Working With Raster

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Getting started with surface

analysis
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Learning objectives
Explain what a raster surface is
Describe surface representation
Describe how specifying an analysis
environment affects output raster creation
Control output raster creation by changing
environment settings
Workspace
Extent
Cell size
Coordinate system
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Surfaces
Considered to be continuous
For an x,y location, only one z-value
Can be used to represent
elevation, rainfall, snow depth,
land value, pH
Surfaces cannot represent
3D objects like buildings
Not a true 3D model: 2-dimensional

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X,Y
Z1
Z2
Z3
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Representing surfaces
Four ways

Creating raster surfaces
Interpolate from points (e.g., elevation, rainfall)
Surfaces are created from continuous data
Derived from another surface (e.g., slope,
aspect, hillshade)
Raster
s Points
Contour
s
TINs /
Terrains
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Sources of topographic data
U.S. federal government
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): digital elevation
model (DEM)
Several resolutions

USGS: National Elevation Dataset (NED)
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA):
digital terrain elevation data (DTED)
Spacing Z accuracy
7.5 minutes 30 meters 15 meters
15 minutes 2 arc-seconds
30 minutes 2 arc-seconds of contour interval
1 degree 3 arc-seconds
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Interpolation
Generates surfaces from point measurements

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What is surface analysis?
Find patterns in the data

Elevation
Hillshade
Slope
Aspect
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How does surface analysis work?
Surface analysis is a process
Input grid(s)
Parameters
Output grid

A new grid can be the input for another process

Operations
Functions
Conditional statements
Analysis environment
Input Output/Input Output
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Before you begin surface analysis...
Set the working directory

Set the analysis mask

Set the analysis
extent

Set the analysis
cell size

Input 1 Input 2 Output
Maximum of Inputs
Intersection of Inputs Union of Inputs
NoData
D
Copyright 2009 ESRI. All rights reserved. Creating and Analyzing Surfaces Using ArcGIS Spatial Analyst
Interpolating surfaces
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Learning objectives
Describe sample points
Interpolate surfaces
Assess accuracy
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What is interpolation?
Estimating an unknown value between known
samples
Based on spatial autocorrelation and dependence
The degree of relationship between near and far objects

Things close together are more alike than things far apart
Toblers first law of geography
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Visual comparison of
interpolators
Natural
neighbors
Spline
Kriging
IDW
Topo to Raster
(Covered in lesson 3)
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Linear interpolation
Interpolation of cell values
A best estimate between samples
Known rainfall values (inches)
Interpolated rainfall values
1.5
1.25 1.75
1.125 1.375 1.875 1.625
2 1
1 Mile
0 1
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The importance of samples
A perfect surface model needs infinite points
Impossible: Can only record representative locations (samples)
Other locations are estimated (interpolated) from the samples
Good samples represent
Important details
(enough to meet resolution needs)
Surface extremes
(tops of hills, bottoms of valleys)
Changes of surface
(breaks in slope)
Good samples extend beyond the area of interest
(reduce edge effects)
Sampling area
Study
area
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
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Controlling sample points
IDW, spline, and kriging control samples
Two methods control the search radius
Variable: Expands to find minimum number of
samples
Fixed: Uses samples found in the specified
radius
Samples = 8
Radius = ?
Variable Fixed
Radius = 1000
Samples = ?
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Barriers to interpolation
Sharp breaks in the surface
Like cliffs, ridges, fault lines
IDW, spline, and kriging can use barriers
Restricts samples to same side of line as cell
Input as line features
With barrier Without barrier
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Inverse distance weighted (IDW)
Averages values of samples near the cell
Closer points have more influence
Surface can pass through samples
Cannot predict hills, valleys
You set
Power (how fast influence
drops with distance)
Search radius
Barriers
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IDW parameters
Best for dense, evenly spaced samples
Surface falls between samples
Averaging
No hills or valleys

Can adjust relative
influence of samples
The Power option
Distance
Z
-
v
a
l
u
e

IDW
Distance
Power 1
Power 2
Sample point
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Natural neighbors
Advanced technique to select samples
Builds area of influence of samples for each cell
Uses area-weighted interpolation technique
Creates a convex hull
around the samples
Only interpolates
within the hull
Good for very dense
samples, like lidar
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Spline
The surface passes exactly through the
sample points
Like a rubber sheet that is bent around the
samples

Good for smoothly varying surfaces, like
temperature
Can predict ridges and valleys

Z
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v
a
l
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Distance
Spline
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Choosing a spline type
Regularized
Drapes the surface
Higher hills, deeper valleys
Smoother surface
High {weight} smoothes more

Tension
Forces the surface
Flatter hills and
valleys
Coarser surface
High {weight}
coarsens more
2000
3000
4000
E
l
e
v
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Distance
Tension
Regularized
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Topo to Raster
The best choice for interpolating terrain
Creates a hydrologically correct
surface
No sinks
Drainage enforcement
Uses contour lines and
points for samples
Adjusts surface with
streams and lakes
Points
Lakes
Streams
Contours
Boundary
D
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Choosing an interpolation method
If you know nothing about your data
Use natural neighbors It is the most conservative; assumes all
highs and lows are sampled; will not create artifacts
If your input data is contours
Use Topo to Raster It is optimized for contour input; if not creating
a DEM, turn off the drainage enforcement option
If you know the highs and lows are not sample
Use spline Be careful of points that are near in space but very
different in value, creating unnatural artifacts
If your surface is not continuous
Use spline with barriers if you know there are faults or other
discontinuities in the surface
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Testing a surface
To test the accuracy of a surface:
Remove a sample
Create the surface
Check the sample against the surface
(Did the interpolator predict the missing sample?)
Put the sample back; repeat with another sample
Try a different interpolator and repeat
Each interpolator gives different results
None is more accurate than the others for all situations
Choice is based on the surface type and the samples
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Terrains
Multiresolution surface created from
measurements stored in feature classes
Large collections of mass point data (e.g., lidar)
TIN surface generated on the fly for given area of
interest and level of detail
Typical applications:
Topographic mapping
Bathymetric mapping
Can convert to a raster

D
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Exercise goals
Create surfaces using a variety of
interpolation techniques
Evaluate interpolation results
Optionally, interpolate using IDW with
barriers
Copyright 2009 ESRI. All rights reserved. Creating and Analyzing Surfaces Using ArcGIS Spatial Analyst
Introduction to kriging
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Kriging
A geostatistical method
Assumes spatial variation in
data is the same everywhere
Models variation with
many methods
You need to know how to use it
Can create hills and valleys
Ordinary
Universa
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Kriging semivariogram models
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst implements five
semivariogram models
Spherical
Circular
Exponential
Gaussian
Linear

ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst has more
models and tools
Interactive variogram modeling
Distance
Actual
variance
0
0
1,500
15,000
Semi-
variance
Predicted
variance
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Copyright 2009 by Maribeth H. Price
8-31
Raster data
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8-32
The raster data model
Rows
Columns
X, Y
location
Raster data file
N rows by M columns
X, Y
location
Georeferenced to earths
surface
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Raster vs Vector
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8-34
Pixels or Cells
Each pixel contains
one numeric value
Dimension of a pixel
varies (resolution)
Value represents some
property of that pixel
area, e.g. elevation or
rainfall
Values may be integers
or floating point
numbers
3 1 4
6 2 1
5 4 3
3 1 4
4
1
3
4
3 1 4 4
1
2
4
1
1
30m
30m
Unlike a polygon, each cell has only ONE attribute: its value.
Storing multiple values means storing multiple rasters.
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8-35
Binary data
Most raster formats use binary storage
Numbers are stored as a series of 0s
and 1s representing numbers in base 2
Binary values are grouped by eight
10011101
1 bit
one byte
In base 2:
00000000 = 0
11111111 = 255
2
8
= 256
1111111111111111 = 65,565
2
16
= 65,566
two bytes
0
1
10
11
100
101
110
111
1000
1001
1010
1011

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8-36
Types of raster data
Discrete raster: land use
Continuous raster: DEM
Continuous raster: image
Discrete raster: roads
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8-37
Raster Properties
Scroll down
for more
info
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8-38
Bands
A single raster may include multiple arrays
Most often used to store color images and
satellite images
7-band Landsat satellite image
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8-39
Why use rasters?
Better at storing certain kinds of data
Better at analyzing certain kinds of data
Often faster analysis than vectors
Imagery desirable for certain maps
BUT
Coordinate precision generally lower
High precision has high storage costs
Cannot store multiple attributes
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8-40
Raster resolution
Measured by cell size dimensions
Storage space increases dramatically with
resolution
Vector format 200 m raster 50 m raster
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8-41
Cell size units
Cell x-y resolution units are based on the
rasters coordinate system definition
Decimal degrees*
Meters
Feet
*Because distances and
areas are fundamental
bases for raster analysis, it
is almost always best to use
projected coordinate
systems for rasters.
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8-42
Raster analysis
Raster analysis uses cell-
by-cell functions on one or
more input grids.
Cells must be the same
size and line up spatially.
Older software required
the user to ensure that all
input rasters had exactly
the same size, shape, and
aligned cell sizes.
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8-43
Resampling
Y2
If input grids do not match, then one
must be resampled to match the
other. Resampling can degrade the
accuracy of a raster even if the
difference in cell size and location is
small.
The new cell grid is determined, and
the old cell values must be fit into the
new structure somehow.
Several methods are used for
resampling.
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8-44
Resampling methods
Nearest neighbor resampling grabs the value from
the old cell that falls at the center of the new cell. It preserves
the original value and should always be used with categorical
data, or when the original data values need to be preserved. It
is the fastest method.
Bilinear resampling calculates a new value from the
four cells that fall closest to the center of the new cell. It uses
a distance-weighted algorithm based on the old cell centers. It
is best used with continuous data such as elevation.
Cubic convolution resampling calculates a new
value from the sixteen cells that fall closest to the center of the
new cell. It uses a distance-weighted algorithm based on the
old cell centers. It is best used with continuous data such as
elevation. It is the most time-consuming method.
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8-45
Raster analysis techniques
Map algebra and Boolean overlay
Other functions
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8-46
Map Algebra
( [Inlayer1 + [Inlayer2] ) / 2
Aligns overlying cells and
performs operations on
corresponding cells in input
layers.
Inlayer1
Inlayer2
Output
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8-47
Map Algebra
Rasters are
essentially arrays
of numbers
Can be added,
subtracted, etc
Line up matching
cells vertically
5 7
2 4
3 2
1 6
8 9
3 10
Ingrid1

+

Ingrid2

=

Outgrid
Fig. 15.4. Map algebra
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8-48
Map Algebra expressions
Convert precipitation in cm to inches
[Precip] / 2.54
Compute earth volume to be moved
[InitialSurface] [Finalsurface]
Enter models based on multiple inputs
[Precip] * 2 + [Slope] * 4 / ( [Erode] [Vegcover]
Logical expressions
[Elevation > 1400]
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8-49
Conversions
[Precip_cm] / 2.54
Precip in cm Precip in inches
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8-50
Cut and fill on a site
[Initial surface] [final surface]
Cut
Fill
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8-51
Model expressions
Complex expressions with
multiple inputs to calculate
risk or hazard index.
Runoff in cm based on
four input grids: precip,
slope, soil infiltration, and
vegetation cover.
[Precip] * 2 + [Slope] * 4 / ( [Erode] [Vegcover]
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8-52
Logical Operators
[Elevation] > 1200
Logical operators produce either TRUE (1) or FALSE (0)
values in the output grid, based on whether a cell meets
the condition.
[Slope] < 10
[crowncov] < 70 And
[crowncov] > 40
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8-53
Boolean rasters
Boolean rasters represent maps of
True/False states for a particular condition
Slope < 10 degrees?
1 = True
0 = False
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8-54
Logical expressions
Produce a Boolean
grid of 1s and 0s
1 = True
0 = False
[EarthMove] > 0
1
0
Elevation > 1400
1
0
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8-55
Boolean operators
A AND B
A XOR B A NOT B
A OR B
A B
Same as intersect!
Same as union!
Boolean rasters
can be
evaluated
further using the
Boolean
operators.
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8-56
Raster analysis techniques
Map algebra and Boolean overlay
Other functions
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8-57
Other raster analysis techniques
Reclassification
Surface functions
Distance functions
Density functions
Interpolation
Neighborhood functions
Zonal functions
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8-58
Reclassify
Convert one set of
grid values to
another
Manual or classify
Slope High slope/low slope
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Local Operations
Reclassification(single raster)
Range of values a new value is given
to a range of values
in the input raster (integer and floating
point rasters)
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8-60
Surface analysis
DEM
Slope
Aspect
Hillshade
Contouring
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8-61
Slope function
Calculates slope of the surface
based on surrounding cells. Can be
expressed in degrees or percent.
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Standard Slope Function
a b c
d e f
g h i
cing x_mesh_spa * 8
i) 2f (c - g) 2d (a
dx
dz + + + +
=
acing y_mesh_sp * 8
c) 2b (a - i) 2h (g
dy
dz + + + +
=
2
2
dy
dz
dx
dz
run
rise
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
=
run
rise
atan deg
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8-63
Aspect function
Calculates direction of steepest
slope, e.g. which way the slope
faces. Value represents direction
from 0-360 where 0/360 is North.
Flat areas are assigned a -1 value.
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Aspect the steepest downslope
direction
dx
dz
dy
dz
|
|
.
|
\
|
dy / dz
dx / dz
atan
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8-65
Hillshade
Calculates the brightness or
illumination of a surface from a
specified light source.
Applications include terrain display
and modeling satellite reflectance.
Azimuth is direction
of illumination source
(315 by default)
Altitude is the angle
of the source above
the horizon (45 deg)
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8-66
Viewshed analysis
Calculate areas
visible from a set of
observation points
Additional parameters
are available for the tool
version, such as the
horizontal angle included.
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Lecture Materials by
Austin Troy except
where noted 2008
Viewshed analysis
Viewshed analysis can use offsets to define the height of
the viewer or of the object being viewed; designated using
a new field in the input layers attribute table.
offset A
offset B
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Lecture by Austin Troy
2005
Viewshed analysis
This is done in ArcGIS 8, but can also be done in ArcView.
Red represents areas that can be seen by 1 house, blue by 2
or more
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2005
Viewshed analysis
In order to compare the viewability of several facilities,
separate viewshed analyses need to be done for each
feature.
In the next example we will look at three candidate sites for a
communications tower.
Each will produce a viewability grid.
This grid can then be superimposed on a layer showing
residential areas.
Since each grid will belong to a different tower, we can tell
which tower will be most viewable from the residential
areas through simple overlay analysis.
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2005
Viewshed analysis
In this case, red is for tower 1, blue for 2 and green for 3
Introduction to GIS
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8-71
Cut and fill on a site
[Initial surface] [final surface]
Cut
Fill
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8-72
Hydrologic functions
Derive streams, watersheds, and other hydrologic features
based on analysis of a DEM.
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67 56 49 46 50
12 11 12
53 44 37 38 48
58 55 22 31 24
61 47 21 16 19
34 53
Digital Elevation Model
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32
16
8
64
4
128
1
2
Eight Direction Pour Point Model
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67 56 49
53 44 37
58 55 22
1
67 56 49
53 44 37
58 55 22
1
26 . 16
2
44 67
=
14
1
53 67
=
Slope:
Direction of Steepest Descent
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2 2 4 4 8
1 2 16
1 2 4 8 4
1 1 2 4 8
2 1 4 4 4
1 1
Flow Direction Grid
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Grid Network
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8-78
Distance functions
Straight line distance
Cost path distance
Buffers
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8-79
Straight line distance
Starts from a set of
features (points, lines,
polygons).
Creates a grid where
each cell represents
distance to the closest
of the features.
Distance units are
given in coordinate
system map units
Distance to roads (meters)
The distance
function is the first
step in in creating
raster buffers.
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8-80
Lowest cost path
1. Create start/stop
shapefiles
2. Create cost grid
3. Calculate cost
distance grid and
cost direction grid
4. Find lowest cost path
Elevation Slope
Cost distance Cost direction
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8-81
What is interpolation?
Interpolation is the prediction of values in
between measured points.
Sampling of points may be uniform, random, or
based on a sampling scheme.
Numerous methods are used which have
different mathematical models and make
different assumptions about the data.
Best application of interpolation relies on
substantial study of models and assumptions. If
you use it a lotlearn more!

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8-82
Sample point features:
climate stations with
annual precipitation values
Interpolated continuous
raster of precipitation
values
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8-83
Interpolation is NOT truth!
Actual elevation Elevation interpolated from summits
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8-84
Methods
Interpolation assumes that nearby points
are correlated, e.g. they will have similar
values.
Four types of interpolation methods are
available in Spatial Analyst
Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW)
Spline
Kriging
Trend
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8-85
Density functions
Appear similar to
interpolation, but are
calculated differently
Interpolation predicts
values between points
using a variety of
mathematical methods
Density functions
count occurrences
within a given radius
and divide by the area
Occurances may be features
or attributes of features
(number of cities versus city
population).
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8-86
Density methods
Simple density
Sums attribute (such as population) for points
within a specified radius
Larger radius gives smoother data
Kernel density
First spreads value at points out to the search
radius using a quadratic formula.
Then density is calculated again
Tends to give smoother results for a given
radius
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8-87
Using simple density
50km radius
100km radius
A larger radius gives smoother
results. The radius is given in
map units.
Units: people/sq km
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8-88
Line density
Density of
rivers m/sq km
100 km radius
50 km radius
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8-89
Neighborhood statistics
Calculates a statistic for the specified window.
3 1 4
6 2 1
5 4 3
3 1 4
4
1
3
4
3 1 4 4
1
2
4
1
1
Window
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8-90
Window movement
No overlap. All cells in the block
receive the output value.
Overlap. Only the target cell
receives the value.
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8-91
Neighborhood focal functions
Output grid Input grid
3 1 4
6 2 1
5 4 3
3 1 4
4
1
3
4
3 1 4 4
1
2
4
1
1
2.0

2.5

3.4 2.8 3.6
3.8

3.2

2.9 3.0 2.3
3.1

3.3

2.5

Window
Target cell
Averaging function
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8-92
Neighborhood focal mean
Smooths raster
Effects grow larger
with increasing
window size or
repeated
applications
Good for removing
noise or spurious
values
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8-93
Neighborhood focal majority
High slope/low slope areas
Before 5x5 majority filter After two passes of 5x5
majority filter
Useful for simplifying rasters prior to conversion to polygons
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8-94
What is a zonal function?
Examines and manipulates raster values
in one within set of zones specified by
another layer
Zones constitute the areas of a discrete
raster with the same value
Requires two inputs
A layer specifying the zones (raster or
feature)
A raster layer with the values to be evaluated
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8-95
What is a zone?
A zone is the area(s) of a raster or feature
dataset that share the same integer value.
Zones need not be contiguous!
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8-96
Zonal statistics
Zones defined by
the zone layer
(watersheds)
Generates statistics
for each zone from
the value grid
(slope)
Output is either a
raster, or a table
Watersheds and slope
Average slope in watershed
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8-97
Zonal statistics of lines
Mean slope of
streams in each
watershed
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8-98
Zonal statistics of points
Use name or FID for each
point so each is unique zone.
Calculate stats for each point.
All statistics are the samethe
elevation of the point.
Determine elevation of summits
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8-99
Raster analysis example
Siting a landfill
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8-100
Landfill raster model
Problem: Find potential locations for a
new landfill using these criteria
On flat terrain <= 10 degrees slope
No more than 1 km from an existing road
At least 500 meters from a stream
Meadow or low-density forest
Develop a Boolean raster for each
condition with 1 = desirable area, 0 = not
desirable area

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8-101
Slope condition
1. Use slope function on elevation raster.
2. Use map algebra logical operator to produce Boolean map of slope <= 10
degrees.
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8-102
Road distance condition
1. Use distance function to create raster of distance from roads.
2. Use logical operator in map algebra to create Boolean raster of areas within 1000
meters of a road.
[Distance] <= 1000
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8-103
Stream distance condition
1. Use distance function to create raster of distance from streams.
2. Use a logical operator in map algebra to create a Boolean map of areas more
than 500 meters from a stream.
[Distance] > 500
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8-104
Vegetation condition
1. Select suitable vegetation density and create a layer from the selected polygons.
2. Convert the selected vegetation layer to a raster using the density attribute.
3. Reclassify the three density values all to 1 and the NoData areas to 0.
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8-105
Find areas with Boolean AND
[Slope] AND [Roads] AND [Streams] AND [Vegetation]
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8-106
Additive model
[Slope] + [Roads] + [Streams] + [Vegetation]
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2005
Raster terrain functions in AV
DEM + Hillshade = Hillshaded DEM

+ =
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2005
Viewshed analysis
Lets say were local planners who are considering putting in
a new waste treatment facility in valley where the vacation
homes of five rich and powerful Hollywood executives are
located.
We want it in a place that wont ruin anyones views, since
they comprise 95% of the local tax base.
So we geocode the house locations, overlay them on a high-
resolution digital elevation model and run a viewshed
analysis
The lower the resolution, the more likely well be wrong
This generates a grid with three values, representing how
many houses can see a given pixel

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8-109
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8-110
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Getting started with surface

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