CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

Labs N Rack , Chandigarh is a deemed software and web development company of India.
We have continuously delivered variety of services such as product engineering, web
development, packaged application services, I consulting, product licensing and
industrial trainings. We have over a decade of e!perience and in depth e!pertise in
diverse technologies to deliver tantali"ing solutions to clients all over the world. #part
from our strong focus on $uality, we ensure that we e!ecute and deliver the pro%ects
within agreed timelines and cost budgets.
Experience
We have added value to a number of companies, worked around various industry
verticals and have a perfect understanding of domestic and international client needs.
hus, we are able to $uickly grasp the finer nuances and deliver solutions which precisely
address the re$uirements, thus delivering systematically devised solutions which prove to
be highly valuable.
Resources
Working out of multiple development centers and marketing offices across India and
overseas, trained and e!perience professionals who form the &affodil team, serve as the
most important and robust Infrastructural elements for the company. #t the same time,
state'of'the'art e$uipment and access to cutting edge technologies lends us a uni$ue edge
over our competitors. (artnerships with global leaders further allow &affodil to access
resources which remain unmatched in the industry.
)
Expertise
We bring years of competence and e!pertise across a number of leading technologies
such as desktop and web application development, web content management, mobile *
tablet application development, cloud platforms and other allied technologies. his is
combined with our healthy partnerships with leading names such as +icrosoft.






CHAPTER-
,
PRO!ECT "OR#

.1 NET"OR#IN$
Computer networking is the scientific and engineering discipline concerned with
communication between computer systems. -uch networks involve at least two devices
capable of being networked with at least one usually being a computer. he devices can
be separated by a few meters .e.g. via /luetooth0 or thousands of kilometers .e.g. via the
Interne0. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub'discipline of
telecommunication. Networking is an interconnection of computers and peripheral
devices with carriers and data communication devices for the purpose of e!changing data
information and saving the resources. Computers in the network may be connected within
a building, city, nation or world wide.
.1.1 LAN-1
L#N stands for Local #rea Network. hese types of networks are established within a
building or campus
cover a distance of less than )2 km. It was developed in )342. It5s a high speed n6w.
.1. MAN-%
+#N stands for +etropolitan #rea Network. his network is established within a city in
different buildings i.e. data can be shared by two or more buildings within a city up to a
distance of )72 km. It was developed in )382.
.1.& "AN-%
W#N means Wide #rea Network. In this network computers can be connected within a
country or globally. It is developed in )392. :enerally covers distance of more than )72
km. It can further be classified as :lobal Network or ;nterprise Network.
&epending on the type and si"e networking is classified in three categories1
<
he original Local #rea Networks .L#Ns0 were nothing more than coa!ial cabling,
strung from terminal servers to desktop terminals whose users were treated to
monochromatic te!t displayed on low'resolution cathode ray tubes.
In the mid')382s, wide area networks .W#Ns0 were slow and crude. erminal servers
multiple!ed access for do"ens of users to 3.9 =bps circuits. hese circuits connected
users to mainframe'based applications that lay hidden in a remote data center.
oday, L#Ns have metamorphosed into high'bandwidth, high'performance and C(>'
intensive client applications such as live, interactive voice and video conferencing, e'mail
and some of the more traditional forms of data processing.
W#Ns have e!perienced radical, evolutionary change. oday, 3.9 =bps is deemed
inade$uate for most of the needs of even a single user. ?ust try to give a user a 3.9 =bps
modem for use as anything but a paperweight.
It is important to recogni"e the inputs for all these changes has been, and remains, the
user@s business re$uirements. he competitive environment of most business entities
ensures that any technological innovations that offer competitive advantages''that is,
better, cheaper or faster get accepted. Aor e!ample, the introduction of the mouse
facilitated access to computing by obviating the need for typing skills. -uddenly, almost
everyone could use a computer (ersonal computer, offered countless advantages by
distributing intelligence down to the desktop.
-oftware developers also drove changes by constantly upgrading a di""ying array of
increasingly comple! products that enabled users to actually use the newly distributed
processing power at their fingertips. ogether, these innovations $uickly made hard'wired
connections to terminal servers obsolete.
he first generation of L#Ns. hese networks offered almost obscene amounts of
bandwidth, such as ) or B +b per second .+bps0, depending on whose network you
B
purchased. Initially, these L#Ns were used as a more fle!ible means of connecting users
with terminal servers. #fter all, the users@ basic re$uirements hadn@t changed all that
much, and the increased bandwidth was more than ade$uate to support terminal
emulation.
. O'!ECTI(E OF NET"OR#IN$
New networks are popping up daily in developed countries but also in the developing
nations. he ;astern ;uropean countries were technologically starved under -oviet
control, and purchasing advanced technology, taking a si"able leap in the upgrade path. #
global linking is taking place, and thousands more %oin in the benefits of networking
daily.
..1 D)t) *+)rin,1'
-haring data today is easier due to networking and become better than the proliferation of
electronic mail. ;'mail has become one of the leading motivators for companies. #s a
means of sharing important information, ;'mail is among organi"ations from every
industry imaginable. # large number of people have become used to seeing a letter
waiting in their electronic mailbo!es. he letter itself may contain notes about a friendly
after'work game of golf, or last year@s fiscal report. he ability to effortlessly and $uickly
move data from one person to the ne!t is an option too good to pass up for many
organi"ations.
-hared files may e!ist in one location with multiple people accessing them or updating
parts of them. &atabase applications are found in every computeri"ed organi"ation.
Networks offer the capabilities of multi'user access. +ore database applications
incorporate record lockingC a means by which a person updating a record has e!clusive
use of the record while others who attempt to access it cannot do so.
Not only data files, but also e!ecutable files may be shared. When a user invokes an
e!ecutable file on a network server, a copy of it is transmitted over the network into the
memory of the local user@s workstation.
7
.. Resource *+)rin,
he benefits of modern networking are the ability to share peripherals. Aew companies
have the resources to place a printer on every user@s desk. Networks offer a logical and
cost'effective solution. -ince, the introduction of several users could cause conflict at the
printerC spooling is utili"ed so that print %obs can be arranged in an orderly manner.
NetWare provides such services in the form of print $ueues and print servers.
he ability of sharing printers and disk space has been the driving force behind many
companies installing (C'based networks. -hared modems are typically called modem
servers.
L#N topologies can be described using either a physical or a logical perspective. #
physical topology describes the geometric arrangement of components that comprise the
L#N. It is a theoretical construct that graphically conveys the shape and structure of the
L#N.# logical topology describes the possible connections between pairs of networked
endpoints that can communicate. his is useful in describing which endpoints can
communicate with which other endpoints, and whether those pairs capable of
communicating have a direct physical connection to each other
.& NET"OR#
# Network is a group of two or more computers connected together. his connection is
done physically using a wired or wireless system. hese computers are able to
communicate, e!change information and use software that observes the same set of
protocols. &ifferent types of computers, with different operating systems, can b used.
Networks can also be characteri"ed in terms of their si"e. he si"e is a measurement of
the spatial distance that the network covers.
9
Networks can interconnect with other Networks and contain many levels of subnetworks.
Aig ,.) /asic Network
.&.1 #e- Concept%
# network is a set of hardware devices connected together, either physically or logically
to allow them to e!change information
.
Networks are used for an incredible array of different purposes. In fact, the definitions
above are so simple for the specific reason that networks can be used so broadly, and can
allow such a wide variety of tasks to be accomplished. While most people learning about
networking focus on the interconnection of (Cs and other DtrueE computers, you use
4
various types of networks every day. ;ach time you pick up a phone, use a credit card at a
store, get cash from an #+ machine, or even plug in an electrical appliance, you are
using some type of network.
In fact, the definition can even be e!panded beyond the world of technology altogether1
I@m sure you@ve heard the term DnetworkingE used to describe the process of finding an
employer or employee by talking to friends and associates. In this case too, the idea is
that independent units are connected together to share information and cooperate.
he widespread networking of personal computers is a relatively new phenomenon. Aor
the first decade or so of their e!istence, (Cs were very much Dislands unto themselvesE,
and were rarely connected together. In the early )332s, (C networking began to grow in
popularity as businesses reali"ed the advantages that networking could provide. /y the
late )332s, networking in homes with two or more (Cs started to really take off as well.
his interconnection of small devices represents, in a way, a return to the Dgood old daysE
of mainframe computers. /efore computers were small and personal, they were large and
centrali"ed machines that were shared by many users operating remote terminals. While
having the entire computer power in one place had many disadvantages, one benefit was
that all users were connected because they shared the central computer.
Individuali"ed (Cs took away that advantage, in favor of the benefits of independence.
Networking attempts to move computing into the middle ground, providing (C users
with the best of both worlds1 the independence and fle!ibility of personal computers, and
the connectivity and resource sharing of mainframes. In fact, networking is today
considered so vital that it5s hard to conceive of an organi"ation with two or more
computers that would not want to connect them togetherF
.. NET"OR#IN$ 'A*IC*
8
Gere are some of the fundamental parts of a network1
Aig.,., Networking /asics
...1 Net/or0 1
# network is a group of computers connected together in a way that allows information to
be e!changed between the computers.
... No2e 1
# node is anything that is connected to the network. While a node is typically a
computer, it can also be something like a printer or C&'RH+ tower.

...& *e,3ent 1
# segment is any portion of a network that is separated, by a switch, bridge or router,
from other parts of the network.
.... ')c04one 1
3
he backbone is the main cabling of a network that all of the segments connect to.
ypically, the backbone is capable of carrying more information than the individual
segments. Aor e!ample, each segment may have a transfer rate of )2 +bps .megabits per
second0, while the backbone may operate at )22 +bps.

...5 Topo6o,- 1
opology is the way that each node is physically connected to the network .more on this
in the ne!t section0.
...7 Loc)6 Are) Net/or0 8LAN9 1
# L#N is a network of computers that are in the same general physical location, usually
within a building or a campus. If the computers are far apart .such as across town or in
different cities0, then a Wide #rea Network .W#N0 is typically used.
...: Net/or0 inter;)ce c)r2 8NIC9 1
;very computer .and most other devices0 is connected to a network through an NIC. In
most desktop computers, this is an ;thernet card .normally )2 or )22 +bps0that is
plugged into the slot on the computer5s motherboard.
...< Me2i) Access Contro6 8MAC9 )22ress I
his is the physical address of any device '' such as the NIC in a computer '' on the
network. he +#C address, which is made up of two e$ual parts, is 9 bytes long. he
first < bytes identify the company that made the NIC. he second < bytes are the serial
number of the NIC itself.
...= Unic)st 1
# unicast is a transmission from one node addressed specifically to another node.
...1> Mu6tic)st 1
)2
In a multicast, a node sends a packet addressed to a special group address. &evices that
are interested in this group register to receive packets addressed to the group. #n e!ample
might be a Cisco router sending out an update to all of the other Cisco routers.
...11 'ro)2c)st 1
In a broadcast, a node sends out a packet that is intended for transmission to all other
nodes on the network.
.5 FACTOR*%
). he type of data transmission technology used is .C(6I( Network0.
,. It carries voice, data or both kinds of signals.
<. We can use the Network .public or private0.
B. he usual nature of its connections .dial'up or switched, dedicated or no switched,
or virtual connections0.
7.he types of physical links .for e!ample, optical fiber, coa!ial cable, and copper wire0.
.7 TYPE* OF NET"OR#IN$%
.7.1 Loc)6 Are) Net/or0% -
# Local #rea Network .L#N0 is a network that is confined to small area, such as school,
or building. L#N computers are more than a mile apart. In a L#N, one computer is
design as the file server. It stores the software that controls the network and that can be
shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server
are called workstations. he workstations can be less powerful than the file server. Hn
L#N cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.
))
Aig ,.<1 he
basic L#N network
.7.. Metropo6it)n Are) Net/or0% -
# +etropolitan #rea Network .+#N0 covers large geographic areas, such as cities or
school districts. /y interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area,
information is easily disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and
government agencies often use a +#N to connect to citi"ens and private industries. he
e!ample of a +#N is the +IN& Network located in (asco County, Alorida. It connects
all of (asco@s media centers to a centrali"ed mainframe at the district office.
Range )=m ' )2=m
opology /us
Cable wisted pair6Aibber optics
),
Aig.,.B he basic +#N network
.7.&. "i2e Are) Net/or0% -
Wide #rea Networks .W#N0 connect geographic areas, such as Alorida, the >nited
-tates, or the world. -atellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network.
)<
Aig ,.7 he basic W#N network
>sing a W#N, schools in Alorida can communicate with place like okyo in a matter of
minutes. It uses multipliers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global
communications networks like the Internet. # W#N will not appear to be much different
than a L#N or a +#N.
Range No area specified
opology +i!
Cable Aibber optics6Wireless
-peed <,67), =bps
)B
.:AD(ANTA$E* OF IN*TALLIN$ A *CHOOL
NET"OR#
.:.1*pee2% - Networks provide a rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from
one computer to another shares file. his method of transferring files is very time'
consuming.
.:. Cost% - Network provides many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. /esides
monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the
program. he changes have to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the
individual workstations.
.:.& *ecurit-% - Ailes and programs on a network can be designated as Jcopy inhibit,J
so that no illegal copying of program take place. (asswords can be used for specific
directories to restrict access to authori"ed users.
.:.. Centr)6i?e2 *o;t/)re M)n),e3ent% - he benefits of installing a network
at a school are the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer. his
eliminates the need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.
.:.5 Resource *+)rin,% - -haring resources is another area in which a network
e!ceeds stand'alone computers. If peripherals are added to a network, many users can
share them.

.:.7 E6ectronic M)i6% - he network provides the hardware necessary to install an e'
mail system. ;'mail aids in personal and professional communication and it facilitates the
dissemination of general information to the entire network. ;'mail on a L#N can enable
)7
students to communicate with teachers and peers at there own school. If the L#N is
connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the world.
.:.: F6exi46e Access% - -chool networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. -tudents can begin an assignment in their classroom,
save it on a public access area of the network, and then go to the media center after
school to finish their work.

.:.< "or0,roup Co3putin,% - Workgroup software allows many users to work
on a document or pro%ect concurrently. Aor e!ample, educators located at various schools
within a country could contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same
document and spreadsheets.
.< HARD"ARE U*ED IN NET"OR#IN$
.<.1 Hu4
# hub is a center of activity. # hub, or concentrator, is a common wiring point for
network that is around a star topology. #rpanet, )2base', and )2base'A, as well as many
other proprietary network topologies the use of hubs to connect different cable runs and
to distribute data across the various segments of a network. Gubs act as a signal splitter.
hey take all of the signals they receive in through one port and redistribute it out
through all ports. -ome hubs regenerate weak signals before re'transmitting them. Hther
hubs retime the signal to provide true synchronous data communication between all ports.
Gubs with multiple )2base'A connectors use mirrors to split the beam of light among the
ports. he data being sent from the first system in the chain must be handled by each
system between the originating and destination systems.
)9
,.<.1.1 Nee2 o; Hu4
Aor star topology we need a hub. If we are building a )2base' network and we have only
two machines, then we can connect them without using a hub. We have a special %umper
cable to match the transmitter leads of one system with the receiver leads of the other
system and vice'versa. Now these kinds of cables becoming common. It is also important
to point out that the parts re$uired to assemble them are relatively ine!pensive. he
physical diagram of Gub is given below.
)4

Aigure ,.9 hub
.<.1. ')sic *peci;ic)tions
Gubs have basic features that are determined by the type of cabling that run to the hub. #
hub is network device, which perform in the standard parameters of the particular type of
network to which the hub is connected. &espite this hubs provide additional services to a
network than simply an interface, they must still follow the restrictions placed on the
medium by the I;;;.
he connection to hub is through R?'B7 %acks. R?'B7 %acks are the standard connector
type for types of
that on twisted'pair cabling. Arom )2base' to )22base', the cabling that runs from
most workstations on the L#N to the hub, depending on the speed of the network. #t
either end of that cable is an R?'B7 connector.
NH;1 #n R?'B7 connector looks similar to the connector that comes out of most North'
#merican telephones e!cept it is %ust a little bit wider. #lthough primarily used to connect
devices that rely on twisted'pair ;thernet, R?'B7 connectors can also be used to connect
oken Ring devices. Aor e!ampleC any length of )2base' cabling cannot e!ceed )22
)8
meters or roughly <<2 feet in length. his is a limitation in the specification of )2base'
from the I;;;, not a limitation of any particular hub
.<.1.& P)ssi@e Hu4
(assive hubs do not do very much to enhance the performance of your L#N, nor do they
do anything to assist you in troubleshooting faulty hardware or finding performance
bottlenecks. hey simply take all of the packets they receive on a single port and
rebroadcast them across all ports.
(assive hubs commonly have one )2base', port in addition to the R?'B7 connectors that
connect each L#N device. )2base'7 is )2+bps ;thernet that is run over thick'coa!. his
)2base', connector can be used as your network backbone. +ore advanced passive hubs
have #>I ports that can be connected to the transceiver of your choice to form a
backbone.
.<.1.. Acti@e Hu4s
#ctive hubs do something other than the rebroadcast data. hey have all of the features of
passive hubs, with the added bonus of watching the data being sent out. #ctive hubs take
a larger role in ;thernet communications by implementing a technology called store *
forward where the hubs look at the data they are transmitting before sending it.
If a signal received by an active hub is weak but still readable, the active hub restores the
signal to a stronger state before rebroadcast. his feature allows certain devices that are
not operating within optimal parameters to still be used on your network. If a device is
not broadcasting a signal strong enough to be seen by other devices on a network that
uses passive hubs, the signal amplification provided by an active hub may allow that.
.<. Routers
Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using
headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers
work at the network layer of the C(6I( model or layer < of the H-I model. Routers also
)3
provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media .RAC )8),0. hey use
preconfigured static routes, status of their hardware interfaces, and routing protocols to
select the best route between any two subnets. # router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two L#Ns or W#Ns or a L#N and its I-(@s network. -ome &-L
and cable modems, for home .and even office0 use, have been integrated with routers to
allow multiple home6office computers to access the Internet through the same connection.
Routers to allow for I;;; 82,.))b6g wireless enabled devices to connect to the network
without the need for cabled connections.
Aig ,.4 Router
.<.& */itc+es
In the late )332s the rapid pace at which the underlying technologies consistently manage
to evolve. In other industries, core technologies e!perience revolutionary growth every 7
to )7 years .or more0, but even the most conservative pro%ections show the underpinnings
of the information technology industry growing by leaps and bounds every )8 months,
sometimes even more fre$uentlyF +ost recently, companies have become locked in a
number of heated battles over which vendors will provide the hardware and software that
will lead the industry into the twenty'first century.
,2
Aigure ,.)) -witch
Fi, .< s/itc+es
.= O*I MODEL
he H-I model is the very heart of networking with every layer performing a specific
task in order to facilitate data communications. In the world of networking the first four
.B0 layers are the focus. hey define the following1
What type and speed of L#N and W#N media to be implemented
Gow data is sent across the media
What type of addressing schemes will be usedK
Gow data will be reliably sent across the network and how flow control will be
accomplished
What type of routing protocol will be implemented
,)
Why a Layered Network +odelK
Reduces comple!ity
-tandardi"es interfaces
Aacilitates modular engineering
;nsures interoperable technology
#ccelerates evolution
-implifies teaching and learning
he H-I model ' seven numbered layers indicate distinct functions. In the ransmission
Control (rotocol6Internet (rotocol .C(6I(0, the distinct functions fit into five named
layers. his separation of networking functions is called A6)-erin,A.
he Hpen -ystem Interconnection .H-I0 reference model describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a network medium to a
software application in another computer. he H-I reference model is a conceptual model
composed of seven layers, each specifying network functions. he model was developed
by the International Hrgani"ation for -tandardi"ation .I-H0 in )38B, and it is now
considered the primary architectural model. he H-I model divides the tasks involved
with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more
manageable task groups. # task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven
H-I layers. ;ach layer is reasonably self'contained so that the tasks assigned to each
layer can be implemented.
Independently, this following list shows the seven layers of the Hpen -ystem
Interconnection .H-I0 reference model1
)0Layer )'(hysical
,0 Layer ,' &ata link
<0 Layer <LNetwork
B0 Layer BLransport
70 Layer 7L-ession
90 Layer 9L(resentation
40 Layer 4L#pplication
,,
#/L;,.) H-I reference model
.=.1 LAYER* OF O*I MODEL
.=.1.1 L)-er 1 - P+-sic)6
he (hysical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, and all physical hardware means of
sending and receiving data itself. It includes cables, cards, and all physical aspects. It
conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. he
physical layer specifications also define characteristics, such as voltage levels, timing of
impulses, physical data rates, ma! transmission distance, and physical connectors.
(hysical layer implementations can be categori"ed as either W#N or L#N specifications.
.=.1. L)-er - D)t) Lin0
he data link layer defines the format of data, and provides its reliable transit across the
physical network link. #t this layer, bits are encoded6decoded into data packets .with
protocol'specific headers, including checksums, source6destination addressmanagement,
flow control, frame synchroni"ation, and handles any errors in the physical layer. It
,<
contains two sub layers ' +#C .+edia #ccess Control0, and LLC .Logical Link
Control0.
.=.1.& L)-er & 1 Net/or0
he Network layer provides network addressing .which differs from the data link layer
+#C address0. It also facilitates switching, routing, error handling, congestion control,
and packet se$uencing. It allows for defining the logical network layout, and virtual
logical paths for transmitting data between network nodes. he Internetwork (rotocol
.I(0 operates at this layer. I( defines network addresses in a way that route selection can
be determined systematically by comparing the source network address with the
destination address, and applying the subnet mask.
.=.1.. L)-er. 1Tr)nsport
his layer maintains $uality of communication. #cts, as the traffic cop making sure flow
is orderly. ;nsures message validity and integrity
.=.1.5 L)-er 5 1 *ession
he -ession layer generally deals with session and connection coordination. It
establishes, manages and terminates communications sessions. -essions consist of service
re$uests and responses that occur between applications in different network devices.
-ession protocol implementations include R(C .Remote (rocedure Call0, MI( .Mone
Information (rotocol0, #pplealk, -C( .-ession Control (rotocol0.
.=.1.7 L)-er 7 - Present)tion
he (resentation layer deals with conversion and coding of data from application to
network format. It ensures the application layer data can be readable by other systems@
application layer. his layer formats and encrypts data, providing compatibility between
systems. It is sometimes called the Jsynta! layerJ
,B
.=.1.: L)-er : - App6ic)tion
he #pplication layer supports and interacts directly with software applications. Its
functions include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability
and synchroni"ing communication. -ome e!amples of application layer implementations
include A( .Aile ransfer (rotocol0, elnet, -+( .-imple +ail ransfer (rotocol0.
he information e!change process occurs between peer H-I layers. ;ach layer in the
source system adds control information to data, and each layer in the destination system
analy"es and removes the control information from that data.
If -ystem # has data from software application to send to -ystem /, the data is passed to
the application layer. he application layer in -ystem a then communicates any control
information re$uired by the application layer in -ystem / by preparing a header to the
data. he resulting information unit .a header and the data0 is passed to the presentation
layer, which prepares its own header containing control information intended for the
presentation layer in -ystem /. he information unit grows in si"e as each layer prepares
its own header .and, in some cases, a trailer0 that contains control information to be used
by its peer layer in -ystem /. #t the physical layer, the entire information unit is placed
onto the network medium.
he physical layer in -ystem / receives the information unit and passes it to the data link
layer. he data link layer in -ystem / then reads the control information contained in the
header prepared by the data link layer in -ystem #. he header is then removed, and the
remainder of the information unit is passed to the network layer. ;ach layer performs the
same actions1 he layer reads the header from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the
remaining information unit to the ne!t highest layer. #fter the application layer performs.
.1> NET"OR# ADDRE** TRAN*LATION
We can communicate with the router accessing the internet with the help of nat. In nat
there is N/R which is called net work border router that is used to translate private
addresses into public addresses. In accessing the internet we have to use public addresses
instead of private addresses. so we have to use N# . N# is of < types1 first is of
,7
dynamic nat,second is overload, and third is dynamic overload. -tatic N# is for
converting one private address to one public address, in dynamic N# ,many private ip
addresses are converted into many public addresses.
.11 REBUIREMENT* FOR NET"OR#IN$
he re$uirement components are divided into two basic categories1 '
). -oftware component.
,. Gardware component.
.1 INTRODUCTION TO TCPCIP%
C( and I( were developed by a &epartment of &efense .&H&0 research pro%ect to
connect a number different networks designed by different vendors into a network of
networks .the JInternetJ0. It was initially successful because it delivered a few basic
services that everyone needs .file transfer, electronic mail, remote logon0 across a
very large number of client and server systems. -everal computers in a small
department can use C(6I( .along with other protocols0 on a single L#N. he I(
component provides routing from the department to the enterprise network, then to
regional networks, and finally to the global Internet. Hn the battlefield a
communications network will sustain damage, so the &H& designed C(6I( to be
robust and automatically recover from any node or phone line failure. his design
allows the construction of very large networks with less central management.
Gowever, because of the automatic recovery, network problems can go undiagnosed
and uncorrected for long periods of time.
#s with all other communications protocol, C(6I( is composed of layers1
IP ' is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. I( forwards each
packet based on a four byte destination address .the I( number0. he Internet
authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organi"ations. he organi"ations
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assign groups of their numbers to departments. I( operates on gateway machines
that move data from department to organi"ation to region and then around the
world.
TCP ' is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to
server. &ata can be lost in the intermediate network. C( adds support to detect
errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and
completely received.
*oc0ets ' is a name given to the package of subroutines that provide access to
C(6I( on most systems.
.1& ADDRE**E*%
;ach technology has its own convention for transmitting messages between two
machines within the same network. Hn a L#N, messages are sent between machines by
supplying the si! byte uni$ue identifier .the J+#CJ address0. In an -N# network, every
machine has Logical >nits with their own network address. &;CN;, #ppletalk, and
Novell I(N all have a scheme for assigning numbers to each local network and to each
workstation attached to the network.
Hn top of these local or vendor specific network addresses, C(6I( assigns a uni$ue
number to every workstation in the world. his JI( numberJ is a four byte value that, by
convention, is e!pressed by converting each byte into a decimal number .2 to ,770 and
separating the bytes with a period. Aor e!ample, the (C Lube and une server is
)<2.)<,.73.,<B.
he organi"ation then connects to the Internet through one of a do"en regional or
speciali"ed network suppliers. he network vendor is given the subscriber network
number and adds it to the routing configuration in its own machines and those of the
other ma%or network suppliers.
here is no mathematical formula that translates the numbers )3,.<7.3) or )<2.)<, into
JOale >niversityJ or JNew Gaven, C.J he machines that manage large regional
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networks or the central Internet routers managed by the National -cience Aoundation can
only locate these networks by looking each network number up in a table. here are
potentially thousands of Class / networks, and millions of Class C networks, but
computer memory costs are low, so the tables are reasonable. Customers that connect to
the Internet, even customers as large as I/+, do not need to maintain any information on
other networks. hey send all e!ternal data to the regional carrier to which they
subscribe, and the regional carrier maintains the tables and does the appropriate routing.
.1. IP ADDRE**IN$
#n I( #ddress is a <,'bit .B'bytes0 numeric address that uni$uely identifies a host system
on an inter'network. he <,'bit I( address is sub'divided into two Ids i.e. Network Id *
Gost Id. he current version of protocol is I(vB is <,'bit long and I(v9 is the ne!t
generation internet protocol which is ),8'bit long.
I( address can be defined by the following rules1
It is <,'bit address which is divided into B'parts of 8'bits each.

<,'bit Long
;ach 8'bit is presented in decimal format called octet number.
In first octet of I( address some values are not valid i.e. 2, ),4, ,,B',77 as they
are reserved for special purposes.
;ach I( address is divided into two parts i.e. i0 Network'Id ii0 Gost'Id.
Network'Id * Gost Id depends upon the -ub'Net +ask

M)s0 Net-I2 Host-I2 C6)ss
,77.2.2.2 8'bit ,B'bit #
,77.,77.2.2 )9'bit )9'bit /
,77.,77.,77.2 ,B'bit 8'bit C
,8
> - 55 > - 55 > - 55 > - 55
-ub'net mask depends upon the first octet value of I('address and accordingly
describes the Network address and the host address 1

able ,., Ist octet value
Ist 1Octet *u4net-3)s0 C6)ss
)'),9 ,77.2.2.2 #
),8')3) ,,7.,77.2.2 /
)3,',,< ,77.,77.,77.2 C
In host portion of the I( address if all the bits are set to 2 then this is called the
network address * this is used in the routing table.
In the host portion of I( address if all the bits are set to ) then this address is
called Network broadcast address.
If all the bits of the subnet mask are set to ) i.e. ,77.,7.,77.,77 then this is called
the D#ll network broadcast address.E
If all the bits of subnet mask are set to 2 then this address is used for Ddefault
routingE.
he address range starting from ,,B',<3 is called Class'& I('address * is used
for Dmulti'cast I('address.E
#ddress range staring from ,B2',77 falls under Class'; * is reserved for
D&efense purposes.E
.1..1. *u4net M)s0
It defines the si"e of the network. Aor entire network the subnet mask is constant i.e. for
one range of addresses the subnet mask does not change. he default subnet masks for
different classes are given below1
,3
# I ,77.2.2.2
/ I ,77.,77.2.2
C I ,77.,77.,77.2
.1... *u4 nettin,
-uper netting is the I( address is split into separate network address and host address
portion according to the subnet mask. Instead breaking down larger networks into several
smaller subnets, you group smaller networks together to make one larger super net. Aor
e!ample )9 class C networks, ranging from ,2).99.<,.2 to ,2).99.B4.2 whole network
can be addressed as ,2).99.<,.2 with a subnet mask of ,77.,77.,B2.2.
It@s not possible to allocate groups of addresses a range of )9 class C network from
,2).99.4).2 to ,2).99.89.2 doesn@t have a single network address the host portion of the
beginning of the address range is not 2.
able1 ,.< -uper Netting
A22ress *u4net 3)s0 Net/or0 )22ress Host )22ress
,2).99.<,.2 ,77.,77.,B2.2 ,2).99.<, 2.2
,2).99.8B.2 ,77.,77.,B2.2 ,2).99.9B <.2
.1..&. Do3)in N)3e *-ste3
he Internet (rotocol address is a <,' bit integer. If we want to send a message it is
necessary to include the destination address, but we prefer to assign machines .host
names0. Aor this reason the &omain Name -ystem .&N-0 is used. hese logical names
allow independence from knowing the physical location of a host. # host may be moved
to a different network, while the users continue to use the same logical name.
he &N- is a distributed database used by C(6I( applications to map between
hostnames and I( addresses and provide e'mail routing information. ;ach site maintains
its own database of information and runs a server program that other systems across the
Internet can $uery. he &N- provides the protocol, which allows clients and servers to
communicate with each other.
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he systems access the &N- through a revolver. he revolver gets the hostname and
returns the I( address or gets an I( address and look up a hostname.
.1... MAC ADDRE**
In computer networking, the +edia #ccess Control .+#C0 address is every bit as
important as an I( address.
.1..5. "+)t is ) MAC A22ressD
he +#C address is a uni$ue value associated with a network adapter. +#C addresses
are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. hey uni$uely identify an
adapter on a L#N.+#C addresses are ),'digit he!adecimal numbers .B8 bits in length0.
/y convention, +#C addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats1
++1++1++1--1 --1 --
++'++'++'--'--'--
he first half of a +#C address contains the I& number of the adapter manufacturer.
hese I&s are regulated by an Internet standards body .see sidebar0. he second half of a
+#C address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In
the e!ample,
221#21C31)B1C81,3
he prefi! 22#2C3 indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.
.1..7. "+- MAC A22ressesD
Recall that C(6I( and other mainstream networking architectures generally adopt the
H-I model. In this model, network functionality is subdivided into layers. +#C
addresses function at the data link layer .layer , in the H-I model0. hey allow
computers to uni$uely identify themselves on a network at this relatively low level.
<)
.1..7.1 MAC @s. IP A22ressin,
Whereas +#C addressing works at the data link layer, I( addressing functions at the
network layer .layer <0. It@s a slight oversimplification, but one can think of I( addressing
as supporting the software implementation and +#C addresses as supporting the
hardware implementation of the network stack. he +#C address generally remains
fi!ed and follows the network device, but the I( address changes as the network device
moves from one network to another.
I( networks maintain a mapping between the I( address of a device and its +#C address.
his mapping is known as the #R( cache or #R( table. #R(, the #ddress Resolution
(rotocol, supports the logic for obtaining this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.
&GC( also usually relies on +#C addresses to manage the uni$ue assignment of I(
addresses to devices.
.15 'A*IC ROUTER COMPONENT* E
CONFI$URATION
.15.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROUTER
# router needs to be configured in order to operate within the network. Hnce it is
configured, a network operator has to check the status of various router components.
here are several methods available for configuring Cisco router. he best method to
configure is from command line interface.
.17 Net/or0 Inter;)ce C)r2 8NIC9
<,
# network interface card .NIC0 is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a
computer so that it can be connected to a network. (ersonal computers and workstations
on a local area network .L#N0 typically contain a network interface card specifically
designed for the L#N transmission technology, such as ;thernet or token ring. Network
interface cards provide a dedicated, full'time connection to a network. +ost home and
portable computers connect to the Internet through as'needed dial'up connection. he
modem provides the connection interface to the Internet service provider.5 &ata Link,
Layer , &evice
<<
.1: *uper nettin,
-uper netting is the I( address is split into separate network address and host address
portion according to the subnet mask. Instead of breaking down larger networks into
several smaller subnets, you group smaller networks together to make one larger super
net.
Aor e!ample )9 class C networks, ranging from ,2).99.<,.2 to ,2).99.B4.2 whole
network can be addressed as ,2).99.<,.2 with a subnet mask of ,77.,77.,B2.2.
It@s not possible to allocate groups of addresses a range of )9 class C network from
,2).99.4).2 to ,2).99.89.2 doesn@t have a single network address the host portion of the
beginning of the address range is not 21
able,.B -uper netting
A22ress *u4net 3)s0 Net/or0 )22ress Host )22ress
,2).99.<,.2 ,77.,77.,B2.2 ,2).99.<, 2.2
,2).99.8B.2 ,77.,77.,B2.2 ,2).99.9B <.2
.1< DOMAIN NAME *Y*TEM% - he Internet (rotocol address is a <,'
bit integer. If we want to send a message it is necessary to include the destination address,
but we prefer to assign machines .host names0. Aor this reason the &omain Name -ystem
.&N-0 is used. hese logical names allow independence from knowing the physical
location of a host. # host may be moved to a different network, while the users continue
to use the same logical name.
he &N- is a distributed database used by C(6I( applications to map between
hostnames and I( addresses and provide e'mail routing information. ;ach site maintains
its own database of information and runs a server program that other systems across the
Internet can $uery. he &N- provides the protocol, which allows clients and servers to
communicate with each other.
he systems access the &N- through a revolver. he revolver gets the hostname and
returns the I( address or gets an I( address and look up a hostname.
<B
.1= HO" TO PREPARE A NET"OR#D
#s this point you will connect to your system with other to prepare6construct a
network .Gere two options are given1'
#ttach your computer with e!isting network.
Construct a new network or connect two systems.
In both choices first install the network card and detect it by system. #fter this, check the
L#N Card is H= or NH, by using the command utility (ing ),4.2.2.). It is a loop back
utility. If it e!ecutes successfully1 it means L#N card is Hk. Now at that point take a >(
8'conductor wire and connect two R?'B7 connectors at both ends using straight cabling
standards.
If you want to attach your system with e!isting network then one connector is attached
with the hub of e!isting network and the other end with the network card of your system
and provide the network service for communication or using resources over a network.
Aor connecting two systems or construct a new network then cross cabling is used to
connect two network cards of two systems with using other devices. If two or more
system is connected using hub then straight cabling is used. #fter connecting the system
using L#N cable, the services are provided by installing various types of protocol and
other components of network.
.1=.1 Pro@i2in, ser@ice ;or Net/or0
#fter connecting the computer with hardware device you must provide the service for
network by installing the various types of protocol. he various steps for installing the
network C(6I( (rotocol, client service for network and client service for +icrosoft
network as given below1'
Arom desktop, right click on the network place icon and select properties.
<7
Right click on local are connection and choose properties in the network place
properties dialog bo!.
In L#N properties dialog bo! click on install button.
-elect network component type like protocol, client, and service etc. one y one to
add into the system to make your system able for any networking.
.1=. Pro@i2in, Net/or0 *ecurit-
he name administrator is give to the account with full control over the computer. Oou
can increase the computer security by renaming the administrator account and then
creating an account named administrator without any permission.
When you create new user a security identifies or -I& is automatically created on the
computer user account. he user is a property of the -I&.
CHAPTER-&
RE*ULT
Cisco is the king of routing, switching, and security, the +icrosoft of the internetworking
world. Cisco, not unlike +icrosoft and other vendors that provides certification, has
created a certification process to give administrators a set of skills and to e$uip
prospective employers with a way to measure those skills or match certain criteria.
<9
he Networking program was created to provide a solid introduction not only to the
Cisco Internetwork operating -ystem .IH-0, and Cisco hardware, but also to the
internetworking in general, making it helpful to you in areas that are not e!clusively
Cisco5s. #t this point in the certification process, it5s not unrealistic that network
managers'even those without Cisco e$uipment're$uire Cisco certification for their %ob
applicants.
/ecoming a Networking can be the initial step of a successful %ourney towards a new,
highly rewarding and sustainable career.

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CHAPTER-.
CONCLU*ION
In this we study about the basic networking, the types of networking and in which
particular area we have to use which particular type of networking process for e!ample in
small geographical area we have to use L#N. We also study about the different type of
topologies and the use of I( addressing and the use of &omain Name -ystem in the
network
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REFERENCE*
Website1
www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
en.wikipedia.org6wiki6Computer network
compnetworking.about.com
www.nasa.gov6multimedia6<dPresources6scan.html
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