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5do'ument'lass6apsa4paperamsmathamss%mb78re-tex49
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5usepa':a!e8epsfi!9
5usepa':a!e8d'olumn9% Ali!n table 'olumns on de'imal point
5usepa':a!e8bm9% bold math
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5ne0'ommand85dbar9 85ensuremath85 5math'har+"<5m:ern.#"mu d99
%5nofiles
5be!in8do'ument9
5title8Pr5+a'ti'a 09% =or'e line brea:s 0ith 55
5author8Roberto $arlos Arau>o Parra9
5email8arau>opr"0#4?li'ifu!.u!to.mx9
5affiliation8%
)i-isi5+on de $ien'ias e 1n!enier5+ias $ampus /e5+on @ni-ersidad de Auana>uato /oma del 2os,ue
#04 4B#C0 /e5+on Auana>uato *5+exi'o9%
5date85toda%9% 1t is al0a%s 5toda% toda%
% but an% date ma% be expli'itl% spe'ified
5be!in8abstra't9
5textbf8Db>eti-o39 =amiliariEarse 'on el editor de textos 5/aTeX % desarrollar destreEa ne'esaria para el
buen empleo de esta herramienta.
5end8abstra't9
%5-spa'e8."pt9

5ma:etitle
5se'tion8Farmoni' Ds'illations in T0o )imentions9
Ge next 'onsider the motion of a parti'le that is allo0ed t0o de!rees of freedom. Ge ta:e the
restorin! for'e to be proportional to the distan'e of the parti'le from a for'e 'enter lo'ated at the ori!in
and to be dire'ted to0ard the ori!in3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#9
=H.: r
5end8e,uation9
Ghi'h 'an be resol-ed in polar 'oordinates into the 'omponents
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,."9
5left.5be!in8matrix9
=I8x9H: r 5'os5theta H. 5 : x J 55
=I8%9H: r 5sin5thetaH. 5 : x J
5end8matrix95ri!ht59
5end8e,uation9
The e,uations of motion are
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.49
5left.5be!in8matrix9
5ddot8x9K5ome!aI809L8"9xH0 J 55
5ddot8%9K5ome!aI809L8"9%H0 J
5end8matrix95ri!ht59
5end8e,uation9
0here as before M5ome!aI809L8"9H:NmM. The solutions are
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.49
5left.5be!in8matrix9
x&t(HA 5'os&5ome!aI809t.5alpha( J 55
%&t(H2'os&5ome!a I809t.5beta ( J
5end8matrix95ri!ht59
5end8e,uation9
Thus the motion is one of simple harmoni' os'illation in ea'h of the t0o dire'tions both os'illations
ha-in! the same fre,uen'% bus possibl% differinf in amplitude and in phase. Ge 'an obtain the e,uation
for the path of the parti'le b% eliminatin! the time bet0eem the t0o e,uations. =irs 0e 0rite
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.C9
%&t(H25'os65ome!aI809t.5alpha &5alpha.5beta(7H25'os&5ome!aI809t.5alpha(5'os&5alpha.5beta(.
25sin&5ome!aI809t.5alpha(5sin&5alpha.5beta(
5end8e,uation9
)efinin! M5delta H5alpha.5betaM and nothin! that M5'os&5ome!aI809t.5alpha(HxNAM 0e ha-e
5be!in8displa%math9
%H5fra'8298A9x5'os5delta.25s,rt8#.5fra'8xL8"998AL8"999 5sin5theta
5end8displa%math9
or
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.<9
A%.2x5'os5delta.25s,rt8AL8"9.xL8"995sin5delta
5end8e,uation9
Dn s,uarin! this be'omes
5be!in8displa%math9
AL8"9%L8"9."A2x%5'os5deltaKAL8"9xL8"95sinL8"95delta
5end8displa%math9
so that
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.B9
2L8"9xL8"9."A2x%5'os5deltaKAL8"92L8"95sinL8"95delta
5end8e,uation9
1f M5deltaMis set e,ual to M5pm5piN"M this e,uation redu'es to the easil% re'o!niEed e,uation for an
ellipse3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.;9
5fra'8xL8"998AL8"99K 5fra'8%L8"9982L8"99H#53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 5deltaH5pm 5piN"
5end8e,uation9
1f the amplitudes are e,ual MAH2M and if M5deltaH5pm5piN"M 0e ha-e the spe'ial 'ase of 'ir'ular
motion.
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.O9
xL8"9K%L8"9HAL8"95P 5P 5P 5mathrm8for953 AH25P 5P 5P 5mathrm8and953 53 53 5deltaH5pm5piN"
5end8e,uation9
Another spe'ial 'ase results if the phase M5deltaM -anishes3 then 0e ha-e
5be!in8displa%math9
2L8"9xL8"9."A2x%KAL8"9%L8"9H0 5P 5P 5P 5P 5deltaH0
5end8displa%math9
=a'torin!
5be!in8displa%math9
2x.A%(L8"9H0
5end8displa%math9
0hi'h is the e,uation of a strai!ht line3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#09
%H5fra'8298A9x 53 53 53 53 53 5deltaH0
5end8e,uation9
Similarl% the phase M5deltaH5pm5piM %ields the strai!ht line of the oposite slope3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.##9
%H.5fra'8298A9x 53 53 53 53 53 5deltaH5pm5pi
5end8e,uation9
The 'ur-es of =i!ure 4." illustrate E,uation 4."" for the 'ase MAH2P 5deltaHO0L85'ir'9M or
M"B0L85'ir'9M %ields a 'ir'le M5deltaH#;0L85'ir'9M or M4<0L85'ir'9M %ields a strai!ht line. All other
-alues of M5deltaM %ield ellipses.
1n the !eneral 'ase of t0o.dimensional os'illations the an!ular fre,uen'ies for the motions in the Mx.M
and M%.M dire'tions need not be e,ual so that E,uation 4.#O be'omes
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#"9
5left.5be!in8matrix9
x&t(HA5'os&5ome!aI8x9t.5alpha(J 55
%&t(H25'os&5ome!aI8%9t.5beta( J
5end8matrix95ri!ht59
5end8e,uation9
1f the amplitudes are e,ual MAH2M and if M5deltaH5pm 5piN"M 0e ha-e the spe'ial 'ase of 'ir'ular
motion.
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.##9
xL8"9K%L8"9HAL8"95P 5P 5P 5mathrm8for953 AH25P 5P 5P 5mathrm8and953 53 53 5deltaH5pm5piN"
5end8e,uation9
Another spe'ial 'ase results if the phase M5deltaM -anishes3 then 0e ha-e
5be!in8displa%math9
2L8"9xL8"9."A2x%KAL8"9%L8"9H0 5P 5P 5P 5P 5deltaH0
5end8displa%math9
=a'torin!
5be!in8displa%math9
2x.A%(L8"9H0
5end8displa%math9
0hi'h is the e,uation of a strai!ht line3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#49
%H5fra'8298A9x 53 53 53 53 53 5deltaH0
5end8e,uation9
Similarl% the phase M5deltaH5pm5piM %ields the strai!ht line of the oposite slope3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#C9
%H.5fra'8298A9x 53 53 53 53 53 5deltaH5pm5pi
5end8e,uation9
The 'ur-es of =i!ure 4." illustrate E,uation 4."" for the 'ase MAH2MP M5deltaHO0L85'ir'9M or
M"B0L85'ir'9M %ields a 'ir'le and M5deltaH#;0L85'ir'9M or M4<0L85'ir'9M %ields a strai!ht line. All
other -alues of M5deltaM %ield ellipses.
1n the !eneral 'ase of t0o.dimensional os'illations the an!ular fre,uen'ies for the motions in the Mx.M
and M%.M dire'tions need not be e,ual so that E,uation 4.#O be'omes
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#<9
5left.5be!in8matrix9
x&t(HA5'os&5ome!aI8x9t.5alpha(J 55
%&t(H25'os&5ome!aI8%9t.5beta( J
5end8matrix95ri!ht59
5end8e,uation9
The path of the motion is o lon!er an ellipse but a /issa>ous 'ur-e.5footnote8The =ren'h ph%s%'ist
Qules /issa>ous &#;"".#;;0( demostrated in #;CB and is !enerall% !i-e 'redit althou!h Rathaniel
2o0dit'h seems to ha-e reported in #;#C t0o mutuall% ortho!onal os'illations displa%in! the same
motion &$r;#(.9 Su'h a 'ur-e 0ill be 'losed if the motion repeals itself at re!ular inter-als of time.
This 0ill be possible onl% if the an!ular fre'uen'ies M5ome!aI8x9M and M5ome!aM are
'ommensurable that is M5ome!aI8x9N5ome!aI8%9M is a rational fra'tion. Suf a 'ase is sho0n in =i!ure
4.4 in 0hi'h M5ome!aI8%9H5tfra'8498495ome!aI8x9M &also M5alphaH5betaM(. 1f the ratio of the an!ular
fre,uen'ies is not a rational fra'tion the 'ur-e 0ill be openP that is the mo-in! parti'le 0ill ne-er pass
t0i'e throu!h the has elapsed the 'ur-e ,ill pass arbitraril% 'lose to an% !i-en point l%in! 0ithin the
re'tan!le M"A5times"2M and 0ill therefore SfillT the re'tan!le.
The t0o.dimentional os'illator is an example of s%stem in 0hi'h an infinitesimal be alon! a 'losed
path if the t0o an!ular fre,uen'% ratio de-iates from a rational fra'tion b% e-en an infinitesimal
amount then the path to be 'losed the an!ular fre,uen'% ratio must be :no0 to be a rational fra'tion
0ith infinite pre'ision.
1f the an!ular fre,uen'ies for the motions in the Mx.M and M%.M dire'tions are diferent the shape of the
resultin! /issa>ous 'ur-e stron!l% depends on the phase differen'e M5deltaH5alpha.5betaM. =i!ure 4.4
sho0s the results for the 'ase M5ome!aI8%9H"5ome!aI8x9M for phase differen'es of 0 M5piN4M and
M5piN"M.
5ma:etitle
5se'tion8Phase )ia!rams9
The state of motion of a one.dimentional os'ilator su'h as that dis'ussed in Se'tion 4." 0ill be
'omplet% spe'ified as a fun'tion of time if t0o ,uantities are !i-en at one instant of time that is the
intial 'onditions Mx&tI809(M and M5dot8x9&tI809(M. &T0o ,uantities are needed be'ause the differntial
e,uation for the motion is of sen'ond order.( Ge ma% 'onsider the ,uantities Mx&t(M and M5dot8x9&t(M to
be the 'oordinates of a point in t0o.dimentional spa'e 'alled phase spa'e. &1n t0o dimensions the
phase spase is a M"n.Mdimensional spa'e.(. As the time -aries the point MP&x5dot8x9(M des'ribin! the
state of the os'ilatin! parti'le 0ill mo-e alon! a 'ertain phase path in the phase plane. =or differet
initial'onditions of the os'illator the morion 0ill be des'ribed b% different phase paths. An% !i-en path
represents the 'omplete time histor% of os'illator for 'ertain set of initial 'onditions. The totalit% of
possible phase paths 'onstitutes the phase portrair or hte phase dia!ram of the os'illator.
A''ordin! to the results of the pre'edin! se'tion 0e ha-e for the simple moni' os'illator.
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#B9
x&t(HA5sin&5ome!aI809t.5delta(
5end8e,uation9
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#;9
5dot8x9HA5ome!aI8095'os&5ome!aI809t.5delta(
5end8e,uation9
1f 0e eliminate MtM from these e,uations 0e find for the e,uation path
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.#O9
5fra'8xL8"998AL8"99K5fra'85dot8xL8"9998AL8"95ome!aI809L8"99H#
5end8e,uation9
This e,uation represents a famil% of ellipses se-eral of 0hi'h are sho0n in =i!ure 4.C. Ge :no0 that
the total ener!% MEM of the so'illator is M5tfra'8#98"9:AL8"9M and be'ause M5ome!aI809L8"9H:NmM
E,uation 4."O 'an be 0ritten as
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,."09
5fra'8xL8"998"EN:9K5fra'85dot8xL8"9998"ENm9H#
5end8e,uation9
Ea'h phase path then 'orresponds to a definite total ener!% of the os'illator. This result is expe'ted
be'ause the s%stem is 'onser-ati-e&i e. MEHM 'onst(.
Rot0o phase paths of the os'illator 'an 'ross. 1f ther 'ould 'ross this 0ould be impl% that for a !i-en
set of initial 'onditions Mx&tI809(5dot8x9&tI809(M &ie. 'oordinates of the 'rossin! point( the motion
'ould pro''ed alon! different phase paths. 2ut this is impossible be'ause the solutionof the differential
e,uation is uni,ue.
1f the 'oordinates axes of the phase plane are 'hosen as in =i!ure ".C the motion of the representati-e
point MP&x5dot8x9(M 0ill al0a%s bee in a 'lo':0ise dire'tion be'ause for MxU0M the -elo'it% M5dot8x9
M is al0a%s de'reasin! and for MxV0M the -elo'it% is al0a%s in'resasin!.
To obtain E,uatios 4."; for Mx&t(M and M5dot8x9&t(M 0e must inte!rate E,uation 4.C a se'ond.order
differential e,uation3
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,."#9
5fra'8dL8"9x98dtL8"99K5ome!aI809L8"9H0
5end8e,uation9
Ge 'an obtein the e,uation for the phase path ho0e-er b% a simpler pro'edure be'ause E,uation 4.4#
'an be repla'ted b%the pair of e,uations
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,.""9
5fra'8dx98dt9H5dot8x953 53 53 53 53 53 5fra'8dx98dt9H.5ome!aI809L8"9x
5end8e,uation9
1f 0e di-ide the se'ond of these e,uations b% the first 0e obtein
5be!in8e,uation95label8e,."49
5fra'8d5dot8x998dx9H.5ome!aI809L8"95fra'8x985dot8x99
5end8e,uation9
This first.order differential e,uation for M5dot8x9H5dot8x9&x(M the solution to 0hi'h is >ust E,uation
4."O. =or the simple harmoni' os'illator there is no diffi'ult% in obtainin! the !eneral solution for the
motion b% sol-in! the se'ond.order e,uation. 2t in more 'ompli'ated situations it is sometimes
'onsiderabl% eaiser to dire'tl% find the e,uation of the phase path M5dot8x9H5dot8x9&x(M 0ithout
pro'eedin! throu!h the 'al'ulation of Mx&t(M.
5ma:etitle
5se'tion8)amped Ds'illations9
The motion represented b% the simple harmoni' os'illator is termed a free os'illationP on'e set into
os'illation the motion 0oul ne-er 'ease. This o-ersimplifies the a'tual ph%si'al 'ase in 0hi'h
dissipati-e or fi'tional for'es 0ould e-entuall% damp the motion to the point that the so'illations
0ould no lon!er o''ur. Ge 'an analiEe the motion in su'h a 'ase b% in'orporatin! into the differential
e,uation a...
=in de la se''iWn del libro a trans'ribir.
5be!in8thebiblio!raph%98OOO9
5bibitem8*arion9Thornthon *arion 5textit8$lassi'al )%nami's Df Parti'les And S%stems9. Ed.
2roo:sN$ole 5J Sons &Re0 Xor: #O;;( pp #04.#0;.
5end8thebiblio!raph%9

5end8do'ument9
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