GEOSTATIONARY HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING FROM 0.

4 TO 1
MICRONS A POTENT TOOL FOR ANALYSIS AND NOWCASTING
1
James F. W. Purdom
CIRA
Fort Collins, CO 80523-1375, USA

1
Note to the reader: This paper is best read when viewing an accompanying power point (PPT)
presentation (with AVI loops) that was presented at EUMETSAT 2003). Slides referred to herein are those in
the PPT presentation. Figures within this text are extracted from that PPT.
ABSTRACT
The United States of Americas future geostationary satellite series, beginning with GOES-R in a 2012
timeframe, will be a major advancement in geostationary observing capability. GOES-Rs major
meteorological observing instruments are an Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) with up to 16 channels, a
lightning mapper, and a Hyperspectral Environmental Suite (HES) that is comprised of a hyperspectral
imager operating in the 0.4 to 1 micron range (HES-VNIR) and an atmospheric sounder operating across the
4-15 micron portion of the spectrum (HES-IR). This paper will address using GOES-R data and its
hyperspectral capability in the 0.4 to 1 micron range for nowcasting convection and severe weather. The use
of multi-channel imagers and sounding interferometers are well recognized for value to analyze a variety of
atmospheric and surface phenomena. Based on experience from current previous generations of
geostationary satellites, rapid interval imagery updates have proven valuable for nowcasting, cloud motion
vector determination and providing opportunities for cloud free fields of view for a variety of surface and
atmospheric product generation. Yet, as valuable as information from those instruments are, there lies on
the horizon the promise of a new geostationary companion instrument that will revolutionize geostationary
satellite applications: that instrument is the high spatial and temporal resolution hyperspectral imager. That
instrument is the GOES-R HES-VNIR with a spatial resolution on the order of 150 to 300 meters operating at
10 nanometer spectral resolution across the 0.4 to 1.0 micron range. From that instrument, when used in
synergy with other GOES-R capabilities, we should be able to monitor the evolution of water vapor and
instability at very high resolutions, while at the same time deriving high resolution wind field and cloud
information.
1. PREAMBLE
The spatial and temporal variability of the phenomena under investigation are primary factors in defining the
observations required from a space based (or other type) observing system (Slide 2). When defining a space
based remote sensing system four critical questions must be addressed: they all deal with resolution. Those
resolutions are: 1) spatial what picture element size is required to identify the feature of interest, what is its
spatial variability, and over what scale must it be observed; 2) spectral - each spatial element has a
continuous spectrum that may be used to analyze the earths surface and atmosphere, what spectral
resolution(s) is (are) needed for a particular application; 3) temporal how often does the feature of interest
need to be observed; and, 4) radiometric signal to noise, or how accurately does an observation need to be.
2. THE GOES-R ERA
This paper addresses nowcasting in the era of NOAAs new generation geostationary satellites that will
commence in approximately 2012 with the launch of GOES-R. GOES-R will enter an era where its
capabilities will be in tune with the space based systems of that day multi-channel, hyperspectral and ultra
temporal. GOES-R is ideally suited for this era: an era of multi-sensor/multi-platform products. The major
earth viewing instruments planned for the GOES-R are its advanced baseline imager (ABI) and hyperspectral
environmental suite (HES) each is a marked advancement from todays GOES in the four key resolution
areas mentioned above: spatial, spectral, temporal and radiometric.
The ABI will have a multi-channel capability, at least 16 channels, that span the spectrum from approximately
0.5 to 14 microns. ABIs spatial resolutions (different in the visible and IR regions) will be at least a factor of
four better than todays GOES, and its scan speed will be about a factor of 6 faster. Slide 8 is a four panel
loop with imagery shown at various speeds and can be used to compare cloud field evolution at different time
intervals GOES-Rs ABI with 5 minute full disk imagery (along with rapid scan capability and HES-VNIR) will
provide unparalleled monitoring capability for nowcasting convection. This can also be seen in the animation
presented with slide 23 which can be used to illustrate how GOES-R will be unique in space and time in its
ability to observe cloud development. The loop is the first ever one minute interval imagery taken by a
geostationary satellite. It covers 6 minutes, and illustrates the dynamic nature of a strong (large hail)
thunderstorm. The area covered is approximately 160 x 160 km. In viewing the loop, notice the cloud field
variability, differences in cloud motion, cloud top and anvil growth, cloud vertical growth along a front at the
top of the image. GOES-R will be able to make such observations much more frequently and at higher
spatial resolution using both HES-VNIR and ABI. The higher
spatial resolutions afforded by ABI and HES-VNIR can be
visualized in slides 9 and 10, as well as slide 21. Slide 9
(Figure to left) shows cloud top characteristics of the very
large severe storm that produced one of the most violent
tornadoes on record: an F5 (Fujita, 1981) intensity tornado
that ripped up street pavement and totally leveled houses and
trees. In both the visible AVHRR and GOES image note the
overshooting top region near the back western edge of the
storm and the smooth textured cirrus extending eastward
from the over-shooting top (OST) region across the broader
anvil cirrus. The images reveal colder temperatures
associated with the OST region, and a V notch
characteristic. It is of interest that the coldest OST area in the
AVHRR image is over 10
o
C colder than that revealed by
GOES. The two images were taken less than 15 seconds
apart the reason for the colder temperature in the AVHRR
image is its better spatial resolution: 1x1 km versus 4x4 km resolution. The AVHRR infrared image is much
more representative of the storms strength with its top extending well above the equilibrium level (see
sounding in slide 25) this storm had a large positive energy area and a very intense updraft, a strong
indicator of severe convection. HES-ABI, while not as high spatial resolution as AVHRR, will provide higher
resolution IR measurements (by a factor of 4) than todays GOES, thus improving upon storm cold OST
measurements. The long cirrus plume above the anvil is indicative of a continuous strong overshooting top
region (a long lived storm with a very intense updraft). GOES-Rs ABI will provide unparalleled capability for
assessing thunderstorm development, evolution and intensity. In addition, GOES-Rs hyperspectral sounder,
in the 4 x 4 km mesoscale mode, will have a spatial resolution similar to the current GOES-8 infrared imager,
but with incredible spectral flexibility! Slide 10 can be used to compare todays GOES visible imaging spatial
resolution with that expected from GOES-Rs HES-VNIR: in it note the detail in the eye wall (you can see up
its side) - improving the resolution of visible imagery (ABI and HES-VNIR) provides enhanced ability to
analyze its cloud field and follow its evolution (and motion) especially when viewed at sub-minute to 5 minute
time intervals. Slide 21 covers an area 7.78 km across by 30 km top to bottom. It was derived using EO-1
Hyperion data and illustrates the difference in cloud (and clear region) detection capability at various
resolutions.
The HES will be hyperspectral across appropriate portions of the spectrum for atmospheric sounding, from
about 3.5 microns to 15 microns (HES-IR). Its improvements in spatial, spectral and temporal resolution over
todays GOES sounder are dramatic, and its data will likely revolutionize the fields of mesoscale meteorology
and nowcasting. The spectral improvements can be anticipated while viewing slides 12 and 13, where a
spectral animation from AIRS covering much of the mid-wavelength infrared portion of the spectrum is
shown. Note the changes in brightness temperature as one moves spectrally across the current GOES water
vapor sounder bands (channels). Very high spectral resolution information such as this will allow for
exceptionally good vertical depiction of water vapor (for plume tracking) as well as spectrally resolved
radiances that will allow for much more accurate vertical moisture (and with C0
2
bands, temperature)
information. The improved stability measurements will allow for better assessment of storm potential
intensity, and when coupled with ABI cloud top temperature measurements (as shown in slide 9) will be able
to address storm efficiency and entrainment (thus updraft strength). A storms updraft strength is important
for hail size, rainfall and storm scale increase in vorticity through stretching and tilting (important contributors
to storm rotation and tornado potential). With the GOES-R hyperspectral sounder operating in the mesoscale
mode this type data will be available at 4 km resolution (AIRS is 10x20 km res.). Another important utilization
of GOES-R sounder data will be in the detection of nighttime low-level thermal inversions, as is illustrated in
slide 14. Slide 14 (Figure below) shows a high-resolution spectrum of brightness temperatures from the
Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases
(IMG) instrument that flew on the ADEOS
satellite. The spectral region covered is from
700 to 850 cm
-1
(left to right), with the region
of interest being between 770 and 850 cm
-1.
Temperature increases along the vertical axis,
approximately 10 degrees C per tic mark, from
210 to 290 K. The region of interest is an
atmospheric window where low level water
vapor is an active absorbing gas (up and
downward pointing spikes). Notice that over
Texas, the surfaces skin temperature is
approximately 280 K and the water vapor
absorption lines point downward, indicative of cooler temperatures above the surface. The opposite is true
over Ontario where the water vapor lines show warmer air above the surface, indicative of a low level
inversion. Detection of inversions is critical for severe weather forecasting. Combined with improved low-
level moisture depiction, key ingredients for nighttime severe storm development can be monitored. While
not mentioned with slide 14, it should also be noticed how clean window information can be created (basically
straight line without water vapor spikes) for determination of very accurate surface temperature (assuming
emissivity characteristics are well known). BUT, regardless of surface emissivity, surface heating and cooling
can be very accurately tracked!
The HES is also expected to have an imaging capability across the visible to near IR (VNIR) portion of the
spectrum, 0.4 to 1 microns, at a resolution of 300 meters, perhaps as fine as 150 meters. While the HES-
VNIR scan speed still undetermined, it will likely be able to view areas on the order of 5000 sq km every 6
seconds. Although HES-VNIR is being designed mainly for coastal water applications, it also has great
potential for atmospheric uses (as well as land, but not covered herein). When utilizing satellite imagery, it
must be realized that each spatial element has a continuous spectrum that may be used to analyze the
surface and atmosphere, as illustrated in slide 11 from AVIRIS (an airborne hyperspectral sensor operation in
the 400 to 2400 nanometer range at 10 nm spectral resolution). As with HES-IR, spectral resolving across
the VNIR portion of the
spectrum provides
tremendous amounts of
information about
atmospheric and surface
properties. This is
illustrated in slide 15 (a
spectral animation) and
slide 16, Figure to left,
(a scene spectral
decomposition). In the
animation note the
changes in reflection
from smoke and haze,
400 700 1000 1300 1600 1900 2200 2500
Wavelength (nm)
0.1
1.0
10.0
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

R
e
f
l
e
c
t
a
n
c
e
Cloud
Fire
Hot Area
Grass
Lake
Bare Soil
Smoke (sm. part.)
Smoke (lg. part.)
Shadow
the changes in land surface brightness and the effect of water vapor on the scene appearance (also note the
fire showing up at longer wavelengths). The unique characteristics of the spectral signatures provide a way
to identify and characterize each feature and to derive other useful information about the scene. HES-VNIR
has the potential for numerous atmospheric, ocean, land applications for some we need to filter
atmospheric effects and use that information and it is through such filtering that valuable information for
convective nowcasting will be able to be deduced high resolution water vapor information, as shown in
slides 17 (Figure below) and 18 (water vapor animation of slide 17). HES VNIR at high resolutions will be
able to monitor pre-
cumulus cloud moisture
and moisture convergence
this will be enhanced by
HES-IR. Water vapor
exhibits remarkable
variability in space and time
(as shown in slides 17 &
18) and is important on
scales ranging from climate
to convection. Water vapor
is the key energy source for
deep convective
development. For
example, releasing latent
heat: a gram of water vapor
condensed into a kilogram
of air (about 1 cu meter) will
raise that airs temperature
about 2.5 K! Using
hyperspectral data from EO-1s Hyperion (slide 19) taken during the IHOP field experiment, slide 20, total
column water vapor (CMV) was derived from a partly cloudy scene, notice how well derived mean CMV
verifies against nearby rawinsonde derived CMV. Inspection of slide 21 reveals how readily cloud free fields
of view can be detected at higher resolutions, allowing for detailed column water vapor retrievals in synergy
with HES-IR, this will provide powerful information for nowcasting convection. It should be noted by the
reader that CMV retrieval at these exceptionally high resolutions can only be done during daytime and over
land this is because the water vapor absorption regions in the NIR are located adjacent to regions that are
spectrally black (no signal) over water and retrieval methods utilize on and off absorption line reflectance to
determine CMV.
Slide 22 (Figure below) illustrates an important point that is all too often forgotten: with the exception of sub-
point, from all satellites (but particularly in this case from geostationary altitude) we see the side of the base,
side and top of clouds. Aside from implications for
imagery interpretation, different viewing perspectives
of clouds from different satellites allow for stereo
height determination of various features.
Considering the very high spatial and temporal
resolution capabilities of the GOES-R sensor suite,
this capability should allow for exceptionally accurate
determination of cloud height (and depending on the
cloud field, in some cases base altitude). Thus for
analyzing an evolving convective situation (slide 23
& 24), GOES-Rs HES-VNIR viewing perspective,
viewing frequency and wavelength will determine
what we can derive: 1) Stereo cloud height
determinations: accuracy is in large part a function
of spatial resolution (shadows can also provide
exceptionally accurate cloud height depending on time of day and viewing geometries); 2) Exceptional CMVs
(u, u', v, v', w') in complex situations: potential for nearly 50 times higher resolution than today (150m vs
1000m) and over 10 times higher than GOES-Rs ABI (150m vs 500m); and, 3) Pre-cumulus moisture field
and its changes in time. When that information is combined with other GOES-R capabilities, a potent
nowcasting tool is certainly available!
3. NOWCASTING AND GOES-R
Nowcasting is in many aspects mesoscale in nature, and it is here that satellite data can provide great
benefit. Prior to geostationary satellites, the mesoscale was a "data sparse" region; meteorologists were
forced to make inferences about mesoscale phenomena from macro-scale observations. While observations
from polar orbiting satellites often detect mesoscale phenomena at the needed spatial resolutions, they lack
the temporal resolution required for many nowcasting applications
2
. Today, over the United States,
geostationary sounder data provides high spatial resolution hour-by-hour information of the atmospheres
ability to support (and inhibit) deep convection. Todays geostationary satellites provide multispectral high-
resolution imagery at frequent intervals, generally between 15 and 30 minutes. Those data reveal meso-
meteorological features that are infrequently detected by fixed observing sites. The clouds and cloud
patterns in a satellite image provide a visualization of mesoscale meteorological processes. When cloud
imagery (and products derived from sounding data such as lifted index) is viewed in animation, the
movement, orientation, and development of important mesoscale features can be observed. Furthermore,
such animation provides observations of convective behavior at temporal and spatial resolutions approaching
the scale of the mechanisms responsible for triggering deep and intense convective storms. As valuable as
todays geostationary systems are, they are of greater value when combined with more conventional
observations such as surface and upper air data, surface based radar and other satellite data sets.
While forecasts of convection cover a spectrum of time periods, this paper addresses using GOES-R era
satellite data for nowcasting severe storms and their intensity in the 0-6 hour time frame. Nowcasting may be
addressed statistically, with numerical models, or expert systems. Historically it has been primarily based on
extrapolation of radar echoes or satellite images (Browning, 1982). Nowcasting studies have consistently
shown that accuracy decreases very rapidly within the first few hours and that the reason for this rapid
decrease is the rapid evolution of the precipitation field (Wilson et al. 1998). This rapid evolution of the
precipitation field is often due to boundary layer and convective scale processes, such variability in low-level
moisture and temperature (instability), and outflow boundary development and interaction with other
convergence boundaries. This highly non-linear character of convective development and evolution over
short time periods must be understood if significant advances are to be made in local severe storm
monitoring and prediction. Indeed, such understanding has been the focus of numerous field studies dating
from WWII, beginning with the Thunderstorm Project in 1946-47 (Byers and Braham, 1948) whose basic goal
was to understand the thunderstorm and factors influencing its initiation. Nearly 50 years later, the basic
goals of the International Water Vapor Project, that took place in 2002, were: improved characterization of the
four-dimensional distribution of water vapor and its application to improving the understanding and prediction
of convection, improved understanding of convective initiation and boundary layer processes, and improved
prediction of convective rainfall.
3
That this topic has been so intensely investigated for nearly half a century
with arrays of sophisticated instrumentation attests to the inherent difficulty posed by local storm monitoring
and prediction.
Nowcasting the development and evolution of convection is one of the most difficult tasks in meteorology
today. There are a variety of reasons for this, one being the lack of observations on the mesoscale and the
other being the highly non-linear aspects of convective evolution. Mandatory for this activity are basic
conceptual models that are used as guides for understanding (Browning, 1982, Bader, et al, 1995). When
convection forms under conditions of weak synoptic scale forcing, two factors exert a major influence on its
development: instability and low-level convergence. It is informative to inspect a thermodynamic diagram and
envision deep convection as it grows. Slide 25, a typical early morning Skew-T Log-P diagram, shows a
moist and stable boundary layer with the potential to fuel deep convection. In the simplest sense, to realize
that convective potential: 1) surface heating and mixing can bring the sounding to an unstable state by
reaching a convective temperature; 2) through lifting, low level air reaches a lifting condensation level (LCL)
where convection will form, then through further lifting reach a level of free convection (LFC); or, 3) a

2
For example, sounder data from research polar orbiting satellites, specifically NASAs high resolution
spectrometer AIRS,
2
is providing high spatial resolution data that can be used to derive very good information
on atmospheric instability over land in cloud free areas, it is available only twice a day. This will be the case
during the GOES-R era, with NPOESS and METOP satellites (3 satellite constellation) all providing twice a
day high spectral resolution soundings resulting in approximately four hourly global coverage. Such data will
of no doubt be very valuable for NWP, as well as for use in depiction of synoptic and regional scale features
such as axes of deeper moisture and instability that may support convection, however, their temporal
resolution is not optimal for convective nowcasting.
3
http://www.atd.ucar.edu/dir_off/projects/2002/IHOP.html
combination of the two. In the convective atmosphere rarely, if ever, is there uniform instability across an
area. One needs but observe cloudiness outside an aircraft window (or satellite image) to observe the
variability in the atmospheres instability as reflected through its cloud cover, slide 26. This is not new to
forecasters, indeed as was pointed by Schereschewsky
(1946) long before the beginning of the satellite era:
Clouds are now considered essential and accurate tools
for weather forecasting. Every feature of the air masses
(discontinuity, subsidence, instability and stability, etc.) is
reflected in the shape, amount, and structure of the
clouds. Slides 27 through 29, with animations may be
used to illustrate the above points. In particular note in
the movie how much the cloud pattern and convective
regime changes over a six hour period (as well as its
variability). In slide 29 (Figure to left); notice how well
the cloud field can be analyzed at 250 meters.
Everywhere there isnt a cloud you can compute moisture
from HES-VIS/NIR, and where there are the bigger holes
you can do the total job with HES-IR (some are representative of a modified boundary layer due to storm
outflow air).
Intense convection may take on a variety of characteristics (super cell, muticell, or mesoscale convective
complex) depending on the instability, the vertical distribution of moisture, and the characteristics of the
vertical wind profile (Fankhauser, 1971, Maddox, 1980, Marwitz, 1972; Routunno, et al, 1988, Zipser, 1982).
When performing local scale forecasting of intense convection, it is important to recognize which type of
convection is expected with respect to the particular synoptic regime and then use the satellite data as an aid
in nowcasting a storms or storm systems development and evolution. Severe thunderstorms that produce
hail, tornadoes and damaging winds form under a variety of synoptic scale conditions. Depending on the
large scale forcing, instability and vertical wind shear, they can take the form of long-lived super cells that
may produce incredible damage (Routunno, et al, 1988). Satellite imagery can be used to help identify super
cells as well as identify certain tornadic storm triggering mechanisms (Adler, et al, 1979; Heymsfield, 1983;
Purdom, 1993). Under the proper vertical wind shear and instability conditions (Rotunno, et al, 1988),
exceptionally intense thunderstorms form that are almost steady state in nature and last for several hours.
Such storms, known as supercells, are responsible for the most intense tornadoes, and are more often than
not characterized by large hail, heavy rainfall and very strong downdraft winds. These storms can often be
identified in satellite imagery by several common characteristics: 1) they are long lived; 2) their strong
updrafts are revealed by intense overshooting tops above the thunderstorm anvil; 3) they often have long
plumes of downstream cirrus emanating from the overshooting top region and extending far downstream
above the broad cirrus anvil; 4) there may be an enhanced cold V with a warm central region extending
downstream from the overshooting top region (often coinciding with the plume in (3) above); and, 5) multiple
low level cloud lines can be detected feeding into the upwind
flank of the storm, flanking cloud lines. Slides 30 through 33 can
be used to help understand the potential impact of GOES-R for
analysis and nowcasting for strong convective situations. The
loop shown is the same as previously viewed with slide 8. The
loop is from GOES one minute visible imagery taken on J Ju ul ly y 2 24 4, ,
2 20 00 00 0 ( (F Fi ig gu ur re e t to o l le ef ft t) ), , a an nd d s sh ho ow ws s a a s se ev ve er re e t th hu un nd de er rs st to or rm m t th ha at t
m mo ov ve ed d f fr ro om m S So ou ut th h D Da ak ko ot ta a i in nt to o a an nd d N Ne eb br ra as sk ka a w wh hi il le e p pr ro od du uc ci in ng g
h ha ai il l, , t to or rn na ad do oe es s, , f fl la as sh h f fl lo oo od di in ng g a an nd d d da am ma ag gi in ng g w wi in nd ds s. . T Th he e o on ne e- -
m mi in nu ut te e i in nt te er rv va al l v vi is si ib bl le e i im ma ag ge er ry y e ex xt te en nd ds s a ac cr ro os ss s a a t tw wo o- -h ho ou ur r
p pe er ri io od d. . W Wi it th h m mu ul lt ti ip pl le e v vi ie ew ws s f fr ro om m G GO OE ES S- -R R s s b ba at tt te er ry y o of f
i in ns st tr ru um me en nt ts s i im mp po or rt ta an nt t f fe ea at tu ur re es s i in n s se ev ve er re e s st to or rm m e ev vo ol lu ut ti io on n c co ou ul ld d
b be e d de et te ec ct te ed d: : v vertical wind shear, evolving instability field, updraft
strength, anvil development and blocking, rotating overshooting
cloud top. Thus for severe storm nowcasting a number of
important parameters should be able to be derived using data
from the GOES-R system. They include: 1) Vertical shear from ABI (cloud motion), HES-IR (moisture
motion), and HES-VNIR (cloud and moisture motion); 2) Evolving instability field from ABI (surface heating),
HES-IR (instability and surface heating), and HES-VNIR (detailed moisture field); 3) Updraft strength from
ABI (IR top temperature), ABI and HES-VNIR (overshooting top height) and with HES-IR (updraft efficiency);
4) Anvil development and blocking from ABI (growth and detailed upper level atmospheric motion and water
vapor behavior) and HES-IR and VNIR (as ABI but with better spectral definition); and, 5) Rotating
overshooting top from ABI and HES-VNIR.
With GOES-R there are challenges that lead to exciting opportunities: The move to hyperspectral sensors in
the visible and infrared portion of the spectrum for oceanographic, land and meteorological applications is
important for a number of reasons that range from climate to real time data analysis. There are numerous
benefits that happen when hyperspectral visible and infrared imaging becomes a reality: channel selectivity,
exceptionally clean windows, satellite to satellite inter-calibration, noise reduction, a stable climate record,
system backup, applications growth, and algorithm transferability. Data volume is one of the detractors for
use of this technology. However, research underway at a number of institutions points to the use of lossy
compression for interferometric data is a viable alternative for handling the large data volumes from such
instruments because of the redundant nature of the spectrum when observing a scene, the lossy part
seems to result in a loss of noise, not signal!
As mentioned above, GOES-R will enter an era where its capabilities will be in tune with the space based
systems of that day multi-channel, hyperspectral and ultra temporal. If properly prepared for, forerunner
data sets should be able to be used for GOES-R risk reduction activity. Thus there will be ample
opportunities to simulate ABI and HES data and products well in advance of GOES-Rs being brought into
service, including: for ABI - MSGs SEVERI, as well as polar orbiting data from EOS (MODIS and MERIS),
ENVISAT (AATSR and MERIS), NPP (VIIRS), GCOMs GLI and many other satellites; for HES-IR - EOSs
AIRS, METOPs IASI and NPPs CrIS; and for HES-VNIR EO-1s Hyperion and hyperspectral aircraft data
such as is available from AVIRIS. Especially important will be gaining experience with multi-platform/multi-
sensor products by working with SEVERI data in conjunction with various polar data sets and non sun-
synchronous systems, i.e. TRMM that will evolve into the Global Precipitation Mission (GPM).
Finally, there are some potential opportunities that come
from high resolution and hyperspectral that are worthy of
investigation. Slide 34 illustrates one such potential: the
Oklahoma City tornado of May 3, 1999 left damage easily
detected by Landsat 5 (Figure to right) several days later
(30 meter resolution), with residual damage even evident
almost one year later. There are other instances where
Landsat imagery (and even poorer resolution MODIS) has
been used to locate areas of storm damage from hail, wind
and tornadoes. Frequent hyper-spectral views possible
from HES-VNIR point to a new and exciting potential in this
area near real time storm damage tracking?
4. CONCLUSIONS
The future of space based remote sensing and its applicability to local severe storm monitoring and
prediction looks bright. The move toward high temporal and spectral resolution from both imagers and
sounders should provide a firm foundation of observations upon which skill in this area can advance. While
hyperspectral imagery has historically focused on land surface and ocean applications, it has very valuable
applications for atmospheric related applications, especially when employed as part of a geostationary
constellation (affording stereo viewing). As indicated in slide 35, hyperspectral information in the 0.4 to 1
micron band can be used for applications that rely on scattering such as haze, smoke, dust and aerosols,
studies of cloud (especially in conjunction with an ABI, and very importantly determination of total column
water vapor. For nowcasting convection and severe weather, high-resolution views of water vapor are
invaluable they are precursor to cloud development. When combined with surface heating in clear regions
(from HES-IR and ABI) can pinpoint areas of greatest destabilization. While HES-IR will provide better
overall information on water vapor, the high resolution of HES-VNIR will show gradients and areas of stronger
moisture convergence. After clouds begin to form, using HES-VNIR can be used to monitor areas with
increased moisture convergence and predict where strongest storms will develop (well monitor between the
cumulus). In addition, we should be able to measure cloud motion with exceptional accuracy and through
stereo viewing determine vertical shear in cumulus layer. By using stereo and monitoring cloud base, we will
determine growth rate of boundary layer. Through monitoring cumulus cloud base and cloud top growth, we
will determine where destabilization is being realized with greatest intensity. Once cumulus clouds penetrate
through level of free convection, we can monitor storm growth rate and the effect of environmental shear on
storm development. When the storm becomes mature, through monitoring energy input at base and
overshooting top height, we will be able to sort out storms that are
most efficiently using the CAPE that is available. We should be able
to determine areas with more dust and aerosol loading (in the
boundary layer) and see their effects on storm morphology (hail, rain,
lightning). This is likely just a glimpse of potential - for example:
Will we be able to see major tornado funnels? Can we monitor the
tornados damage path? Will we be able to locate major hail swaths?
Can we detect major rain swaths? Will we be able to detect and
monitor areas of flooding? There are other areas that will benefit
from this technologies being applied from a geostationary
perspective, slide 36. Among those that immediately come to mind
are: hurricane cloud motion (Figure to left) analysis and better cloud
heights and motions in hyper-baroclinic regions. With rapid updates
and high spatial resolution, the ability to routinely monitor the coastal
zone, open ocean and land will be greatly enhanced, especially in
areas prone to broken cloudiness.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by NOAA/NESDIS under NOAA Grant NA17RJ1228.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Adler, R.F. and D.D. Fenn, 1979: Thunderstorm intensity as determined from satellite data. J. Appl. Meteor.,
18, 502-517.
Bader, M.J., G.S. Forbes, J.R. Grant, R.B.E. Lilley, and A.J. Waters, Eds., 1995: Images in weather
forecasting, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 499 pp.
Browning, K.A., ed., 1982: Nowcasting, Academic Press, London, 256 pp.
Byers, H.H. and R.R. Braham, Jr., 1948: Thunderstorm structure and circulation, J. Meteorol., 5, 71-86.
Fankhauser, J., 1971: Thunderstorm environment determined from aircraft and radar observations. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 99, 171-192.
Fujita, T. Theodore, 1981: Tornadoes and Downbursts in the Context of Generalized Planetary Scales. J.
Atmos. Sci., 38, 15111534.
Maddox, R.A., 1980: Mesoscale convective complexes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 61, 1374-1387.
Marwitz, J.D., 1972: The structure and motion of severe hailstorms. Part II: Multi-cell storms. J. Appl.
Meteor., 11, 180-188.
Purdom, J. F. W., 1993: Satellite observations of tornadic thunderstorms. The Tornado: Its Structure,
Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards. Geophysical Monograph, 79, American Geophysical Union, 265-274.
Routunno, R., J.B. Klemp and ML. Weisman, 1988: A theory for strong, long-lived squall lines. J. Atmos.
Sci., 45, 1027-1040.
Wilson, J.W., N. A. Crook, C. K. Mueller, J. Sun and M. Dixon, 1998: Nowcasting Thunder-storms: A Status
Report. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 2079-2099.
Zipser, E.J., 1982: Use of a conceptual model of the life-cycle of MCSs to improve very short range
forecasting. Browning, K.A., ed., Nowcasting, Academic Press, London, 191-204.