Fieldsnotbasedontheelectromagneticspectrum

Inadditiontoelectromagneticradiation,afewothereventsoriginatingfromgreatdistancesmaybe
observedfromtheEarth.
Inneutrinoastronomy,astronomersuseheavilyshieldedundergroundfacilitiessuchasSAGE,
GALLEX,andKamiokaII/IIIforthedetectionofneutrinos.Thevastmajorityoftheneutrinos
streamingthroughtheearthoriginatefromtheSun,but24neutrinoswerealsodetectedfrom
supernova1987A.
[39]
Cosmicrays,whichconsistofveryhighenergyparticlesthatcandecayorbe
absorbedwhentheyentertheEarth'satmosphere,resultinacascadeofparticleswhichcanbe
detectedbycurrentobservatories.
[47]
Additionally,somefutureneutrinodetectorsmayalsobe
sensitivetotheparticlesproducedwhencosmicrayshittheEarth'satmosphere.
[39]
Gravitationalwaveastronomyisanemergingnewfieldofastronomywhichaimstousegravitational
wavedetectorstocollectobservationaldataaboutcompactobjects.Afewobservatorieshavebeen
constructed,suchastheLaserInterferometerGravitationalObservatoryLIGO,butgravitationalwaves
areextremelydifficulttodetect.
[48]
Combiningobservationsmadeusingelectromagneticradiation,neutrinosorgravitationalwaveswith
thosemadeusingadifferentmeans,whichshallgivecomplementaryinformation,isknownasmulti
messengerastronomy.
[49]
Astrometryandcelestialmechanics
Oneoftheoldestfieldsinastronomy,andinallofscience,isthemeasurementofthepositionsof
celestialobjects.Historically,accurateknowledgeofthepositionsoftheSun,Moon,planetsandstars
hasbeenessentialincelestialnavigation(theuseofcelestialobjectstoguidenavigation)andinthe
makingofcalendars.
Carefulmeasurementofthepositionsoftheplanetshasledtoasolidunderstandingofgravitational
perturbations,andanabilitytodeterminepastandfuturepositionsoftheplanetswithgreataccuracy,
afieldknownascelestialmechanics.MorerecentlythetrackingofnearEarthobjectswillallowfor
predictionsofcloseencounters,andpotentialcollisions,withtheEarth.
[50]
Themeasurementofstellarparallaxofnearbystarsprovidesafundamentalbaselineinthecosmic
distanceladderthatisusedtomeasurethescaleoftheuniverse.Parallaxmeasurementsofnearby
starsprovideanabsolutebaselineforthepropertiesofmoredistantstars,astheirpropertiescanbe
compared.Measurementsofradialvelocityandpropermotionplotthemovementofthesesystems
throughtheMilkyWaygalaxy.Astrometricresultsarethebasisusedtocalculatethedistributionof
darkmatterinthegalaxy.
[51]
Duringthe1990s,themeasurementofthestellarwobbleofnearbystarswasusedtodetectlarge
extrasolarplanetsorbitingnearbystars.
[52]
Theoreticalastronomersuseseveraltoolsincludinganalyticalmodels(forexample,polytropesto
approximatethebehaviorsofastar)andcomputationalnumericalsimulations.Eachhassome
advantages.Analyticalmodelsofaprocessaregenerallybetterforgivinginsightintotheheartofwhat
isgoingon.Numericalmodelsrevealtheexistenceofphenomenaandeffectsotherwiseunobserved.
[53][54]
Theoristsinastronomyendeavortocreatetheoreticalmodelsandfromtheresultspredict
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