Chapter 12

Nervous Tissue
Overview of the nervous system
Cells of the nervous system
Electrophysiology of neurons
Synapses
Neural integration
Subdivisions of the Nervous System
Two maor anatomical subdivisions
Central nervous system !CNS"
#
brain $ spinal cord enclosed in bony coverings
%eripheral nervous system !%NS"
#
nerve & bundle of nerve fibers in connective tissue
#
ganglion & swelling of cell bodies in a nerve
Subdivisions of the Nervous System
Sensory !afferent" divisions !receptors to CNS"
#
visceral sensory division
#
somatic sensory division
'otor !efferent" division !CNS to effectors"
#
visceral motor division !(NS"
effectors) cardiac* smooth muscle* glands
sympathetic division !action"
parasympathetic division !digestion"
#
somatic motor division
effectors) s+eletal muscle
,undamental Types of Neurons
Sensory !afferent" neurons
# receptors detect changes in body and e-ternal environment
# this information is transmitted into brain or spinal cord
Interneurons !association neurons"
# lie between sensory $ motor pathways in CNS
# ./0 of our neurons are interneurons
# process* store $ retrieve information
Motor !efferent" neuron
# send signals out to muscles & gland cells
# organs that carry out responses called effectors
,undamental Types of Neurons
,undamental %roperties of Neurons
E-citability !irritability"
#
ability to respond to changes in the body and e-ternal environment
called stimuli
Conductivity
#
produce traveling electrical signals
Secretion
#
when electrical signal reaches end of nerve fiber* a chemical
neurotransmitter is secreted
Structure of a Neuron
Cell body & peri+aryon& soma
# single* central nucleus with large
nucleolus
# cytos+eleton of microtubules $ neurofibrils !bundles of actin filaments"
compartmentali1es 2E2 into Nissl bodies
# lipofuscin product of brea+down of
worn3out organelles 33 more with age
4ast number of short dendrites
# for receiving signals
Singe a-on !nerve fiber" arising from a-on hilloc+ for rapid
conduction
# a-oplasm $ a-olemma $ synaptic vesicles
4ariation in Neuronal Structure
'ultipolar neuron
# most common
# many dendrites5one a-on
6ipolar neuron
# one dendrite5one a-on
# olfactory* retina* ear
7nipolar neuron
# sensory from s+in $ organs to spinal cord
(na-onic neuron
# many dendrites5no a-on
# help in visual processes
(-onal Transport
'any proteins made in soma must be transported to a-on $
a-on terminal
#
repair a-olemma* for gated ion channel proteins* as en1ymes or
neurotransmitters
,ast anterograde a-onal transport
#
either direction up to 8// mm5day for organelles* en1ymes* vesicles $
small molecules
,ast retrograde for recycled materials $ pathogens
Slow a-onal transport or a-oplasmic flow
#
moves cytos+eletal $ new a-oplasm at 1/ mm5day during repair $
regeneration in damaged a-ons
Si- Types of Neuroglial Cells
Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths in CNS
# each wraps processes around many nerve fibers
(strocytes
# contribute to 666 $ regulate composition of brain tissue fluid
# most abundant glial cells 3 form framewor+ of CNS
# sclerosis # damaged neurons replace by hardened mass of astrocytes
Ependymal cells line cavities $ produce CS,
'icroglia !macrophages" formed from monocytes
# concentrate in areas of infection* trauma or stro+e
Schwann cells myelinate fibers of PNS
Satellite cells with uncertain function
Neuroglial Cells of CNS
'yelin Sheath
9nsulating layer around a nerve fiber
#
oligodendrocytes in CNS $ schwann cells in %NS
#
formed from wrappings of plasma membrane
2/0 protein $ :/ 0 lipid !loo+s white"
9n %NS* hundreds of layers wrap a-on
#
the outermost coil is schwann cell !neurilemma"
#
covered by basement membrane $ endoneurium
9n CNS* no neurilemma or endoneurium
;aps between myelin segments & nodes of 2anvier
9nitial segment !area before 1st schwann cell" $ a-on hilloc+
form trigger 1one where signals begin
'yelin Sheath
Note) Node of 2anvier between Schwann cells
'yelin Sheath ,ormation
'yelination begins during fetal development* but proceeds
most rapidly in infancy<
7nmyelinated (-ons
Schwann cells hold small nerve fibers in grooves on their
surface with only one membrane wrapping
Speed of Nerve Signal
Speed of signal transmission along nerve fibers
#
depends on diameter of fiber $ presence of myelin
large fibers have more surface area for signals
Speeds
#
small* unmyelinated fibers & /<= 3 2</ m5sec
#
small* myelinated fibers & > 3 1=</ m5sec
#
large* myelinated fibers & up to 12/ m5sec
,unctions
#
slow signals supply the stomach $ dilate pupil
#
fast signals supply s+eletal muscles $ transport sensory signals for
vision $ balance
2egeneration of %eripheral Nerve ,ibers
Can occur if soma $ neurilemmal tube is intact
Stranded end of a-on $ myelin sheath degenerate
?ealthy a-on stub puts out several sprouts
Tube guides luc+y sprout bac+ to its original destination
Electrical %otentials $ Currents
Neuron doctrine 33 nerve pathway is not a continuous @wireA
but a series of separate cells
Neuronal communication is based on mechanisms for
producing electrical potentials $ currents
#
electrical potential 3 difference in concentration of charged particles
between different parts of the cell
#
electrical current 3 flow of charged particles from one point to another
within the cell
Biving cells are polari1ed
#
resting membrane potential is 3C/ m4 with a relatively negative
charge on the inside of nerve cell membranes
2esting 'embrane %otential
7neDual electrolytes distribution between EC,59C,
#
diffusion of ions down their concentration gradients
#
selective permeability of plasma membrane
#
electrical attraction of cations and anions
E-planation for 3C/ m4 resting potential
#
membrane very permeable to E
F

lea+s out until electrical gradient created attracts it bac+ in
#
cytoplasmic anions can not escape due to si1e or charge !%O
8
23
* SO
8
23
*
organic acids* proteins"
#
membrane much less permeable to Na
F
#
Na
F
5E
F
pumps out > Na
F
for every 2 E
F
it brings in
wor+s continuously $ reDuires great deal of (T%
necessitates glucose $ o-ygen be supplied to nerve tissue
9onic 6asis of 2esting 'embrane %otential
Na
F
concentrated outside of cell !EC,"
E
F
concentrated inside cell !9C,"
Bocal %otentials
Bocal disturbances in membrane potential
#
occur when neuron is stimulated by chemicals* light* heat or
mechanical disturbance
#
depolari1ation decreases potential across cell membrane due to
opening of gated Na
F
channels
Na
F
rushes in down concentration and electrical gradients
Na
F
diffuses for short distance inside membrane producing a change in voltage
called a local potential
Gifferences from action potential
#
are graded !vary in magnitude with stimulus strength"
#
are decremental !get wea+er the farther they spread"
#
are reversible as E
F
diffuses out of cell
#
can be either e-citatory or inhibitory !hyperpolari1e"
Chemical E-citation
(ction %otentials
'ore dramatic change in membrane produced where high density of
voltage3gated channels occur
# trigger 1one has =// channels5m
2
!normal is C="
9f threshold potential !3==m4" is reached voltage-gated Na
F
channels
open !Na
F
enters causing depolari1ation"
%asses / m4 $ Na
F
channels close !pea+s at F>="
E
F
gates fully open* E
F
e-its
# no longer opposed by
electrical gradient
# until repolari1ation occurs
Negative overshoot produces
hyperpolari1ation
(ction %otentials
Called a spi+e
Characteristics of (%
#
follows an all3or3none law
voltage gates either open or donHt
#
nondecremental !do not get wea+er with distance"
#
irreversible !once started goes to completion and can not be stopped"
The 2efractory %eriod
%eriod of resistance to stimulation
(bsolute refractory period
#
as long as Na
F
gates are open
#
no stimulus will trigger (%
2elative refractory period
#
as long as E
F
gates are open
#
only especially strong
stimulus will trigger new (%
2efractory period is occurring only to a small patch of
membrane at one time !Duic+ly recovers"
9mpulse Conduction in 7nmyelinated ,ibers
Threshold voltage in trigger 1one begins impulse
Nerve signal !impulse" 3 a chain reaction of seDuential
opening of voltage3gated Na
F
channels down entire length of a-on
Nerve signal !nondecremental" travels at 2m5sec
9mpulse Conduction in 7nmyelinated ,ibers
Saltatory Conduction in 'yelinated ,ibers
4oltage3gated channels needed for (%s
#
fewer than 2= per m
2
in myelin3covered regions
#
up to 12*/// per m
2
in nodes of 2anvier

,ast NaF diffusion occurs between nodes
Saltatory Conduction of 'yelinated ,iber
Notice how the action potentials ump from node of 2anvier
to node of 2anvier<
Synapses 6etween Two Neurons
,irst neuron in path releases neurotransmitter onto second
neuron that responds to it
#
1st neuron is presynaptic neuron
#
2nd neuron is postsynaptic neuron
Synapse may be a-odendritic* a-osomatic or a-oa-onic
Number of synapses on postsynaptic cell variable
#
:/// on spinal motor neuron
#
1//*/// on neuron in cerebellum
The Giscovery of Neurotransmitters
?istological observations revealed a 2/ to 8/ nm gap
between neurons !synaptic cleft"
Otto Boewi !1:C>31.I1" first to demonstrate function of
neurotransmitters at chemical synapse
#
flooded e-posed hearts of 2 frogs with saline
#
stimulated vagus nerve of one frog 333 heart slows
#
removed saline from that frog $ found it would slow heart of 2nd frog
333 @vagus substanceA discovered
#
later renamed acetylcholine
Strictly electrical synapses do e-ist !gap unctions"
#
cardiac $ smooth muscle* some neurons $ neuroglia
Chemical Synapse Structure
%resynaptic neurons have synaptic vesicles with
neurotransmitter and postsynaptic have receptors
Types of Neurotransmitters
1// neurotransmitter types in 8 maor categories
(cetylcholine
#
formed from acetic acid $ choline
(mino acid neurotransmitters
'onoamines
#
synthesi1ed by replacing 3COO? in amino acids with another
functional group
#
catecholamines !epi* NE $ dopamine"
#
indolamines !serotonin $ histamine"
Neuropeptides !ne-t"
Neuropeptides
Chains of 2 to 8/ amino acids
Stored in a-on terminal as
larger secretory granules
!called dense3core vesicles"
(ct at lower concentrations
Bonger lasting effects
Some released from nonneural tissue
#
gut3brain peptides cause food cravings
Some function as hormones
#
modify actions of neurotransmitters
Synaptic Transmission
> +inds of synapses with different modes of action
E-citatory cholinergic synapse
9nhibitory ;(6(3ergic synapse
E-citatory adrenergic synapse
Synaptic delay !<= msec"
#
time from arrival of nerve signal at synapse to start of (% in
postsynaptic cell
E-citatory Cholinergic Synapse
Nerve signal opens voltage3
gated calcium channels
Triggers release of (Ch which
crosses synapse
(Ch receptors trigger opening
of Na
F
channels producing
local potential !postsynaptic
potential"
Jhen reaches 3==m4* triggers (%
9nhibitory ;(6(3ergic Synapse
Nerve signal triggers release of ;(6(
!3aminobutyric acid" which crosses synapse
;(6( receptors trigger opening of Cl
-
channels producing
hyperpolari1ation
%ostsynaptic neuron now less li+ely to reach threshold
E-citatory (drenergic Synapse
Neurotransmitter is NE
(cts through 2
nd
messenger systems !c('%"
2eceptor is an integral membrane protein associated with a ;
protein* which activates adenylate cyclase* which converts (T% to
c('%
c('% has multiple effects
#
synthesis of new en1ymes
#
activating en1ymes
#
opening ligand gates
#
produce a postsynaptic potential
E-citatory (drenergic Synapse
Cessation $ 'odification of the Signal
'echanisms to turn off stimulation
#
diffusion of neurotransmitter away from synapse into EC, where
astrocytes return it to the neurons
#
synaptic +nob reabsorbs amino acids and monoamines by endocytosis
$ brea+s them down with monoamine o-idase
#
acetylcholinesterase degrades (Ch in the synaptic cleft
choline reabsorbed $ recycled
Neuromodulators modify synaptic transmission
#
raise or lower number of receptors
#
alter neurotransmitter release* synthesis or brea+down
nitric o-ide stimulates neurotransmitter release
Neural 9ntegration
'ore synapses a neuron has the greater its information3
processing capability
#
cells in cerebral corte- with 8/*/// synapses
#
cerebral corte- estimated to contain 1// trillion synapses
Chemical synapses are decision3ma+ing components of the
nervous system
#
ability to process* store $ recall information is due to neural
integration
Neural integration is based on types of postsynaptic
potentials produced by neurotransmitters
%ostsynaptic %otentials
E-citatory postsynaptic potentials !E%S%"
#
a positive voltage change causing postsynaptic cell to be more li+ely
to fire
result from NaF flowing into the cell
#
glutamate $ aspartate are e-citatory neurotransmitters
9nhibitory postsynaptic potentials !9%S%"
#
a negative voltage change causing postsynaptic cell to be less li+ely to
fire !hyperpolari1e"
result of Cl3 flowing into the cell or EF leaving the cell
#
glycine $ ;(6( are inhibitory neurotransmitters
(Ch $ norepinephrine vary depending on cell
%ostsynaptic %otentials
Summation of %ostsynaptic %otentials
Net postsynaptic potentials in the trigger 1one
#
whether neuron fires depends on net input of other cells
typical E%S% has a voltage of /<= m4 $ lasts 2/ msec
a typical neuron would need >/ E%S%s to reach threshold
#
temporal summation occurs
when single synapse receives
many E%S%s in a short period
of time
Summation of E%S%Hs
Goes this represent spatial or temporal summationK
%resynaptic 9nhibition
One presynaptic neuron suppresses another one<
#
Neuron 9 releases inhibitory neurotransmitter ;(6(
prevents voltage3gated calcium channels from opening in neuron S so it releases
less or no neurotransmitter onto neuron 2 and fails to stimulate it
Neural Coding
Lualitative information !salty or sweet" depends upon which
neurons are fired
Lualitative information depend on)
#
strong stimuli e-cite different neurons !recruitment"
#
stronger stimuli causes a more rapid firing rate
CNS udges stimulus strength from firing freDuency of sensory neurons
# I// action potentials5sec instead of I per second
Neuronal %ools and Circuits
Neuronal pool is 1///Hs to millions of interneurons that share
a specific body function
#
control rhythm of breathing
,acilitated versus discharge 1ones
#
in discharge 1one* a single cell can produce firing
#
in facilitated 1one* single cell can only ma+e it easier for the
postsynaptic cell to fire
Neuronal Circuits
Giverging circuit 33 one cell synapses on other that each
synapse on others
Converging circuit 33 input from many fibers on one neuron
!respiratory center"
Neuronal Circuits
2everberating circuits
#
neurons stimulate each other in linear seDuence but one cell
restimulates the first cell to start the process all over
%arallel after3discharge circuits
#
input neuron stimulates several pathways which stimulate the output
neuron to go on firing for longer time after input has truly stopped
'emory $ Synaptic %lasticity
'emories are not stored in individual cells
%hysical basis of memory is a pathway of cells
#
called a memory trace or engram
#
new synapses or e-isting synapses have been modified to ma+e
transmission easier !synaptic plasticity"
Synaptic potentiation
#
process of ma+ing transmission easier
#
correlates with different forms of memory
immediate memory
short3term memory
long3term memory
9mmediate 'emory
(bility to hold something in your thoughts for ust a few
seconds
,eel for the flow of events !sense of the present"
Our memory of what ust happened @echoesA in our minds
for a few seconds
#
reverberating circuits
Short3Term 'emory
Basts from a few seconds to several hours
#
Duic+ly forgotten if distracted with something new
Jor+ing memory allows us to +eep something in mind long
enough search for +eys* dial the phone
#
reverberating circuits
,acilitation causes memory to longer lasting
#
tetanic stimulation !rapid*repetitive signals" causes CaF2 accumulates
$ cell becomes more li+ely to fire
%osttetanic potentiation !to og a memory"
#
CaF2 level in synaptic +nob has stayed elevated long after tetanic
stimulation* so little stimulation will be needed to recover that memory
Bong3Term 'emory
'ay last up to a lifetime
Types of long3term memory
#
declarative is retention of facts as te-t or words
#
procedural is retention of motor s+ills 33 +eyboard
%hysical remodeling of synapses with new branching of
a-ons or dendrites
'olecular changes called long3term potentiation
#
tetanic stimulation causes ionic changes !CaF2 entry"
neuron produces more neurotransmitter receptors
synthesi1es more protein used for synapse remodeling
releases nitric o-ide signals presynaptic neuron to release more neurotransmitter
(l1heimer Gisease
1//*/// deaths5year
#
110 of population over I=M 8C0 by age :=
Symptoms
#
memory loss for recent events* moody* combative* lose ability to tal+*
wal+* and eat
Giagnosis confirmed at autopsy
#
atrophy of gyri !folds" in cerebral corte-
#
neurofibrillary tangles $ senile plaDues
Gegeneration of cholinergic neurons $ deficiency of (Ch
and nerve growth factors
;enetic connection confirmed for some forms
%ar+inson Gisease
%rogressive loss of motor function beginning in =/Hs or I/Hs
33 no recovery
#
degeneration of dopamine3releasing neurons in substantia nigra
prevents e-cessive activity in motor centers !basal ganglia"
#
involuntary muscle contractions
pill3rolling motion* facial rigidity* slurred speech* illegible handwriting* slow gait
Treatment is drugs and physical therapy
#
dopamine precursor can cross blood3brain barrier
#
deprenyl !'(O inhibitor" slows neuronal degeneration
#
surgical techniDue to relieve tremors