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run
rise
atan deg
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-63
Aspect function
Calculates direction of steepest
slope, e.g. which way the slope
faces. Value represents direction
from 0-360 where 0/360 is North.
Flat areas are assigned a -1 value.
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Aspect the steepest downslope
direction
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dy
dz
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dy / dz
dx / dz
atan
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-65
Hillshade
Calculates the brightness or
illumination of a surface from a
specified light source.
Applications include terrain display
and modeling satellite reflectance.
Azimuth is direction
of illumination source
(315 by default)
Altitude is the angle
of the source above
the horizon (45 deg)
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-66
Viewshed analysis
Calculate areas
visible from a set of
observation points
Additional parameters
are available for the tool
version, such as the
horizontal angle included.
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Lecture Materials by
Austin Troy except
where noted 2008
Viewshed analysis
Viewshed analysis can use offsets to define the height of
the viewer or of the object being viewed; designated using
a new field in the input layers attribute table.
offset A
offset B
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Viewshed analysis
This is done in ArcGIS 8, but can also be done in ArcView.
Red represents areas that can be seen by 1 house, blue by 2
or more
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Viewshed analysis
In order to compare the viewability of several facilities,
separate viewshed analyses need to be done for each
feature.
In the next example we will look at three candidate sites for a
communications tower.
Each will produce a viewability grid.
This grid can then be superimposed on a layer showing
residential areas.
Since each grid will belong to a different tower, we can tell
which tower will be most viewable from the residential
areas through simple overlay analysis.
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Viewshed analysis
In this case, red is for tower 1, blue for 2 and green for 3
Introduction to GIS
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-71
Cut and fill on a site
[Initial surface] [final surface]
Cut
Fill
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-72
Hydrologic functions
Derive streams, watersheds, and other hydrologic features
based on analysis of a DEM.
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67 56 49 46 50
12 11 12
53 44 37 38 48
58 55 22 31 24
61 47 21 16 19
34 53
Digital Elevation Model
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32
16
8
64
4
128
1
2
Eight Direction Pour Point Model
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67 56 49
53 44 37
58 55 22
1
67 56 49
53 44 37
58 55 22
1
26 . 16
2
44 67
=
14
1
53 67
=
Slope:
Direction of Steepest Descent
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2 2 4 4 8
1 2 16
1 2 4 8 4
1 1 2 4 8
2 1 4 4 4
1 1
Flow Direction Grid
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Grid Network
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-78
Distance functions
Straight line distance
Cost path distance
Buffers
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-79
Straight line distance
Starts from a set of
features (points, lines,
polygons).
Creates a grid where
each cell represents
distance to the closest
of the features.
Distance units are
given in coordinate
system map units
Distance to roads (meters)
The distance
function is the first
step in in creating
raster buffers.
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-80
Lowest cost path
1. Create start/stop
shapefiles
2. Create cost grid
3. Calculate cost
distance grid and
cost direction grid
4. Find lowest cost path
Elevation Slope
Cost distance Cost direction
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-81
What is interpolation?
Interpolation is the prediction of values in
between measured points.
Sampling of points may be uniform, random, or
based on a sampling scheme.
Numerous methods are used which have
different mathematical models and make
different assumptions about the data.
Best application of interpolation relies on
substantial study of models and assumptions. If
you use it a lotlearn more!
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-82
Sample point features:
climate stations with
annual precipitation values
Interpolated continuous
raster of precipitation
values
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-83
Interpolation is NOT truth!
Actual elevation Elevation interpolated from summits
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-84
Methods
Interpolation assumes that nearby points
are correlated, e.g. they will have similar
values.
Four types of interpolation methods are
available in Spatial Analyst
Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW)
Spline
Kriging
Trend
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-85
Density functions
Appear similar to
interpolation, but are
calculated differently
Interpolation predicts
values between points
using a variety of
mathematical methods
Density functions
count occurrences
within a given radius
and divide by the area
Occurances may be features
or attributes of features
(number of cities versus city
population).
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-86
Density methods
Simple density
Sums attribute (such as population) for points
within a specified radius
Larger radius gives smoother data
Kernel density
First spreads value at points out to the search
radius using a quadratic formula.
Then density is calculated again
Tends to give smoother results for a given
radius
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-87
Using simple density
50km radius
100km radius
A larger radius gives smoother
results. The radius is given in
map units.
Units: people/sq km
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-88
Line density
Density of
rivers m/sq km
100 km radius
50 km radius
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-89
Neighborhood statistics
Calculates a statistic for the specified window.
3 1 4
6 2 1
5 4 3
3 1 4
4
1
3
4
3 1 4 4
1
2
4
1
1
Window
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-90
Window movement
No overlap. All cells in the block
receive the output value.
Overlap. Only the target cell
receives the value.
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-91
Neighborhood focal functions
Output grid Input grid
3 1 4
6 2 1
5 4 3
3 1 4
4
1
3
4
3 1 4 4
1
2
4
1
1
2.0
2.5
3.4 2.8 3.6
3.8
3.2
2.9 3.0 2.3
3.1
3.3
2.5
Window
Target cell
Averaging function
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-92
Neighborhood focal mean
Smooths raster
Effects grow larger
with increasing
window size or
repeated
applications
Good for removing
noise or spurious
values
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-93
Neighborhood focal majority
High slope/low slope areas
Before 5x5 majority filter After two passes of 5x5
majority filter
Useful for simplifying rasters prior to conversion to polygons
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-94
What is a zonal function?
Examines and manipulates raster values
in one within set of zones specified by
another layer
Zones constitute the areas of a discrete
raster with the same value
Requires two inputs
A layer specifying the zones (raster or
feature)
A raster layer with the values to be evaluated
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-95
What is a zone?
A zone is the area(s) of a raster or feature
dataset that share the same integer value.
Zones need not be contiguous!
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-96
Zonal statistics
Zones defined by
the zone layer
(watersheds)
Generates statistics
for each zone from
the value grid
(slope)
Output is either a
raster, or a table
Watersheds and slope
Average slope in watershed
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-97
Zonal statistics of lines
Mean slope of
streams in each
watershed
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-98
Zonal statistics of points
Use name or FID for each
point so each is unique zone.
Calculate stats for each point.
All statistics are the samethe
elevation of the point.
Determine elevation of summits
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-99
Raster analysis example
Siting a landfill
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-100
Landfill raster model
Problem: Find potential locations for a
new landfill using these criteria
On flat terrain <= 10 degrees slope
No more than 1 km from an existing road
At least 500 meters from a stream
Meadow or low-density forest
Develop a Boolean raster for each
condition with 1 = desirable area, 0 = not
desirable area
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-101
Slope condition
1. Use slope function on elevation raster.
2. Use map algebra logical operator to produce Boolean map of slope <= 10
degrees.
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-102
Road distance condition
1. Use distance function to create raster of distance from roads.
2. Use logical operator in map algebra to create Boolean raster of areas within 1000
meters of a road.
[Distance] <= 1000
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-103
Stream distance condition
1. Use distance function to create raster of distance from streams.
2. Use a logical operator in map algebra to create a Boolean map of areas more
than 500 meters from a stream.
[Distance] > 500
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-104
Vegetation condition
1. Select suitable vegetation density and create a layer from the selected polygons.
2. Convert the selected vegetation layer to a raster using the density attribute.
3. Reclassify the three density values all to 1 and the NoData areas to 0.
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-105
Find areas with Boolean AND
[Slope] AND [Roads] AND [Streams] AND [Vegetation]
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-106
Additive model
[Slope] + [Roads] + [Streams] + [Vegetation]
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Raster terrain functions in AV
DEM + Hillshade = Hillshaded DEM
+ =
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Viewshed analysis
Lets say were local planners who are considering putting in
a new waste treatment facility in valley where the vacation
homes of five rich and powerful Hollywood executives are
located.
We want it in a place that wont ruin anyones views, since
they comprise 95% of the local tax base.
So we geocode the house locations, overlay them on a high-
resolution digital elevation model and run a viewshed
analysis
The lower the resolution, the more likely well be wrong
This generates a grid with three values, representing how
many houses can see a given pixel
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-109
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-110
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x
x
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