factors.
One is the conversion efficiency of the solar cell. The other is related to the power
efficiency of the system or more specifically, the power efficiency on the power stage. The
improvement of solar cell materials and relevant technology has continuously elevated the
conversion efficiency of solar cells. Conversion energy is reported to reach around 30% in
todays commercial products when a specific material is adopted. Furthermore, enhancing
the power efficiency of solar power systems enables the improvement of the efficiency of
the power stage and the extraction of substantial energy from solar panels. The nonlinear
physi cal characteristics of solar arrays, however, are inevitable obstacles to the highly
efficient energy utilization of solar power systems. The maximum available power
supplied by a solar array depends on solar irradiation level and ambient temperature. In
practice, both these factors are difficult to precisely predict and measure. Thus,
contemporary photovoltaic (PV) products, such as PV inverters or solar chargers, are
usually interrupted. Due to the scarcity and pollution associated with fossil fuels, the most
countries must switch to renewable energy sources like sunlight, wind and biomass. All
renewable ener gy t echnol ogi es are not a ppr opr i a t e t o a l l applications or
locations, however. Among the several renewable energy sources, Photovoltaic
arrays are used in many applications such as water pumping, battery charging, street
lighting and grid connected PV systems The IV characteristics of PV array shows that
, PV array increase with increasing the intensity of radiation. . The effect of variation
of temperature ( T) i s ; I n c r e a s e i n t e mpe r a t ur e causes s ome increase in short
circuit current. The reverse saturation current increases r api dl y wi t h t e mpe r a t ur e . .
Hence on line tracking of the maximum power point of a PV array/module is necessary
in order to maximize the utilization of solar power. A variety of maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) methods is developed. Using this new modified perturb and observe
algorithm the maximum power is computed online. The instantaneous actual PV power is
compared with this computed maximum power, the er ror bet ween t he maxi mum
power and act ual power activates perturbation direction of duty ratio of dc to dc boost
converter. Therefore, the maximum power is extracted from the PV array during any
sudden change in environmental and loading condition to extract the highest energy
volume from solar arrays. Several MPPT algorithms exist. Some of them are implemented
using a microcontroller field programmable gate array and digital signal processors. Others
are imple- mented using analog or mixed signal methods. For instance, in, a small-signal
sinusoidal perturbation is injected into the switching frequency to compare the ac
component. The average value of the solar array voltage is used to locate the maximum
power point (MPP).MPP by introducing a small-signal sinusoidal perturbation into the duty
cycle of the switch and comparing the maximum variation in the input voltage and the
voltage stress on the switch uses the extremism seeking control method to track the MPP. All
of these tracking methods can exhibit high tracking accuracy. It is important to track the
11

maximum power point of the Photovoltaic panel, as the electrical power supplied by solar
array depends on insolation, temperature and load. Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) is a Power electronic system that operates the Photovoltaic modules to produce
maximum power. MPPT varies the electrical operating point of the modules and enables
them to deliver maximum available power. Normally Pulse width modulation type dc to dc
converters are used as the impedance matching b e t we e n t he PV arrays and loads. A new
modified perturb and observation MPPT Control algorithm is proposed to track the
maximum power point. Unlike the cont r ol of PV voltage or current in normal P&O
method the duty ratio of the dc to dc boost Converter is directly controlled in the
proposed algorithm. The proposed MPPT has the advantages of simplicity and hi gh
convergence speed. The algorithm is tested u n d e r v a r i o u s operating conditions. The
obtained results have proven that the MPP is tracked even under sudden change of
irradiation and loading level.

1.1 Working principle of PV cell:

A photovoltaic cell is basically a semiconductor diode whose pn junction is exposed to
light. Photovoltaic cells are made of several types of semiconductors using different
manufacturing processes. The mono-crystalline and polycrystalline silicon cells are the only
found at commercial scale at the present time. Silicon PV cells are composed of a thin layer
of bulk Si or a thin Si film connected to electric terminals. One of the sides of the Si layer is
doped to form the pn junction. A thin metallic grid is placed on the Sun-facing surface of
the semiconductor. The incidence of light on the cell generates charge carriers that originate
an electric current if the cell is short circuited. Charges are generated when the energy of the
incident photon is sufficient to detach the covalent electrons of the semiconductorthis
phenomenon depends on the semiconductor material and on the wavelength of the incident
light. Basically, the PV phenomenon may be described as the absorption of solar radiation,
the generation and transport of free carriers at the pn junction, and the collection of these
electric charges at the terminals of the PV device. The rate of generation of electric carriers
depends on the flux of incident light and the capacity of absorption of the semiconductor.
The capacity of absorption depends mainly on the semiconductor band gap, on the
reflectance of the cell surface (that depends on the shape and treatment of the surface), on the
intrinsic concentration of carriers of the semiconductor, on the electronic mobility, on the
recombination rate, on the temperature, and on several other factors. The solar radiation is
12

composed of photons of different energies .Photons with energies lower than the band gap of
the PV cell are useless and generate no voltage or electric current. Photons with energy
superior to the band gap generate electricity, but only the energy corresponding to the band
gap is used the remainder of energy is dissipated as heat in the body of the PV cell.
Semiconductors with lower band gaps may take advantage or a larger radiation spectrum, but
the generated voltages are lower. Si is not the only, and probably not the best, semiconductor
material for PV cells, but it is the only one whose fabrication process is economically
feasible in large scale. Other materials can achieve better conversion efficiency, but at higher
and commercially unfeasible costs. The study of the physics of PV cells is considerably
complicated and is out of the scope of this paper. For the purpose of studying electronic
converters for PV systems, it is sufficient to know the electric characteristics of the PV
device (cell, panel, and array). The manufacturers of PV devices always provide a set of
empirical data that may be used to obtain the mathematical equation of the device IV curve.
Some manufacturers also provide I V curves obtained experimentally for different operating
conditions. The mathematical model may be adjusted and validated with these experimental
curves.

1.2 Photovoltaic array.
Solar cell is based on the ability of semiconductors to directly convert sunlight to
electricity. Basically, a solar cell is a P-N junction that absorbs light, releases electrons and
holes, creating a voltage in the cell, which is then applied to a load. Solar cells typically
produce only about 0.5v. A number of cells are connected in series in a PV module. A
Panel is a collection of modules physically electrically grouped. Photovoltaic cells are
connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents
and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems.
Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
13

installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of
any number of PV modules and panels. The performance of PV modules and arrays are
generally rated according to their maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard Test
Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating
temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under
Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not always typical of how PV
modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is usually 85 to 90 percent of the
STC rating.


Fig. 2. Photovoltaic array






14



CHAPTER: 2
Literature survey

2.0 Outline of literature
The maximum available power supplied by a solar array depends on solar irradiation
level and ambient temperature. In practice, both these factors are difficult to precisely
predict and measure. Thus, contemporary photovoltaic (PV) products, such as PV
inverters or solar chargers, are usually integrated with maximum power to extract the
highest energy volume from solar arrays. Several MPPT algorithms exist. Some of them
are implemented using a microcontroller, field programmable gate array, and digital
signal processors. Others are implemented using analog or mixed signal methods. For
instance, in, a small signal sinusoidal perturbation is injected into the switching frequency
to compare the ac component. The average value of the solar array voltage is used to
locate the maximum power point (MPP). , to track the MPP by introducing a small-signal
sinusoidal perturbation into the duty cycle of the switch and comparing the maximum
variation in the input voltage and the voltage stress on the switch. The extreme seeking
control method to track the MPP. All of these tracking methods can exhibit high tracking
accuracy. Unfortunately, they are implemented by discrete components instead of an
integrated circuit (IC). A dual-modulebased tracking technique, which compares the
voltage and current difference between two solar arrays to track the MPP, is proposed. This
method, however, increases hard- ware costs because each solar array has to be controlled
by an individual tracker. a tracking solution is used to address the problems encountered
during rapidly changing weather conditions. The technique incorporates an additional
measurement of power in the middle of the MPPT sampling period. Furthermore, one can
also use the information of the solar array, such as the diode quality factor and the
reverse saturation cur r ent , t o track t he MPP. Some methods combine two different
tracking techniques to gain advantages. Two tracking techniques ar e combined to
improve t r acki ng accur acy. The s ys t em switches bet ween two tracking methods
according to irradiation levels. In the current paper, a MPP tracker using a single-chip
controller IC is proposed. The proposed MPP tracker integrates some current domain
15

arithmetic circuits, sensing circuits, and duty cycle modulation circuits to achieve the
MPP calculation. All of the circuits are implemented in a single-chip. The tracker
features rapid tracking speed and high tracking accuracy. In addition, the proposed
system includes a boost dc-dc converter and a grid connected PV inverter to enable the
transport of solar energy into the power grid for further use.


2.1 Characteristic of PV module.
Characteristic of PV module vary wi t h di ff er ent i rradi at i on l evels and ambient
temperatures. A simplified equivalent circuit can facilitate the investigation of the nonlinear
behaviors of the PV module. The equivalent circuit consists of a current source which
suggests the light generated current, a diode which emulates the PN junction of a real PV
cell, a series resistor and a parallel resistor which symbolize the parasitic series resistance
and a parasitic parallel resistance on the PV module. The voltage generated at the terminals
is the voltage of the PV module, which can be multiplied through series, connected PV
modules. The current outflow from terminals is the current of the PV module.



Fig. 3. (Equivalent circuit of photovoltaic module)

The equivalent circuit consist of current source , which suggest the light generated
current, the diode D1 which emulates the the PN junction of areal PV cell, a series resistor
Rs and a parellel resistor Rp. The voltage generated at the terminals Vpv is the voltage of
the PV module which can be multiplied through series connected PV module, the outgoing
current from terminal Ipv is the current of the PV module. The relationship between Vpv
16

and Ipv is shown as under.


Whre,
Ipv : PV module output current.
Vpv : PV module output voltage.
Rp : Parellel resistor.
Rs : Series resistor.
Ios : PV module reverse saturation current.
A, B : Ideality factor.
T : Temperature ( )
K : Boltzmanns constant.
IL : Light generated current.
q : Electronic charge.
K1 : Short circuit current temperature coefficient at Isc.
S : Solar radiation ( W/

)
Isc : Short circuit current at 25 and 100 W/

.
Ego : Bandgap energy of silicon.
Tr : Reference temperature.
Ior : saturation current at temperature Tr.

The equation verifies that the characteristics of PV Module depend upon the temperature
and solar irradiation level.


Fig. 4.Characteristic curve under different ambient temperature.

Under different ambient temperature the characteristic of IV curve shows that MPPT
17

decreases nonlinearly as ambient temperature increases.



Fig.5. Characteristic curve under different irradiation level.

Under different irradiation levels maximum power point (Mppt) increases nonlinearly as
solar irradiation increases.

The nonlinear nature of PV system is apparent from Fig., the array current and power
depends on the array terminal operating voltage. Moreover the MPOP (denoted as V max, I
max) changes with changing radiation and temperature, implying continuous adjustment of
the array terminal voltage if maximum power is to be transferred.






18

2.2 DC TO DC boost converter

Fig.6.Circuit diagram of Dc to Dc Boost Converter.

In a boost regulator the output voltage is greater than input voltage as the name justified
Boost. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when transistor
M1 is switched on at t=0. The input current, which rises, flows through inductor L and
transistor Q1. Mode 2 begins when transistor M1 is switched off at t=t1. The current that was
flowing through the transistor would now flow through L, C, load and diode Dm. The
inductor current falls until transistor M1 is turned on again in the next cycle. The energy
stored in inductor L is transferred to the load. A boost regulator can step up the output
voltage without a transformer. Due to a single transistor, it has a high efficiency. The input
current is continuous. However a high peak current has to flow through the power transistor.
The output voltage is very sensitive to change in duty cycle k and it might be difficult
stabilize the regulator. The average output current is less than the average inductor current by
a factor of (1- k), and a much higher rms current would flow through the filter capacitor,
resulting in the use of a large capacitor and a large inductor than those of a buck regulator.
19



Fig. 7. Boost converter controller with the proposed MPPT circuit.


20

2.3 Full bridge inverter

Fig. 8.Simple circuit diagram of a full bridge inverter.
The inverter circuit consists of four main switches and four freewheeling diodes. According
to the four switch combination three output voltage levels +V, _V and 0 can be synthesized
for the for the voltage across A and B. During inverter operation switch of S1 and S4 are
closed and at the same time to provide Vab a positive vale and a current path for Io. Switch
S2 and S4 are turned on to provide Vab a negative value and a path for Io. Depending on
the load current angle current may flow through the main switch or freewheeling diodes.
When all switches are turned off the current will flow through the freewheeling diode. In
case of zero level there are two possible switching patterns to synthesize zero level 1. S1
and S2 On and S3 and S4 Off. 2. S1and S2 Off and S3and S4 On.
2.4 Proposed circuit of MPPT controller


21

The proposed slope detection circuit shown in Fig.8 detects the slope of the
characteristic IV curve that is dPpv/dVpv at the operating point .The slope equation,
according to the transfer curve of power-voltage, can be written as.
Equation 1

The denominator in above equation is eliminated deliberately by the con-version ratio of
voltage-to-current (V-to-I) converter to improve the calculation accuracy of the slope
detection circuit. The slope detector detects the voltage and current information at two
different time intervals. They are (Ipv1, Vpv1) at time = t1 and (Ipv2, Vpv2) at time =t2.
Utilizing the sample/hold (SH) circuit to sense the photovoltaic voltage and current of solar
array Vpv1 and Ipv1 represent the instant photovoltaic voltage and current of solar array,
respectively. Similarly Vpv2 and Ipv2 record the previous photovoltaic voltage and current,
respectively. For easy and fast operation in analog circuits, the value of Vpv1/Vpv is
converted to a current signal Ivpv1by voltage to current converter. The co-efficient denotes
the conversion gain of the V-to-I converter.
Equation 2

The current difference between Ipv1 and Ipv2 can be derived by the current
subtractor. Moreover the multiplication of Ivpv1 and can be achieved by the proposed
wide-range current multiplier. Its obvious from Fig. 4 that the maximum power point occurs
at the point where the slope is zero or near to zero. Therefore, one can try to find an
operating point whose slope is as low as possible, no matter it is negative or positive. Once
this point is found, the maximum power point can then be decided. Nevertheless, there is a
22

simpler way to do the tracking. Observing the characteristic curve of solar array, the
maximum power point falls right between the right-hand side plane and the left-hand side
plane of the curve. Namely, the maximum power point occurs on the slope transition point,
where slope changes from either positive to negative or from negative to positive.
Comparing the current Ipv1 and k (Ivpv1 therefore, one can determine the slope
condition of solar array, which can be easily carried out by a current comparator. Fig 9
shows the block diagram of the proposed slope detection circuit. The slope detection circuit
includes a current subtractor, a voltage-to-current converter, a current comparator, and a
wide-range current multiplier. The current sub-tractor serves the purpose of computing the
current difference between Ipv1 and Ipv2. The output current of the current subtractor is
. The voltage to current converter is used to convert the voltage data Vpv1 to current
data Ivpv1. The wide range current multiplier multiplies . In the end the
current comparator compares Ipv1 and k to determine the slope
condition and sends out a digital signal either high or low to indicate the slope condition at
the time instance.
The digital signal E slope indicates the slope condition for the duty cycle modulation circuit,
which is made up by a 7-bit up-down counter. The duty cycle modulation circuit increases or
decreases the duty cycle of the boost converter. As mentioned before, the voltage of solar
array increases nonlinearly as the current decreases, and vice versa. When the slope is
positive the value of E slope is high to decrease the duty cycle of the converter and thus
increases the operating voltage. On the other hand the low value of E slope indicates the
slope is negative. Then the duty cycle increases to decrease the operating voltage. Since the
characteristic of solar array follows majorly by the environmental factors, such as the
temperature and the irradiation, the voltage and current range of solar array are very wide.
As a result, typical current multipliers cannot meet the need in the PV application. The
proposed wide-range current multiplier is composed of the wide-range squaring circuit,
current subtractor and amplifier. The proposed wide-range squaring circuit in the wide-range
current multiplier consists of a high current (HI) processor and a low current (LI) processor.
This wide-range squaring circuit serves the purpose of extending the allowable current range
of the current multiplier. Fig. 9 shows the transistor level of the wide-range cur-rent squaring
circuit. All the current mirrors are implemented in the cascade way to improve the
calculation accuracy.





23


CHAPTER: 3
3.0 Commonly used MPPT techniques.
The problem considered by MPPT methods is to automatically find the voltage
V
MPP or
current I
MPP at
which a PV array delivers maximum power under a given
temperature and irradiance. In this section, commonly used MPPT methods are introduced
in an arbitrary order.


1. Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage

The method is based on the observation that, the ratio between array voltage at
maximum power V
MPP
to its open circuit voltage V
OC
is nearly constant. Vmpp k1
Voc. This factor k1 remains between 0.71 to 0.78, ones the k1 is known Vmpp can be
computed by measuring Voc periodically. Although the implementation of this method
is simple and cheap, its tracking efficiency is relatively low due to the utilization of
inaccurate values of the constant k
1
in the computation of V
MMP
.



1. Fractional Short-Circuit Current

The method results from the fact that, the current at maximum power point
I
MPP
is approximately linearly related to the short circuit current I
SC
of the PV array.
Like in the fractional voltage method, K2

is not constant. It is found to be between 0.78
and 0.92. The accuracy of the method and tracking efficiency depends on the accuracy
of K
2
and periodic measurement of short circuit current.

2. Perturb and Observe

In P&O method, the MPPT algorithm is based on the calculation of the PV output
power and the power change by sampling both the PV current and voltage. The
t r a c k e r operates by periodically incrementing or decrementing the solar array
voltage. If a given perturbation leads to an increase (decrease) in the output power of the
PV, then the subsequent perturbation is generated in the same (opposite) direction. So, the
duty cycle of the dc chopper is changed and the process is repeated until the maximum
power point has been reached. Actually, the system oscillates about the MPP.
3. Incremental Conductance
24


The method is based on the principle that the slope of the PV array power curve is zero
at the maximum power point. (dP/dV) = 0. Since (P = VI), it yields:

I/V = - I/V, at MPP
I/V > - I/V, left of MPP
I/V < - I/V, right of MPP
The MPP can be tracked by comparing the instantaneous conductance (I/V) to the
incremental conductance (I/V). The algorithm increments or decrement the array
reference voltage until the condition of equation i s satisfied. Once the Maximum power
is reached, the operation of the PV array is maintained at this point. This method requires
high sampling rates and fast calculations of the power slope.


3.1 Proposed MPPT algorithm
Before the solar power system is activated, the operating point of the system is located on
open-circuit voltage point Voc, Conventional MPPT algorithms, such as slope detection
algorithm [e.g., perturbation and observation (P&O) algorithm or hill-climbing (HC)
algorithm], calculate the slope of the characteristic curves to determine slope conditions and
track the MPP. Nevertheless, a PV system adopting this algorithm requires a lengthy amount
of time to track the operating point Voc to approximate the MPP during the system power-
on period. Other tracking algorithms such as the constant voltage algorithm use a fixed
ratio of maximum power voltage to open circuit voltage Voc to approximate MPP.
Theoretically 0.7 fractions of open circuit voltage Voc is close to MPP. Therefore,
periodically disconnecting the solar array and power stage to measure Voc and multiplying
it with 0.7 can rapidly detect the current MPP. The fraction factor (0.7) varies when different
solar cell materials are used. Moreover, it is considerably susceptible to environmental
conditions such as ambient temperature and solar irradiation level. In this sense, the MPP
cannot be guaranteed when varying environmental conditions are taken into consideration.
Moreover, consistent disconnection between the solar array and power stage causes power
delivery interruption during the sampling period, thereby resulting in the low power
efficiency of the PV system. To increase tracking speed and accuracy while maintaining
high power efficiency, the open-circuit tracking (OCT) and slope detection tracking
(SDT) algorithms are adopted to track the MPP in this study. Disconnection between the
solar array and power stage occurs only once; that is, at the beginning of the system
power-on period. This way, unnecessary power loss is avoided and the power efficiency is
maintained.


25




Fig.10. Illustration of the proposed MPPT algorithm.







Fig. 11. Illustration of variable step perturbation technique.

Fig .12. Timing diagram of the proposed MPP tracking algorithm.
26


E slope is a digital signal meant to indicate the slope condition. Logic high E slope
means that the slope condition dPpv/dVpv of the solar array is positive similarly logic
low E slope means dPpv/dVpv is positive. OCT enable indicates OCT algorithm is
enabled. Vg is the gate signal of the power NMOS of the boost converter. Signal IL1
indicates inductor current of the boost converter which can also indicates the current of
the solar array. The tracking procedure can be divided into the following sequences. First,
before the solar power system is activated Voc is detected by the controller to set the
solar array voltage Vpv close to 0.7 * Voc. This approach improves tracking speed
unlike the slow tracking speeds in conventional P&O and HC algorithms. The switching
duty cycle of the boost converter is set to its maximum value to accelerate the tracking
speed during the open-circuit voltage detection period. Second, after the OCT period, the
SDT technique takes over the tracking procedure to continually and accurately track the
MPP, ensuring that the power stage receives the most energy from the solar array. Third,
when environmental conditions change (e.g., reduction in irradiation level), the slope
condition changes from positive to negative, as indicated by the solar cell characteristics
PV voltage tends to decrease as PV current increases, and vice versa. Thus, the SDT
technique increases the switching duty cycle. The current of the solar array increases to
reduce the operating voltage and ensure the movement of the system operating point to the
new MPP. After the solar power system is switched on, the OCT technique is enabled until
the operating voltage is set to 0.7 * Voc. Subsequently, the SDT technique consistently
monitors the slope condition and guarantees that the system operates at the MPP regardless
of any environmental change. Besides, the SDT algorithm includes the variable step
perturbation (VSP) technique to accelerate the tracking speed and to minimize the
oscillation problem around the MPP. The system chooses larger perturbation step sizes
when the operating point is far away from the MPP, which can increase the tracking speed.
In contrast, when the operating point is working around the MPP, the step sizes are set to be
smaller in order to minimize the oscillation problem around the MPP.
The proposed AMPPT technique includes the advantages of both the OCT and SDT
techniques. The OCT technique can roughly locate the MPP at rapid tracking speeds, while
the SDT technique can improve tracking accuracy, which cannot be guar- anteed solely by
the OCT technique. For a large-scale PV system, unavoidable shadows caused by nearby
trees, clouds, and buildings frequently degrade the energy of the solar array. The so-
called partial shading effect poses a considerable t h r e a t t o highly ef fi ci ent energy
utilization. When the solar arrays are shaded, there might be local maxima in the IV
curves of the solar arrays when the bypass diodes are used. As a result, the designed
MPP tracker may easily misjudge the optimal operating point; therefore, the system
cannot provide its maximal energy. The proposed MPP tracking algorithm can further be
improved by the algorithm described in to guarantee the robustness of the PV system. The
system primarily determines whether it has reached its local maximum power point
LMPP. The measured power and voltage are then stored for later comparison. The control
loop enters the global maximum power point tracking (GMPPT) stage when triggered by
27

the timer. The default timer is set to 1 s. That is, the global maximum power point
(GMPP) tracker is enabled every second to check whether the current operating point
belongs to the GMPP.

3.2 Flowchart of proposed MPPT algorithm

Fig.13. Flowchart of the proposed MPPT algorithm.

28

3.3. Flowchart of GMPPT. (Global MPPT)

Fig 14. Flowchart of global MPPT.
.If the current operating point is already the maximum point on the power-voltage plane;
the system will continuously operate at this point. Otherwise, the GMPP tracker locates
the GMPP and forces the system to operate on the located point. During the GMPPT
stage, the system is perturbed by a voltage difference V perturb which is 60%-70% of
Voc. Thus a GMMT technique guarantees full robustness of the connected PV system.
Nevertheless, because tracking takes more time to locate the GMPP, the overall tracking
speed is downgraded at the circumstance of partial shading. However; high tracking
accuracy can be retained because the same SDT technique is used to track the MPP.


The overall power efficiency is determined when the GMPPT is activated P solar denotes
All the solar energy generated from the solar array. P loss is the power loss at the on the
power stage. P LMPPT is the power loss due to the local MPP tracking which is inversely
proportional to the tracking efficiency. f GMPPT is the frequency of GMPPT procedure.
P cal P perturb are the power consumed by the calculation and perturbation circuit in the
GMPPT controller, respectively. As a result, more often the GMPPT is triggered, more
energy is wasted and the lower overall power efficiency is presented.
29

CHAPTER: 4
SIMULATION AND RESULTS

4.0 Simulation circuit of boost converter with PV cell


Fig.15. Simulation circuit of boost converter with PV cell.




30

4.1 Simulink result of boost converter with PV cell.




Fig.16. Simulation output of boost converter with PV cell.










31



4.2 Simulation circuit of inverter- grid connection.


Fig.17 Simulation circuit of inverter-grid connection.





32

4.3 Simululink result of I nverter-grid connection



Fig 18. Simulink result of inverter-grid connection.
33


CHAPTER: 5

5.0 Conclusion

The characteristic IV curves of the solar array are discussed to aid the understanding of
the behaviors of solar arrays and de sign the MPPT circuit. The proposed MPPT algorithm
achieves fast tracking speed and maintains high tracking accuracy in the solar power
system. Furthermore, with single-chip circuit implementation, power consumption can be
reduced and the high power efficiency of the system is guaranteed. A wide-range current
multiplier circuit is used to satisfy the requirement of the tracking circuit. The proposed
MPPT circuit can determine the slope condition with fast speed and high accuracy.
Experimental results verify the efficiency and tracking speed of the proposed MPPT
algorithm. The findings also demonstrate that the PV system can convert solar energy
into grid electricity with synchronized phase response. Moreover, a fully robust MPPT
circuit can be applied when the GMPPT algorithm is included.











34


5.1 Future scope

Hardware implementation of prescribed model.
Improvement in MPPT technique used here for less harmonic and better
synchronization.
Implementation of PV panels for high voltage purpose and industrial application.
35

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