1

Abstract
The subject of this report is the experimental investigation of the workings of the Francis turbine. This
involves the use of a demonstration Francis turbine in order to obtain the performance curves. A brief
explanation of the working principle of a reaction turbine is included for better analysis of the data. The
efficiency of the Francis turbine is calculated and compared against others who have carried out similar
experiments.
The results from the experiment largely agree with predictions and literature results. The optimum
efficiency was found to be 45.1% with a 4.13W of output shaft power at 865rpm of rotation speed.
Efficiencies with higher or lower speeds produced a lower efficiency as to be expected.
A significant difference is efficiency was found to be present. This is due to several factors. The fixed
position of the guide vanes and friction loses in the pipes contributed to the discrepancies in the data
produced. Some of the minor contributions to error involved the difficulty of reading the values of the
spring balance the optical tachometer, and the air bubble formed due to the way the apparatus was
setup.

2


Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Aim .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
3.0 Theory ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
4.0 Experimental Investigation ..................................................................................................................... 6
4.1 Experimental apparatus ...................................................................................................................... 6
4.2 Experimental procedure ..................................................................................................................... 8
5.0 Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
5.1 Experimental data ............................................................................................................................... 9
5.2 Plots of experimental data ................................................................................................................ 10
6.0 Discussion of Results ............................................................................................................................. 12
7.0 Comments on Errors ............................................................................................................................. 14
8.0 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 16


3
1.0 Aim
The aim of this experiment is to obtain the performance curves of a Francis Turbine setup across a range
of rotational speeds. Another aim would be to understand the working principles of a Francis Turbine.
2.0 Introduction
The Francis turbine was invented by a British-American engineer, James B. Francis. It is an inward flow
reaction turbine which has a purely radial flow runner. It operates under medium heads and requires
medium flow rate. The Francis Turbine is one of the most common types of turbine used in various
forms of applications.
The Francis turbine converts the pressure energy of the water into kinetic energy in the control device
and in the impeller. The pressure of the working fluid within the housing changes as it goes through the
turbine, entering with high pressure and exiting with low pressure. The turbine power is controlled by
adjusting the vanes in the control device. (Lab Manual | FRANCIS TURBINE | Engineering Tutorials, 2009)

Figure 1 - Schematic of the Francis Turbine: On the left: guide vane position 0, no water flow, and turbine power at 0; on the
right: guide vane position 20, maximum water flow and full turbine power (G.U.N.T., 2014)
Operating principle of the Francis turbine:
1. Spiral housing
2. Guide vane
4
3. Impeller with vanes
4. Flow

The speed of the water is control by adjusting the guide vanes. A transparent window is used to view the
flow inside the housing (See Figure 3). The turbine torque can is measured by the difference in the
readings on the spring balance. A tachometer is used to measure the rotational speed in rounds per
minute. (G.U.N.T., 2014)

3.0 Theory
First the net force is calculated using;
Net Force, F = F
1
F
2
Equation 1
F
1
and F
2
are the forces from the spring balances on the braking device. The net force is then used to
calculate the moment of the shaft using the formula;
Moment, M =

Equation 2
where D is the diameter of the belt pulley.
Using the moment calculated, the turbine shaft power is calculated using the following formula;
Turbine Shaft Power, P
out
=

Equation 3
where N is the rotational speed in RPM.
Using the pressure, P, the density of water, , and the constant of gravity, g, the head is calculated with
the formula;
Head, H =

Equation 4
Using this head value, the hydraulic power is calculated using the formula;
Hydraulic Power, P
hyd
=

Equation 5
where is the volumetric flow rate.
5
Using the value of the turbine shaft power and the hydraulic power we can calculate the efficiency
using;
Efficiency, =

Equation 6

6
4.0 Experimental Investigation
4.1 Experimental apparatus

1. Demonstration Francis turbine with basic hydraulics bench.
2. Optical tachometer

Figure 2 Demonstration Francis turbine with basic hydraulic bench (Front view)
7

Figure 3 - Demonstration Francis turbine with basic hydraulic bench (Back view)
8

Figure 4 - Optical Tachometer

4.2 Experimental procedure
1. The braking device of the Francis is fully released using the hand wheel. The spring balances are now
relaxed and the belt is no longer be pulled against the pulley.

2. The main cock is closed and the pump is switched on. The main cock is then slowly opened to its
maximum.

3. The lever for vane adjustment is released by turning it. The air from the draft tube is expelled by
slowly opening and closing the vanes.

4. The vane is set to the maximum speed position.

5. The force F on the braking device is increased in stages with the turbine shaft speed N being gradually
decreased at intervals of approximately 100rpm.
6. Eighteen readings of the speed are taken with optical tachometer by pointing at the reflector that is
fixed to the belt pulley.
7. At each decrement of the speed, the net force F is measured which is the difference between the two
values obtained on the spring balances. (F
1
F
2
) The pressure in bar on the pressure gauge is also
measured at each decrement of the speed.
9
5.0 Results

5.1 Experimental data
No.
Speed
(rpm)
Force, F1
(N)
Force, F2
(N)
F = F1 - F2
Torque, M
(Nm)
Turbine
Shaft Power,
Pout (W)
Pressure, P
(bar)
Head, H (m)
Hydraulic
Power, Phyd
(W)
Efficiency
(%)
1 1977.0 0.350 0.350 0 0 0 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 0.00000
2 1880.5 0.400 0.550 0.150 0.00375 0.73847 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 6.71091
3 1778.5 0.450 0.775 0.325 0.00812 1.51323 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 13.75608
4 1682.0 0.500 0.925 0.425 0.01063 1.87147 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 17.00775
5 1583.0 0.475 1.125 0.650 0.01625 2.69378 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 24.47998
6 1480.5 0.500 1.425 0.925 0.02312 3.58524 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 32.58029
7 1380.5 0.525 1.550 1.025 0.02562 3.70449 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 33.66458
8 1270.0 0.575 1.750 1.175 0.02937 3.90670 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 35.49650
9 1184.5 0.625 1.900 1.275 0.03187 3.95379 0.27579 2.81132E-05 10.48003 37.78585
10 1076.5 0.650 2.100 1.450 0.03625 4.08649 0.27579 2.81132E-05 10.48003 39.08813
11 986.55 0.700 2.350 1.650 0.04125 4.26159 0.26545 2.70589E-05 10.08703 42.68388
12 864.75 0.725 2.550 1.825 0.04562 4.13164 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 45.07182
13 779.0 0.800 2.700 1.900 0.04750 3.87489 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 42.24703
14 674.0 0.825 2.850 2.025 0.05062 3.57317 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 39.04140
15 556.5 0.875 3.000 2.125 0.05312 3.09594 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 33.59499
16 448.3 0.925 3.100 2.175 0.05437 2.55268 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 27.61730
17 356.7 0.950 3.175 2.225 0.05562 2.07750 0.24821 2.53019E-05 9.43203 22.42175
18 286.0 1.000 3.200 2.200 0.05590 1.64724 0.28958 2.95188E-05 11.00403 14.96944

Table 1 Experimental data
10

5.2 Plots of experimental data


Graph 1 - Curve of torque vs. rotational speed


Graph 2 - Curve of turbine shaft power vs. rotational speed


-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)

Rotational Speed (rpm)
Torque (Nm) vs. Rotational Speed (rpm)
Torque vs Rotational Speed -
average
-1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
7.0000
8.0000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
T
u
r
b
i
n
e

S
h
a
f
t

P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Rotational Speed (rpm)
Turbine Shaft Power (W) vs. Rotational
Speed (rpm)
Turbine Shaft Power vs.
Rotational Speed - average
11


Graph 3 - Curve of efficiency vs. rotational speed
-100.0000
-50.0000
0.0000
50.0000
100.0000
150.0000
200.0000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
E
f
f
i
c
i
n
e
c
y

(
%
)

Rotational Speed (rpm)
Efficiency (%) vs. Rotational Speed
(rpm)
Efficiency vs. Rotational Speed -
average
12
6.0 Discussion of Results
The trends obtained for both raw results and calculated results agree well with the predicted outcome
of the experiment. In Graph 1, the graph shows that the torque of the output shaft decreases linearly
with its rotational velocity. This is an expected relationship since according to Newtons Third Law of
equal and opposite reaction, the torque applied by shaft on the belt is equivalent to the resistance
torque applied by the belt onto the shaft. The resistance torque from the belt then decreases the
rotational speed of the output shaft. A similar pattern was also displayed in St. Gallens book (about
designing small hydropower systems) with the title Governor Product Information (Gerhard Fischer,
2014), whose graph in Graph 4 shows how the relative torque of the hydropower system varies with the
relative speed of the output shaft. The consistency of the result between the experiment and those
from past experiments increases the reliability and credibility of the final conclusion.

Graph 4 - Graph of Relative Torque against Relative Speed from Governor Product Information, St. Gallen, 1990

The results for turbine shaft power and efficiency of Francis turbine experiment also appear to agree
well with the theoretical results. In Graph 2 and Graph 3, both turbine shaft power and overall efficiency
displayed a similar pattern where they would increase from zero to a peak value of 4.13W shaft power
output and 45.1% turbine efficiency, with a rotation speed of 864.75rpm. After the peak, both turbine
shaft power and overall efficiency started to fall off with further increase in rotation speed, until they
reaches zero at 1977rpm. Since both turbine shaft power and overall turbine efficiency has only one
peak at the optimal rotational speed, hence the effect of rotation speed on power output and overall
efficiency is best described with a parabolic line of best fit as shown in Graph 2 and Graph 3. The
developer of the Francis turbine used for this experiment, G.U.N.T. published an official characteristic
performance curve for power output of turbine shaft versus operating speed (G.U.N.T., 2014), and the
results were very similar to that obtained from the experiment, as shown in Graph 5. Similarly, the
trends demonstrated by these two curves were consistent with the predictions as well. When the
torque of the output shaft approaches zero, it is similar to a situation where a generator is disconnected
from a turbine, and the rotation speed of the turbine increases to its maximum value. This specific speed
where the output torque is zero is known as the Runaway Speed. The experimental runaway speed,
however, is usually lesser than its predicted value. There are two ways to explain this situation. The first
13
reason is that at high rotation speed, the frictional energy loss at the shaft is more dominant compared
to the kinetic energy loss of the water flowing in the turbines. Besides that, when the turbine runner is
rotating at high speed, the relative speed between the runner and water is close to zero. When the
relative speed is very low, the pressure difference between the two sides of the blades would be very
insignificant, which would in turn hinder the transfer of energy from the flowing water to the turbine.
These two factors adds up to cause the drop in overall efficiency and turbine shaft power on the right
side of the graphs shown in Graph 2 and Graph 3. On the other hand, at very high output shaft torque,
the runner of the turbine can only rotate at a very much lower speed. This caused a disruption of water
flow at the runner since there was a huge difference between the speed of water and the runner. This
flow disruption in turn affected the efficiency of energy transfer from the flowing water to the rotating
turbine, causing the output shaft power and efficiency of the entire Francis turbine to decrease on the
left side of the graphs shown in Graph 2 and Graph 3.



Graph 5 - Characteristic performance curve for power output of turbine shaft versus operating speed of G.U.N.T. HM 150.20

Several comparisons were made with industrial-grade Francis turbines by comparing the overall turbine
efficiency of their Francis turbines compared to those derived from the experiment. It is found that the
maximum efficiency obtained from the experiment was very much lower than that of industrial-grade
Francis turbines. Turbogen Engineering, a company in Switzerland that designs and supplies turbines
was able to produce a result of more than 90% overall efficiency in its Francis turbines (Sagl, 2014), as
compared to the maximum efficiency of 45.1% from the experiment.
One of the possible reasons for the significant difference in efficiency is due to the fixed angle position
of the guide vanes. The position of the guide vanes was set as a fixed variable, with its angle set to the
maximum speed position throughout the experiment. Although the maximum speed position might
seem to be the most efficient angle of attack, however experiments comparing different angle of attacks
should be carried out to investigate the most suitable angle position for the guide vanes to produce a
result of highest efficiency.
Besides that, a significant amount of right-angled pipe joints were found throughout the Francis turbine
device setup used for the experiment. Frictional loses from these sharp pipe bending would definitely
14
contribute to the low efficiency of the experimental turbine as well, therefore a gentle bend would be
much more preferred compared to those used in the setup (Dietzch, 2014).
Apart from the above two reasons, lack of maintenance of the Francis turbine setup used in the
experiment would contribute to the lack in turbine efficiency as well. The lubrication on the rotating
parts of the setup such as the turbines and the rotating shaft might have already worn off after
repetitive usage throughout the years. Besides that, due to frequent exposure to air and moisture, there
might be corrosion occurring within the turbine. Corrosion on certain important parts such as the
rotating shaft or guide vanes would disrupt the motion of the components, hence reducing the
efficiency of the turbine. Guide vanes that have served for a long functional period would also tend to
be damaged due to cavitation (Pardeep Kumar, 2014).
7.0 Comments on Errors
Error analysis is carried out using Equation 7 whereby both the systematic and random errors are taken
into account. The elemental systematic error, B is found by analysing the design-stage uncertainty as
expressed in Equation 8. Since the number of data collected is N=2, thus the degree of freedom, v is v =
N-1 = 1. From this, the t estimator can be found as shown in Equation 9. The elemental random error, P
is expressed as in Equation 10 using standard deviation of the means. Following that, the uncertainty of
the data with 95% probability can be expressed as in Equation 7.

Equation 7

Equation 8

Equation 9

Equation 10

Equation 11
Most errors that occurred during the experiment concern the apparatus, which caused inaccuracy as
well as imprecision in the results. Firstly, the mass balance of the pulley attached to the rotating shaft
was not properly tuned, resulting in vibration of the shaft while the turbine is functioning. The vibration
of the pulley if then transferred to the belt, causing a fluctuating reading on the spring balance. The
vibration and fluctuation effect increases with increasing resistance torque applied by the belt on the
pulley. Readings were made by noticing the maximum and minimum values caused by the fluctuations,
and then the average of the two values was calculated as the supposed reading for the particular
repetition. However, these errors were most likely not sufficient to disagree the trend of the graphs
discussed in Graph 1, Graph 2, and Graph 3, but they could have shifted the position of the peak and
hence the maximum power and efficiency of the output. The errors contributed by this factor would not
cause the shapes of the graphs to change drastically, but it might cause some random errors where the
readings are scattered around the true reading by a relatively small margin.
Besides that, there were also difficulties in measuring the rotation speed of the shaft. It was difficult to
ensure that the optical tachometer was steadily held by the human hand. Human errors were inevitable
15
to vary the height and angle at which the tachometer was held. The variation of the tachometer sensor
position and angle with reference to the sticker might lead to inaccurate and imprecise readings of the
shaft rotation speed. Adding on to that, optical tachometer functions by detecting the reflection of the
light emitted by the LED within it. The area projected by the light source is relatively large, causing the
reflection of the light source to scatter across a larger area with a lower intensity. The scattering effect
along with the decreased intensity would most likely cause the tachometer reading to further deviate
from its true reading. Similar to the first error, the tachometer reading error would not significantly
change the trend of the results as well, however it still could shift the position of the peaks. The errors
would only cause the readings obtained to deviate from the true reading by a relatively small margin.
Another error of which is a concern to the results is the swirling flow observed in the turbine outlet pipe.
The flow is decelerating as it exits the runner in the turbine draft tube, resulting in a conversion of
excess kinetic energy to static pressure (Sebastian Muntean, 2007). The decelerated swirling flow often
results in vortex breakdown, which contributes to error in data acquisition. Although precautionary
measures were taken to eliminate the air bubbles by opening and closing the vanes each time before
the resistance torque was changed, air bubbles are still continuously forming even when measurements
were being made. This situation might have led to minor errors in the results collected. It is speculated
that the air bubbles might have been due to water from the turbine outlet splashing vertically
downwards onto the tank before being channeled to the pump. Air bubbles might have trapped during
the vigorous falling process and therefore leading to this particular error.
Even though the errors mentioned above did not significantly affect the expected trend, improvements
on these errors are still required for a more reliable result. Firstly, maintenance should be done on the
Francis turbine device, especially at the region where the shaft is located. The pulley should be checked
for damage to ensure that it does not cause any vibration due to unbalanced mass around the rotating
shaft. Regular checkup should also be made on highly stress concentrated components such as the
bearing connecting the turbine and the rotating shaft. Components that consistently exposed to stress
and humidity are more likely to have a shorter lifespan, hence usually causing errors in the experiments.
As for the tachometer, an adjustable stand should be used to hold the optical tachometer so that its
position and angle which respect to the reflective sticker remains still. Alternatively, with a higher
budget, a more accurate and sensitive laser tachometer can be used instead of optical tachometer,
where the scattering effect is less and has a much higher light intensity. Lastly, the turbine outlet
platform can be slightly modified so that the water exiting from the turbine would flow down into the
channel leading to the pump, instead of allowing it to undergo free fall into the tank below it.
8.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the objective of this experiment was met, in which the performance curves of the
demonstration Francis turbine over a range of rotational speed was determined and explained. In this
experiment, a water pump was used to channel water into the Francis turbine, which would in turn spin
a shaft connected to a friction belt to provide power output. By adjusting the frictional torque applied
on the rotating shaft, the overall efficiency and the power output of the Francis turbine was able to be
measured at different turbine rotational speed. Based on results obtained, the relationship between the
output torque and shaft rotational speed was best described with a linearly decreasing graph; while the
output power and overall efficiency versus shaft rotational speed was best described with a parabolic
best fit line. The parabolic line showed that the output power and efficiency of Francis turbine will
16
increase with increasing rotating speed, until they arrived at a peak value, then decreases after further
increase in shaft rotational speed. The highest overall efficiency recorded was 45.1% with a 4.13W
output shaft power at 865rpm rotation speed. This relationship is expected with reference to the
balancing of inefficiency in energy transfer within the Francis turbine caused by an overly high and
overly low turbine rotation speed as discussed in the context. Conclusively, the overall efficiency will
increase as the shaft rotation speed approaches the optimum balanced speed.
Although this result was also verified by comparison with other similar experiments, nevertheless there
were various errors encountered regarding the measuring methods and devices that affected the
accuracy of the raw data. The lack in accuracy of the data did not affect the accuracy of the trend, but
would definitely significantly affect the precision of the readings from the true results. As a
consequence, future work needs to be focused on reducing the uncertainties in measuring devices and
method for more reliable readings. With more accurate readings, optimal shaft rotation speed can be
found accurately by interpolating the results to determine the peak shaft power output and overall
turbine efficiency.
Conclusively, this experiment was successful in producing a reliable relationship or trend involving the
overall efficiency and shaft rotational speed that agrees with reasonable explanations. Hence, the
relationship between shaft torque output, output power, and overall efficiency, against shaft rotational
speed can be applied and related to larger scaled Francis turbines for further designs and developments.
Bibliography
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26, 2014 from G.U.N.T. - Equipment for engineering education:
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Lab Manual | FRANCIS TURBINE | Engineering Tutorials. (2009, October 2009). Retrieved August 26,
2014 from Engineering Tutorials for all Branches of Engineering | Engineering Tutorials:
http://engineering.myindialist.com/2009/lab-manual-francis-turbine/#.U_x9SKNdy3F
Gerhard Fischer, A. A.-M. (2014, September 2). Governor Product Information: Annex: Technical Notes
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17
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18