Computer Fundamentals

What is Computer?
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the
user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called
program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use.
It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical)
calculations.
Characteristics of Computters
1) Automatic: iven a !ob" computer can work on it automaticall#
without human interventions
$) %peed: Computer can perform data processing !obs ver# fast" usuall#
measured in microseconds (1&
-'
)" nanoseconds (1&
-(
)" and picoseconds
(1&
-1$
)
)) Accurac#: Accurac# of a computer is consistentl# high and the degree
of its accurac# depends upon its design. Computer errors caused due to
incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to as
arbage-In-arbage-*ut (I*)
+) ,iligence: Computer is free from monoton#" tiredness" and lack of
concentration. It can continuousl# work for hours without creating an#
error and without grumbling
-) .ersatilit#: Computer is capable of performing almost an# task" if the
task can be reduced to a finite series of logical steps
') /ower of 0emembering: Computer can store and recall an# amount
of information because of its secondar# storage capabilit#. It forgets or
looses certain information onl# when it is asked to do so
1) 2o I.3.: A computer does onl# what it is programmed to do. It cannot
take its own decision in this regard
4) 2o 5eelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. 6heir !udgment is
based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are
written b# us (human beings)
A computer has four functions:
a. accepts data Input
b. processes data Processing
c. produces output Output
d. stores results Storage
Input (,ata):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is
the collection of letters" numbers" images etc.
/rocess:
/rocess is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totall# internal
process of the computer s#stem.
*utput:
*utput is the processed data given b# computer after data processing. *utput is
also called as 0esult. 7e can save these results in the storage devices for the
future use.
Computer System
All of the components of a computer s#stem can be summari8ed with the simple
e9uations.
C*:/;6<0 %=%6<: > ?A0,7A0< @ %*567A0<@ ;%<0
A ?ardware > Internal ,evices @ /eripheral ,evices
All ph#sical parts of the computer (or ever#thing that we can touch) are known
as ?ardware.
A %oftware > /rograms
%oftware gives BintelligenceB to the computer.
A ;%<0 > /erson" who operates computer.
Generation of computer:
In 14$$" Charles Cabbage built the D,ifference <ngineE. 6his could
do onl# one kind of calculations.
In 14))" Charles Cabbage designed and worked on Anal#tical <ngine.
It was a general purpose computer designed to solve almost an# t#pe of
problem. It contained most of the elements we find in modern digital computer
s#stems. ?ence" Charles Babbage is considered as 5ather of modern computer.
First Generation !"#$%&'(:
6he first generation computers used vaccum tubes F machine language was
used for giving the instructions.
6hese computer were large in si8e F their programming was difficult task.
6he electricit# consumption was ver# high.
%ome computers of this generation are <2IAC" <,.AC" <,%AC F
;2I.AC-1.
Second Generation!"&'%')(:
In $
nd
generation computers" vaccum tubes were replaced b# transistors.
6he# re9uired onl# 1G1& of power re9uired b# tubes.
6his generation computers generated less heat F were reliable. 6he first
operating s#stem developed in this generation.
*he *hird Generation !"'#%+!(:
6he )
rd
generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuit
known as chip. 5rom %mall scale integrated circuits which had 1& transistors
per chip" technolog# developed to :%I circuits with 1&& transistors per chip.
6hese computers were smaller" faster F more reliable. ?igh level
languages invented in this generation.
*he fourth Generation!"+,% present(:
H%I F .H%I were used in this generation. As a result microprocessors
came into eIistence. 6he computers using this technolog# known to be :icro
Computers.
?igh capacit# hard disk were invented. 6here is great development in
data communication.
*he Fifth Generation Present - Beyond(:
5ifth generation computing devices" based on artificial intelligence" are
still in development" though there are some applications" such as voice
recognition" that are being used toda#.
6he use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a realit#.
3uantum computation and molecular and nanotechnolog# will radicall#
change the face of computers in #ears to come.
./C0I*1C*2/1 OF CO3P2*1/
I2/;6 ,<.IC<%
Input devices accept data and instructions from the user.
5ollowing are the eIamples of various input devices" which are connected to the
computer for this purpose.
1. Je#board
$. :ouse
). Hight /en
+. *pticalGmagnetic %canner
-. 6ouch %creen
'. :icrophone for voice as input
1. 6rack Call
!4 5eyboard
A ke#board is the most common input device. %everal kinds of ke#boards
are available" but the# resemble each other with minor variations.
enerall# standard ke#board has 1&+ ke#s.
Sr4
6o4
5eys 7escription
1
6#ping Je#s
6hese ke#s include the letter ke#s (A-K) and digits
ke#s (&-() which generall# give same la#out as that
of t#pewriters.
2
2umeric Je#pad
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement.
enerall#" it consists of a set of 11 ke#s that are laid
out in the same configuration used b# most adding
machine and calculators.
) 5unction Je#s
6he twelve functions ke#s are present on the
ke#board. 6hese are arranged in a row along the top
of the ke#board. <ach function ke# has uni9ue
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
+ Control ke#s
6hese ke#s provide cursor and screen control. It
includes four directional arrow ke#. Control ke#s
also include ?ome" <nd" Insert" ,elete" /age ;p"
/age ,own" Control(Ctrl)" Alternate(Alt)"
<scape(<sc).
- %pecial /urpose Je#s
Je#board also contains some special purpose ke#s
such as <nter" %hift" Caps Hock" 2um Hock" %pace
bar" 6ab" and /rint %creen.
Control 8eys
Heft Arrow" 0ight Arrow" ;p Arrow" or ,own Arrow
:ove the cursor or selection one space or line in the direction of the arrow" or
scroll a webpage in the direction of the arrow
?ome
:ove the cursor to the beginning of a line or move to the top of a webpage
<nd
:ove the cursor to the end of a line or move to the bottom of a webpage
/age ;p
:ove the cursor or page up one screen
/age ,own
:ove the cursor or page down one screen
,elete
,elete the character after the cursor" or the selected teItL in 7indows" delete the
selected item and move it to the 0ec#cle Cin
Insert
6urn Insert mode off or on. 7hen Insert mode is on" teIt that #ou t#pe is
inserted at the cursor. 7hen Insert mode is off" teIt that #ou t#pe replaces
eIisting characters.
Special Purpose 5eys
%hift
/ress %hift in combination with a letter to t#pe an uppercase letter. /ress %hift in
combination with another ke# to t#pe the s#mbol shown on the upper part of
that ke#.
Caps Hock
/ress Caps Hock once to t#pe all letters as uppercase. /ress Caps Hock again to
turn this function off. =our ke#board might have a light indicating whether Caps
Hock is on.
6ab
/ress 6ab to move the cursor several spaces forward. =ou can also press 6ab to
move to the neIt teIt boI on a form.
<nter
/ress <nter to move the cursor to the beginning of the neIt line. In a dialog boI"
press <nter to select the highlighted button.
%pacebar
/ress the %pacebar to move the cursor one space forward.
Cackspace
/ress Cackspace to delete the character before the cursor" or the selected teIt.
PrtScn or Print Screen(
pressing /rt%cn captures an image of #our entire screen (a Bscreen shotB) and
copies it to the Clipboard in #our computerMs memor#. 5rom there #ou can paste
it (Ctrl@.) into :icrosoft /aint or another program and" if #ou want" print it
from that program.
Scr98 or Scroll 9oc8(
pressing these ke#s causes the document to scroll without changing the position
of the cursor or selection.
1sc
Cancel the current task
Application ke#
*pen a menu of commands related to a selection in a program. <9uivalent to
right-clicking the selection.
7indows logo ke#
*pen the %tart menu
Pause:Brea8
6his ke# is rarel# used. In some older programs" pressing this ke# pauses the
program or" in combination with Ctrl" stops it from running.
,4 3ouse
A mouse is an electro-mechanical" hand-held device. It is used as a
pointer.
It can perform functions like selecting menu commands" moving icons"
resi8ing windows" starting programs" and choosing options.
6he most common mouse uses an internal" magneticall# coated ball" to
detect the movement of the mouse across a flat surface" usuall# a desktop. 2ow
a da#s *ptical or laser mouse is used to detect the movement.
enerall#" it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is
present at the mid.
:ouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen" but it
cannot be used to enter teIt into the computer.
All windows based applications toda# are designed to work with a
mouse. A mouse is used to replace hard -to-remember ke# combinations with
easier B/oint and ClickB actions. ?owever" it cannot substitute all ke#board
operations. It can be alternative for commands based operations.
9ight pen
An input device that utili8es a light-sensitive detector to select ob!ects on
a displa# screen.
A light pen is similar to a mouse" eIcept that with a light pen #ou can
move the pointer and select ob!ects on the displa# screen b# directl# pointing to
the ob!ects with the pen.
Optical Scanner
6hese devices are used for automatic data collection.
6he devices of this categor# completel# eliminate manual input of data.
5or eIample" the bar-code reader is actuall# !ust a special t#pe of image scanner.
An image scanner translates printed images into an electronic format that
can be stored in a computerEs memor#" and with the right kind of software" one
can alter a stored image.
Another eIample of scanner is optical character recognition (*C0)
device" used b# banks to convert the scanned image of a t#ped or printed page
into teIt that can be edited on the computer.
*ouch Screen
6ouch panel displa#s and pads are now being offered as alternatives to
ke#board.
?ere the input can be given through the computer screen" that accepts the
input through monitorL users touch electronic buttons displa#ed on the screen or
the# ma# use light pen.
3icrophone
:icrophone is an input device" which takes voice as input. 6he voice
communication is more error-prone than information through ke#board. 6here
are two t#pes of microphones available
1. ,esktop :icrophone
$. ?and held :icrophone
*rac8 Ball
6rackball" a pointing device" is a mouse l#ing on its back
6o move the pointer" #ou rotate the ball with #our thumb" #our fingers" or
the palm of #our hand. 6here are usuall# one to three buttons neIt to the ball"
which #ou use !ust like mouse buttons.
6he advantage of trackballs over mouse is that the trackball is stationar#
so it does not re9uire much space to use it.
In addition" #ou can place a trackball on an# t#pe of surface" including
#our lap. 5or both these reasons" trackballs are popular pointing devices for
portable computers.
O2*P2* 71;IC1S
*utput devices return processed data that is information" back to the user. %ome
of the commonl# used output devices are:
1. :onitor (.isual ,ispla# ;nit)
$. /rinters
). /lotter
+. %peakers
!4 3onitor
*ut of all the output devices" monitor is the most important output
device because people interact with this device most intensivel# than others.
Computer information is displa#ed" visuall# with a video adapter card
and monitor.
Information processed within the C/;" that needs to be visuall#
displa#ed" is sent to video adapter. 6he video adapter converts information from
the format used" in the same manner as a television displa#s information sent to
it b# a cable service
6wo basic t#pes of monitors are used with microcomputers" which are as
follows:
1. C06
$. HC,
Cathode 0a# 6ube (C06):
C06 or Cathode 0a# 6ube :onitor is the t#pical monitor that #ou see on
a desktop computer.
It looks a lot like a television screen" and works the same wa#. 6his t#pe
uses a large vacuum tube" called cathode ra# tube (C06).

The basic CRT consists of four major components.

Electron Gun
Focussing & Accelerating Anodes
Horizontal & ertical !eflection "lates
E#acuated Glass En#elope
1. Electron Gun
$t is used for producing a strain of electrons
2. Focussing & Accelerating Anodes
These are used for producing a narro% and sharpl& focus beam of electrons.
3. Horizontal and Vertical Deflection Plates
These are used for controlling the path of the beam.
4. Evacuated Glass Enveloe
7ith a phosphorecent screen which produces bright spot when struct b# a high
velocit# electron beam.
'or(ing of CRT
?eater element is energi8ed b# alternating current to obtain high emission
of electron from cathode.
Control grid is biased negative with respect to cathode it controls the
densit# of electron beam to focus the electron beam on the screen
focusing anode is used.
6he focusing anode operate at a potential of twelve hundred (1$&& .) and
accelerating anode at $&&& . to accelerate the electron beam.
6wo pairs of deflection plates provided in the C06 these deflection plates
are mounted at right angle to each other to provide electron beam
deflection along vertical and hori8ontal aIis of the screen.
6he screen consists of a glass which is coated b# some florescent material
lie 8inc silicate. 7hich is semi transparent phosphor substance.
7hen high velocit# electron beam structs the phosphorescent screen the
light emits from it. 6he propert# of phosphor to emit light when its atoms
are eIcited.
A C06 monitor contains millions of tin# red" green" and blue phosphor
dots that glow when struck b# an electron beam that travels across the
screen to create a visible image.
Hi9uid Cr#stal ,ispla#s (HC,):
6his t#pe of monitors are also known as flat panel monitor. :ost of these
emplo# li9uid cr#stal displa#s (HC,s) to render images. 6hese da#s HC,
monitor are ver# popular.
7hen people talk about the capabilities of various monitors" one critical
statistic is the resolution of the monitor. :ost monitors have a resolution of at
least 4&& I '&& piIels.
?igh-end monitors can have resolutions of 1&$+ I 1'4 piIels or even
1$4& I 1&$+ piIels. 6hus monitors are available either in low resolution or in
high resolution.
,otsG/iIels: 6he smallest changeable point on the screen. A dot can have an#
colour from the palette.
0esolution 0efers to two things: the clarit# and the number of dots appearing
on the screen.
A resolution is usuall# described with two numbers: number of dots
across the displa# (I-aIis) and the number of dots up and down (#-aIis).
5or eIample" '+&I+4& is '+& possible dots left and rightL and +4&
possible dots up and down.
Printer
After a document is created on the computer" it can be sent to a printer for a
hard cop# (printout). %ome printers offer special features such as colored and
large page formats. %ome of the most commonl# used printers are:
1. Haser /rinter
$. Ink Net /rinter
). ,ot :atriI /rinter
+. Hine /rinter
Haser /rinter: A laser printer produces high 9ualit# print that one normall#
finds in publishing. It is eItremel# fast and 9uiet.
:oreover" the operation of a laser printer is eas# with automatic paper
loading and no smudging or messing up of ink ribbons.
6he fastest laser printer can print up to $&& pages per minute in
monochrome (black and white) and up to 1&& pages per minute in colour.
Ink-Net /rinter: An ink-!et printer creates an image directl# on paper b#
spra#ing ink through as man# as '+ tin# no88les.
Although the image it produces is not generall# 9uite as sharp as the
output of a laser printer" the 9ualit# of ink-!et images is still high.
In general" ink-!et printer offers an eIcellent middle ground between dot
matriI and laser printer. Hike laser printer" an ink-!et printer is 9uiet and
convenient" but not particularl# fast.
6#picall#" an ink-!et printer is more eIpensive than a dot-matriI printer"
but costs onl# half as much as a laser printer.
,ot :atriI /rinter: It is a ver# versatile and ineIpensive output device.
In dot matriI printer the print head ph#sicall# BhitsB the paper through the
ribbon and produces teIt (or images) b# combinations of dotsL hence the name
dot matriI printer.
Its speed is measured in characters per second (C/%). Although it is less
eIpensive" it is louder" slower and produces lower print 9ualit#.
Hine /rinter: A line printer is generall# used with large computer s#stems to
produce teIt based data processing reports.
Hine printers are high-speed printers with speeds ranging an#where from
1&& to about )4&& lines per minute.
In the past" print 9ualit# on line printers was not high. ,evelopments in
technolog# are improving the print 9ualit# on line printers. 6hese are in the cost
range of lacs of 0upees.
/lotter
A plotter is a special kind of output device that" like a printer" produces
images on paper" but does so in a different wa#.
/lotters are designed to produce large drawings or images" such as
construction plans for buildings or blueprints for mechanical ob!ects.
A plotter can be connected to the port normall# used b# a printer. An
arra# of different colored pens in a clip rack and a robotic arm is part of plotter.
6he instructions that a plotter receives from a computer consist of a
color" and beginning and ending coordinates for a line.
7ith that information" the plotter picks up the appropriate pen through its
arm" positions it at the beginning coordinates drops the pen down to the surface
of the paper and draws to the ending coordinates. /lotters draw curves b#
creating a se9uence of ver# short straight lines.
/lotters usuall# come in two designs:
1. 5lat Ced: /lotters of small si8e to be kept on table with restriction of paper
si8e.
$. ,rum: 6hese plotters are of big si8e using rolls of paper of unlimited length.
Spea8er
%peakers are another t#pe of output device" which allow #ou to listen to voice
like music" and conversation with people.
C16*/.9 P/OC1SSI6G 26I* CP2(
6he main component to make a computer operate is the computer chip or
microprocessor. 6his is referred to as the Central /rocessing ;nit (C/;) and is
housed in the computer case. 6ogether" the# are also called the C/;.
It performs arithmetic and logic operations. 6he C/; (Central /rocessing
;nit) is the device that interprets and eIecutes instructions.
C/; consists of two parts
(i) Arithmetic and Hogic ;nit (AH;) and
(ii) Control ;nit
Arithmetic and Hogic ;nit (AH;) : It is the part of the C/; that does all the
arithmetic and logical operations like addition" subtraction" multiplication"
division operations such as O P = etc.
Control unit : It coordinates all the operations of the computer. It controls the
input and output devices" the AH; and the memor#. It also ensures that
instructions in the software are carried out.
3emory:
It facilitates the remembrance power to computer s#stem.
It refers to the ph#sical devices used to store programs (se9uences of
instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporar# or
permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.
6he term primar# memor# is used for the information in ph#sical s#stems
which are fast (i.e. 0A:)" as a distinction from secondar# memor#" which are
ph#sical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer
higher memor# capacit#.
/rimar# memor# stored on secondar# memor# is called virtual memor#.
/rimar# :emor# can be categori8ed as .olatile :emor# F 2on-
.olatile :emor#.
;olatile memory /.3(
.olatile memor# is computer memor# that re9uires power to maintain the
stored information. :ost modern semiconductor volatile memor# is either %tatic
0A: or d#namic 0A:.
%0A: retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is eas#
to interface.
,#namic 0A: is more complicated to interface to and control and needs
regular refresh c#cles to prevent its contents being lost.
%0A: is used for cache memories..
6on ;olatile 3emory /O3(
2on-volatile memor# is computer memor# that can retain the stored
information even when not powered.
<Iamples of non-volatile memor# are flash memor# and
0*:G/0*:G</0*:G<</0*: memor# (used for firmware such as boot
programs).

Cache 3emory:
Cache memor# is random access memor# (0A:) that a computer
microprocessor can access more 9uickl# than it can access regular 0A:.
As the microprocessor processes data" it looks first in the cache memor#
and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data)" it does not have
to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memor#.
It is of two t#pes- H1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. H$
is usuall# a separate static 0A: (%0A:) chip.
Secondary 3emory:
All the data and programmes which are not running on the C/; are
stored in the secondar# memor#. 6he# are copied into the 0A: whenever the#
are re9uired.
6he commonl# used secondar# memor# storage devices are disks and
tapes. 6here are three t#pes of disks- ?ard ,isk" 5lopp# ,isk and Compact
,isk.
?ard disks are fitted into the computer whereas the flopp# disks" compact
disks can be taken out and kept outside.
A flopp# can hold onl# 1.++ :C of information whereas compact disks
can hold about '&& :C of data.
6he flopp# drive is referred to as MAM drive. If there is a second flopp#
drive on the computer it is referred to as MCM drive and the hard disk is termed as
MCM drive. 6he alphabets ,"<" 5 etc." are reserved for additional hard drives that
the computer ma# have.
%ome storage devices. :
A. ?ard ,isk (Hocal ,isk)
C. *ptical ,isks: C,-0" C,-07" ,.,-0" ,.,-07
C. /en ,rive
,. 5lopp# ,isks
5. :emor# Cards
. <Iternal ?ard ,isk
?. Clu 0a# ,isk
!4 Floppy dis8 Q ) R inch diameter (previousl# we had - S inch flopp#
disks also) :
It is divided into concentric circles called tracks and the tracks are further
divided into sectors.
6here is a small hole on the disk called indeI hole which denotes the
starting point of the first sector. 6he ) R inch flopp# disks can store 1.++ :C or
$.44 :C of information.
,4 0ard 7is8 : 6he disk consists of a disk pack containing hard
disksGplatters stacked onto one another.
A single hard disk is made of metal and coated on both sides with
metallic oIide.
?ard disks can store large volumes of data as compared to flopp# disks.
6oda# we can see hard disks of capacit# of +& C to $&& C and even more.
/ortable (eIternal) hard disks are also available now.
)4 7igital .udio *ape 7.*( : 6his is widel# used in our Cank for taking
backups particularl# in Cankmaster branches. It looks like an audio cassette and
can store large volume of data ranging from $ C to $& C and even more.
#4 C7 /O3 : 6hese are also widel# used now-a-da#s for data storage" storing
music" video (cinemas) etc. Compact ,isk (C,) can store up to 1&& :C of data
on it. 0ewritable C,s are also available. 6his is a form of optical storage.
&4 7;7 7igital ;ersatile 7is8( : ,.,s also look like C,s but can store much
more data than that in C,. 6he# can store +.1 C data on it. ,ual la#er ,.,s
can store almost double the data that can be stored on a normal ,., (single
la#er) i.e." up to 4.- C. ,ata recording is accomplished b# burning the laser
beam on C,s and ,.,s.
'4 Pen 7ri<es : Flash 7ri<es: 6hese are also storage media ranging from $-'
:C to 4 C and more. 6hese are ver# small and portable and eas# to carr#
volume of data.
+4Blu%/ay 7is8:
Clu-ra# (not Clue-ra#) also known as Clu-ra# ,isc (C,)" is the name of a
new optical disc format.
6he format offers more than five times the storage capacit# of traditional
,.,s and can hold up to $-C on a single-la#er disc and -&C on a
dual-la#er disc.
7hile current optical disc technologies such as ,.," ,.,T0"
,.,T07" and ,.,-0A: rel# on a red laser to read and write data" the
new format uses a blue-violet laser instead" hence the name Clu-ra#.
2nits of 3emory:
6he smallest unit is bit" which mean either & or 1.
1 bit > & or 1
1 C#te > 4 bit
1 2ibble > + bit
1 Jilo C#te > 1&$+ C#te > $
1&
C#te
1 :ega C#te > 1&$+ JC > $
1&
JC
1 ega C#te > 1&$+ :C > $
1&
:C
1 6era C#te > 1&$+ C > $
1&
C
1 /eta C#te > 1&$+ 6C > $
1&
6C
1 <Ia C#te > 1&$+ /C > $
1&
/C
1 Ketta C#te > 1&$+ <C > $
1&
<C
1 =otta C#te > 1&$+ KC > $
1&
KC
Booting
6he process of loading the s#stem files of the operating s#stem from the disk
into the computer memor# to complete the circuitr# re9uirement of the
computer s#stem is called booting.
*ypes of Booting:
6here are two t#pes of booting:
A Cold Booting: If the computer is in off state and we boot the computer
b# pressing the power switch D*2E from the C/; boI then it is called
as cold booting.
A Warm Booting: If the computer is alread# D*2E and we restart it b#
pressing the D0<%<6E button from the C/; boI or C60H" AH6 and
,<H ke# simultaneousl# from the ke#board then it is called warm
booting.
*ypes of Computer
On the basis of =or8ing principle
a( .nalog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous ph#sical
phenomena such as electrical" mechanical" or h#draulic 9uantities to model
the problem being solved.
<g: 6hermometer" %peedometer" /etrol pump indicator" :ultimeter
b( 7igital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with 9uantities
represented as digits" usuall# in the binar# number s#stem.
c( 0ybrid Computer .nalog > 7igital(
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting
in both digital and analog signals.
A h#brid computer s#stem setup offers a cost effective method of
performing compleI simulations. 6he instruments used in medical science lies
in this categor#.
On the basis of Si?e
a( Super Computer
6he fastest t#pe of computer. %upercomputers are ver# eIpensive and are
emplo#ed for speciali8ed applications that re9uire immense amounts of
mathematical calculations.
5or eIample" weather forecasting re9uires a supercomputer. *ther uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics" fluid d#namic calculations" nuclear
energ# research" and petroleum eIploration.
/A0A:" /ace F 5losolver are the supercomputer made in India.
b( 3ainframe Computer
A ver# large and eIpensive computer capable of supporting hundreds" or
even thousands" of users simultaneousl#.
In the hierarch# that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches" for
eIample) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top" mainframes are
!ust below supercomputers.
In some wa#s" mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because the# support more simultaneous programs. Cut supercomputers can
eIecute a single program faster than a mainframe.
c( 3ini Computer
A midsi8ed computer. In si8e and power" minicomputers lie between
workstations and mainframes.
Cut in general" a minicomputer is a multiprocessing s#stem capable of
supporting from + to about $&& users simultaneousl#. enerall#" servers are
comes in this categor#.
d( 3icro Computer
i. 7es8top Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit
on a desk.
ii. 9aptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated
screen and ke#board. It is generall# smaller in si8e than a desktop
computer and larger than a notebook computer.
iii. Palmtop Computer:7igital 7iary :6oteboo8 :P7.s: a hand-si8ed
computer. /almtops have no ke#board but the screen serves both as an
input and output device.
e( Wor8stations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this conteIt" workstation is !ust
a generic term for a userMs machine (client machine) in contrast to a BserverB or
Bmainframe.B
Soft=are
%oftware" simpl# are the computer programs. 6he instructions given to
the computer in the form of a program is called %oftware.
%oftware is the set of programs" which are used for different purposes.
All the programs used in computer to perform specific task is called
%oftware.
*ypes of soft=are
1. System soft=are:
a( Operating System Soft=are
,*%" 7indows O/" 7indows .ista" ;niIGHinuI" :ACG*% O etc.
b( 2tility Soft=are
7indows <Iplorer (5ileG5older :anagement)" Compression 6ool" Anti
.irus ;tilities" ,isk ,efragmentation" ,isk Clean" Cack;p" 7inKip"
7in0A0 etcU
c( 9anguage Processors
Compiler" Interpreter and Assembler
$. .pplication soft=are:
a( Pac8age Soft=are
:s. *ffice $&&)" :s. *ffice $&&1" :acromedia (,reamweaver" 5lash"
5reehand)" Adobe (/age:aker" /hoto%hop)
b( *ailored or Custom Soft=are
%chool :anagement s#stem" Inventor# :anagement %#stem" /a#roll
s#stem" financial s#stem etc.
Operating system
*perating s#stem is a platform between hardware and user which is
responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of
the resources of a computer.
It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles the
operations of computer hardware.
Functions of operating System:
/rocessor :anagement
:emor# :anagement
5ile :anagement
,evice :anagement
*ypes of Operating System:
/eal%time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating s#stem that
aims at eIecuting real-time applications.
<Iample of ;se: e.g. control of nuclear power plants" oil refining"
chemical processing and traffic control s#stems
Single 2ser Systems: /rovides a platform for onl# one user at a time.
6he# are popularl# associated with ,esk 6op operating s#stem which run
on standalone s#stems where no user accounts are re9uired.
<Iample: ,*%.
3ulti 2ser Systems: /rovides regulated access for a number of users b#
maintaining a database of known users.
0efers to computer s#stems that support two or more simultaneous users.
Another term for multi-user is time sharing. <I: All mainframes are
multi-user s#stems.
<Iample: ;2IO
3ulti%tas8ing and Single%tas8ing Operating Systems: 7hen a single
program is allowed to run at a time" the s#stem is grouped under the
single-tasking s#stem categor#" while in case the operating s#stem allows
for eIecution of multiple tasks at a time" it is classified as a multi-tasking
operating s#stem.
7istributed Operating System: An operating s#stem that manages a
group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single
computer is known as a distributed operating s#stem.
,istributed computations are carried out on more than one machine.
7hen computers in a group work in cooperation" the# make a distributed
s#stem.
Commonly used operating system
26I@: a popular multi-user" multitasking operating s#stem developed at Cell
Habs in the earl# 1(1&s. ;2IO was one of the first operating s#stems to be
written in a high-level programming language" namel# C. 6his meant that it
could be installed on virtuall# an# computer for which a C compiler eIisted.
9I62@: A freel#-distributable open source operating s#stem that runs on a
number of hardware platforms.
6he HinuI kernel was developed mainl# b# Hinus 6orvalds and it is based
on ;2IO. Cecause itMs free" and because it runs on man# platforms" including
/Cs and :acintoshes.
Windo=s: :icrosoft 7indows is a series of graphical interface operating
s#stems developed" marketed" and sold b# :icrosoft.
:icrosoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on
2ovember $&" 1(4- as an add-on to :%-,*% in response to the growing
interest in graphical user interfaces (;Is).
:icrosoft 7indows came to dominate the worldMs personal computer
market with over (&V market share" overtaking :ac *%" which had been
introduced in 1(4+.
6he most recent client version of 7indows is 7indows 4L the most recent
server version is 7indows %erver $&&4 0$L the most recent mobile version is
7indows /hone 1.-.
SO9./IS: Solaris is a ;niI operating s#stem originall# developed b# %un
:icros#stems.
It superseded their earlier %un*% in 1((). Oracle Solaris" as it is now
known" has been owned b# *racle Corporation since *racleMs ac9uisition of %un
in Nanuar# $&1&.
BOSS: C*%% (Charat *perating %#stem %olutions) 2;GHinuI distribution
developed b# C-,AC (Centre for ,evelopment of Advanced Computing)
derived from ,ebian for enhancing the use of 5reeG *pen %ource %oftware
throughout India. 6his release aims more at the securit# part and comes with an
eas# to use application to harden #our ,esktop.
3obile OS: A mobile operating s#stem" also called a mobile *%" is an
operating s#stem that is specificall# designed to run on mobile devices such as
mobile phones" smartphones" /,As" tablet computers and other handheld
devices.
6he mobile operating s#stem is the software platform on top of which
other programs" called application programs" can run on mobile devices.
Symbian: %#mbian is a mobile operating s#stem (*%) targeted at mobile
phones that offers a high-level of integration with communication and personal
information management (/I:) functionalit#.
%#mbian *% combines middleware with wireless communications
through an integrated mailboI and the integration of Nava and /I: functionalit#
(agenda and contacts).
6he %#mbian *% is open for third-part# development b# independent
software vendors" enterprise I6 departments" network operators and %#mbian
*% licensees.
.ndroid: Android is a HinuI-based mobile phone operating s#stem developed
b# oogle.
Android is uni9ue because oogle is activel# developing the platform but
giving it awa# for free to hardware manufacturers and phone carriers who want
to use Android on their devices.
9.6G2.G1 P/OC1SSO/S: %ince a computer hardware is capable of
understanding onl# machine level instructions" %o it is necessar# to convert the
?HH into :achine Hevel Hanguage.
Computer languages are broadl# classified as:
!4 9o= 9e<el 9anguage:
6he term low level means closeness to the wa# in which machine understand.
6he low level languages are:
a. :achine Hanguage:
6his is the language (in the form of &Es and 1Es" called binar# numbers)
understood directl# b# the computer.
It is machine dependent. It is difficult to learn and even more difficult to
write programs.
b. Assembl# Hanguage:
6his is the language where the machine codes comprising of &Es and 1Es
are substituted b# s#mbolic codes (called mnemonics) to improve their
understanding.
It is the first step to improve programming structure.
Assembl# language programming is simpler and less time consuming
than machine level programming" it is easier to locate and correct errors
in assembl# language than in machine language programs.
It is also machine dependent. /rogrammers must have knowledge of the
machine on which the program will run.
,4 0igh 9e<el 9anguage
7e know that low level language re9uires eItensive knowledge of the
hardware since it is machine dependent. 6o overcome the limitation" high level
language has been evolved which uses normal <nglish like" eas# to understand
statements to solve an# problem.
?igher level languages are computer independent and programming
becomes 9uite eas# and simple.
.arious high level languages are given below:
B.SIC (Ceginners All /urpose %#mbolic Instruction Code): It is widel# used"
eas# to learn general purpose language. :ainl# used in microcomputers in
earlier da#s.
COBO9 (Common Cusiness *riented language): A standardi8ed language used
for commercial applications.
FO/*/.6 (5ormula 6ranslation): ,eveloped for solving mathematical and
scientific problems. *ne of the most popular languages among scientific
communit#.
C: %tructured /rogramming Hanguage used for all purpose such as scientific
application" commercial application" developing games etc.
C>>: /opular ob!ect oriented programming language" used for general purpose.
6here are three Hanguage processors:
A. Compiler: It is translator which coverts the ?HH language into machine
language in one go. A %ource program in ?igh Hevel Hanguage get
converted into *b!ect /rogram in :achine Hevel Hanguage.
C. Interpreter: It is a translator which converts the ?HH language into
machine language line b# line. It takes one statement of ?HH and
converts it into machine code which is immediatel# eIecuted. It eliminate
the need of separate compilationGrun. ?owever" It is slow in processing as
compare to compiler.
C. .ssembler: It translate the assembl# language into machine code.
3icroprocessor:
A microprocessor is a semiconductor chip" which is manufactured using the
Harge %cale integration (H%I) or .er# Harge %cale Integration (.H%I)" which
comprises Arithmetic Hogic ;nit" Control unit and Central /rocessing ;nit
(C/;) fabricated on a single chip.
*erminologies:
/egisters:
A register is a ver# small amount of ver# fast memor# that is built into the
C/; (central processing unit) in order to speed up its operations b#
providing 9uick access to commonl# used values.
All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.
5or eIample" if two numbers are to be multiplied" both numbers must be
in registers" and the result is also placed in a register.
Bus:
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another.
6his is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the
C/; and main memor#.
All buses consist of two parts -- an address bus and a data bus. 6he data
bus transfers actual data whereas the address bus transfers information
about where the data should go.
6he control bus is used b# the C/; to direct and monitor the actions of
the other functional areas of the computer.
It is used to transmit a variet# of individual signals (read" write" interrupt"
acknowledge" and so forth) necessar# to control and coordinate the
operations of the computer.
6he si8e of a bus" known as its width, is important because it determines
how much data can be transmitted at one time. 5or eIample" a 1'-bit bus
can transmit 1' bits of data" whereas a )$-bit bus can transmit )$ bits
Cloc8 speed: Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor
eIecutes instructions.
<ver# computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which
instructions are eIecuted and s#nchroni8es all the various computer
components.
6he C/; re9uires a fiIed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to
eIecute each instruction. 6he faster the clock" the more instructions the
C/; can eIecute per second.
Clock speeds are eIpressed in megahert8 (:?8) or gigahert8 ((?8).
!' bit 3icroprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 1'-bit
microprocessor can process data and memor# addresses that are represented b#
1' bits. <I. 4&4' processor
), bit 3icroprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A )$-bit
microprocessor can process data and memor# addresses that are represented b#
)$ bits. <I. Intel 4&)4' processor" Intel 4&+4'
'# bit 3icroprocessor: It indicates the width of the registersL a special high-
speed storage area within the C/;. A )$-bit microprocessor can process data
and memor# addresses that are represented b# )$ bits. <I. /entium dual core"
core $ duo.
!,A bit 3icroprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 1$4-bit
microprocessor can process data and memor# addresses that are represented b#
1$4 bits. <I. Intel core i1
PO/*S :
A port is an interface between the motherboard and an eIternal device.
,ifferent t#pes of port are available on motherboard as serial port"
parallel port" /%G$ port" ;%C port" %C%I port etc.
A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to computer or over the internet.
Characteristics
<Iternal devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
/orts are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of eIternal device is
plugged in.
<Iamples of eIternal devices attached via ports are mouse" ke#board"
monitor" microphone" speakers" etc.
Following are few important types of ports:
Serial Port
;sed for eIternal modems and older computer mouse.
%erial ports send and receive one bit at a time via a single wire pair
6wo versions: ( pin" $- pin model.
,ata travels at 11- kilobits per second.
Parallel Port
;sed for scanners and printers
Also called printer port.
$- pin model.
Also known as I<<< 1$4+-compliant Centronics port.

PS:, Port
;sed for old computer ke#board and mouse
Also called mouse port.
:ost of the old computers provide two /%G$ ports" each for mouse and
ke#board.
Also known as I<<< 1$4+-compliant Centronics port.

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

Can connect all kinds of eIternal ;%C devices such as eIternal hard disk"
printer" scanner" mouse" ke#board" etc.
Introduced in 1((1.
:ost of the computers provide two ;%C ports as minimum.
,ata travels at 1$ megabits per second.
;%C compliant devices can get power from a ;%C port.
;G. Port
Connects monitor to a computerMs video card.
?as 1- holes.
%imilar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins" it has
holes.

Po=er Connector
6hree-pronged plug
Connects to the computerMs power cable that plugs into a power bar or
wall socket.
Fire=ire Port
6ransfer large amounts of data at ver# fast speed.
Connects camcorders and video e9uipments to the computer
,ata travels at +&& to 4&& megabits per second.
Invented b# Apple
6hree variants: +-/in 5ire7ire +&& connector" '-/in 5ire7ire +&&
connector and (-/in 5ire7ire 4&& connector
:odem
Connects a /CMs modem to the telephone network.
<thernet /ort
Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
Connects network cable to a computer.
6his port resides on an <thernet Card.
,ata travels at 1& megabits to 1&&& megabits per second depending upon
the network bandwidth.
Game Port
Connect a /C to a !o#stick.
2ow replaced b# ;%C.
7igital ;ideo InterfaceB 7;I port
Connects a 5lat panel HC, monitor to the computerMs high-end video
graphic cards.
.er# popular among video card manufacturers.
Soc8ets
Connect microphone" speakers to sound card of the computer
Infrared Port:
An I0 port is a port which sends and receives infrared signals from other
devices.
It is a wireless t#pe port with a limited range of --1&ft.
Bluetooth:
Cluetooth uses short-range radio fre9uencies to transmit information from
fiIed and mobile devices.
6hese devices must be within the range of )$ feet" or 1& meters for
Cluetooth to effectivel# work.
A Cluetooth port enables connections for Cluetooth-enabled devices for
s#nchroni8ing.
6#picall# there are two t#pes of ports: incoming and outgoing. 6he
incoming port enables the device to receive connections from Cluetooth
devices while the outgoing port makes connections to Cluetooth devices.
Internal Storage encoding of Characters:
.SCII .merican standard code for information interchange(: A%CII code
is most widel# used alphanumeric code used in computers.
It is a 1- bit code" and so it has $
1
>1$4 possible code groups.
It represents all of the standard ke#board characters as well as control
functions such as 0eturn F Hinefeed functions.
ISCIIIndian standard code for information interchange( : 6o use the Indian
language on computers" I%CII codes are used.
It is an 4-bit code capable of coding $-' characters.
I%CII code retains all A%CII characters and offers coding for Indian
scripts also.
2nicode:
It is a universal coding standard which provides a uni9ue number for
ever# character" no matter what the platform" no matter what the
program" no matter what the language.
;nicode version ).1 represented (+"1+& characters.
623B1/ SCS*13:
As the computer is an electronic device" it works on the presenceGabsence
of electronic signals. <lectrical energ# is used onl# to carr# information.
Computer uses a number s#stem which is different from our usual
decimal s#stem for storing data.
It can !ust recogni8e two states Q *2 or *55 and numbers are
represented b# using these two states i.e." b# using the *2 position to represent
D1E and the *55 position to represent D&E.
6herefore" a number can be simulated easil# within the computer under a
number s#stem which uses two digits onl# i.e" D&E and D1E. 6his s#stem is called
Cinar# s#stem.
Binary 6umber system :
6he binar# digits (& and 1) are used to represent data in a computer. In
computer terminolog#" the binar# digit is called as a DbitE.
As the computer works on electricit#" the number 1 represents power on
and & represents power off.
Computers do not understand letters of decimal numbers. 6he# onl#
understand 1s and &s. 6his is called the binar# s#stem.
All the letters of the alphabet" all numbers and all signs like @" -" > etc are
converted into &s and 1s if the computer has to work with them.
7ecimal 6umber System
A positional number s#stem ?as 1& s#mbols or digits (&" 1" $" )" +" -" '" 1"
4" (). ?ence" its base > 1&
6he maIimum value of a single digit is ( (one less than the value of the
base)
<ach position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (1&)
7e use this number s#stem in our da#-to-da# life
6able to remember
,ecimal Cinar# ?eIadecimal *ctal
&
1
$
)
+
-
&
1
1&
11
1&&
1&1
&
1
$
)
+
-
&
1
$
)
+
-
'
1
4
(
1&
11
1$
1)
1+
1-
1'
11&
111
1&&&
1&&1
1&1&
1&11
11&&
11&1
111&
1111
1&&&&
'
1
4
(
A
C
C
,
<
5
1&
'
1
1&
11
1$
1)
1+
1-
1'
11
$&
Octal 6umber System
;ses eight digits: &" 1" $" )" +" -" '" 1.
Also called base 4 number s#stem.
0eDadecimal 6umber System
;ses 1& digits and ' letters: &" 1" $" )" +" -" '" 1" 4" (" A" C" C" ," <" 5.
Hetters represent numbers starting from 1&. A > 1&. C > 11" C > 1$" , >
1)" < > 1+" 5 > 1-.
Also called base 1' number s#stem.
Shortcut 3ethod for Con<erting a Binary 6umber to its 1Eui<alent Octal
6umber
:ethod
%tep 1: ,ivide the digits into groups of three starting from the right
%tep $: Convert each group of three binar# digits to one octal digit using the
method of binar# to decimal conversion
<Iample
11&1&1&$ > W4
%tep 1: ,ivide the binar# digits into groups of ) starting
from right
&&1 1&1 &1&
%tep $: Convert each group into one octal digit
&&1
$
> & I $
$
@ & I $
1
@ 1 I $
&
> 1
1&1
$
> 1 I $
$
@ & I $
1
@ 1 I $
&
> -
&1&
$
> & I $
$
@ 1 I $
1
@ & I $
&
> $
?ence" 11&1&1&
$
> 1-$
4
Shortcut 3ethod for Con<erting an Octal6umber to Its 1Eui<alent Binary
6umber:
:ethod
%tep 1: Convert each octal digit to a ) digit binar# number (the octal digits ma#
be treated as decimal for this conversion)
%tep $: Combine all the resulting binar# groups (of ) digits each) into a single
binar# number
<Iample
-'$
4
> W
$
%tep 1: Convert each octal digit to ) binar# digits
-
4
> 1&1
$
" '
4
> 11&
$
" $
4
> &1&
$
%tep $: Combine the binar# groups
-'$
4
> 1&1 11& &1&
- ' $
?ence" -'$
4
> 1&111&&1&
$
Shortcut 3ethod for Con<erting a Binary 6umber to its 1Eui<alent
0eDadecimal 6umber
:ethod
%tep 1: ,ivide the binar# digits into groups of four starting from the right
%tep $: Combine each group of four binar# digits to one heIadecimal digit
<Iample
1111&1
$
> W
1'
%tep 1: ,ivide the binar# digits into groups of four starting from the right
&&11 11&1
%tep $: Convert each group into a heIadecimal digit
&&11
$
> & I $
)
@ & I $
$
@ 1 I $
1
@ 1 I $
&
> )
1&
> )
1'
11&1
$
> 1 I $
)
@ 1 I $
$
@ & I $
1
@ 1 I $
&
> 1)
1&
> ,
1'
?ence" 1111&1
$
> ),
1'
Shortcut 3ethod for Con<erting a 0eDadecimal 6umber to its 1Eui<alent
Binary 6umber
%tep 1: Convert the decimal e9uivalent of each heIadecimal digit to a + digit
binar# number
%tep $: Combine all the resulting binar# groups (of + digits each) in a single
binar# number
<Iample
$AC
1'
> W
$
%tep 1: Convert each heIadecimal digit to a + digit
binar# number
$
1'
> $
1&
> &&1&
$
A
1'
> 1&
1&
> 1&1&
$
C
1'
> 11
1&
> 1&11
$
%tep $: Combine the binar# groups
$AC
1'
> &&1& 1&1& 1&11
$ A C
?ence" $AC
1'
> &&1&1&1&1&11
$
Formation of Fractional 6umbers in Binary 6umber System
<Iample
11&.1&1
$
> 1 I $
$
@ 1 I $
1
@ & I $
&
@ 1 I $
-1
@ & I $
-$
@ 1 I $
-)
> + @ $ @ & @ &.- @ & @ &.1$-
> '.'$-
1&
Formation of Fractional 6umbers in Octal 6umber System
<Iample
1$1.-+
4
> 1 I 4
$
@ $ I 4
1
@ 1 I 4
&
@ - I 4
-1
@ + I 4
-$
> '+ @ 1' @ 1 @ -G4 @ +G'+
> 41 @ &.'$- @ &.&'$-
> 41.'41-
1&