446-

THEORY OF ARCIIITECTUllE Book II.

iiboiit (U)iiblu llie tlii:-kness of tlie plate. P'or plates of lialf an inch tliifk ai-.d upwaids,
about once and a lialf the tliickiiess of the plate. The length of the rivet before clenthiiig
(Mhicli is edeoied whilst tlic rivtt is ri'd-liot). measuring from tlie head, equals the sum
of the thickness of the platt-s to be connected, added to 'J^ inche<; multiplied by the
diameter ot the rivet. A good rivet may be l)ent double whilst cold without showing any
signs of fr.ictcre ; and the head when hot should stand being hammered down to less than
^
in. in tkickness without cracking at the edge. fhey should also stand having a punch
:f nearly their own diameter driven right tlirough the shank of the rivet when hut,
without cracking the iron round the hole. CC. G. Smith.)
1631s. Steel rivets, fully larger in diameter than those used in riveting iron plates of
the same thick ne'^.-;, being found to be greatly too small for riveting steel plates, the pro-
bability is suggested that the proper proportion for iron rivets is not, as generally assumed,
a diameter equal to the thickness of the two jilates to be joined. The shearing strain of
steel rivets is found to he about a fourth less than the tensile strain. (Kirkaldy;.
16?)lt In the bridge over the Thames for tlie Charing Cross Railway, the holes were
drilled and not punched. 'J'his is a point upon wliich engineers differ considerably
;
but
u.evst firms punch the holes. At Fairbaim's works at Maneliester, drilling holes was con-
sidered to lie more expensive without adding to tlie strength. Mr. Parkes thinks that the
punching injured the iron considerably, and ihought Fairbairn's experiments went to show
it. (Society of Engineers, Transactions, 1865).
163 1h. I'ins, keys, and wedyes are exposed, like rivets, to a shearing stre'^s. The formula
for finding their proper sectional area is the same. They must he held tiglitly in tiieir
aeats
;
and in order that a wedge or key may not .slip out of its seat, its angle of obliquity
ought not to exceed tlie angle of repose of iron upon iron, which, to provide for the con-
tingency of the sur'aces being greasy, may l)e taken at about 4.
(Ilankine).
163I('. If a boll or screw has to withstand a shearing stress, its diameter is to be deter-
mined like that of a cylindrical pin. If it has to withstand tension, its diameter is to be
determined by having regard to its tenacity. In either case the effective diameter of tne
bolt is its least diameter; that is, if it has a screw upon it, the diameter of the Sjiindle
inside the thread. The projection of the thread is usually one-half of the pitch
;
and the J
pitch should not in general be greater than one-fifth of the effective diameter, and may l)e M
considerably les.s. In order that tiie resistance of a screw or screw-bolt to ruptm-e, by
stripping the thread, may be at least eq.ial to its resistance to direct tearing asunder, tlie
length of the nut should be at least one half of the effective diameter of the screw: audit
is often in practice considerably greater; for example, once and a half that diameter. The
head of a bolt is usually about twice the diameter of the spindle and of a thickness which
is usually greater than |tlis of that diameter. (Rankine).
16;'l?t). Witslmrs are flat plates of iron, placed at the sides of timbers to secure them
against the crushing action of the head and nut of a bolt whilst being screwed up. For
fir. the diameter of the washer is made about
3^
times that of the bolt; and for oak,
about 2^ times. Wlien a bolt is placed oblique to the direction of the beam which it
traverses, a notch should lie cut in tlie timber perpendicular to the bolt, to receive the
pressure of the washer equally, or notched to receive a bevelled washer of cast iron, one
side of which fits the wood, and the other fits the axis of the bolt.
TousioN.
1631a-. Torsion, or the resistance of bodies to being twisted, is found : I. When a body
is fastened at one end and a force is applied at the other. II When the force at one end
isgreater than at the other end. III. When the forces at the ends are in opposite directions,
and are so applied as to twist the body. As this fact chiefly, if not entirely, concerns rr.achinery
in motion, we refer the student fcr more specific details to Warr, Dynamics,
p.
'269, who gives
a table of
"
modulus of torsion
"
of various timbers and metals, derived from experiments
made by Bevan, in Phd Tians. 1H29.
p.
128. Approximate formula are given by Hurst:

I. When the shaft is circidar,

Y/^^'
=d. And
y-' = W. II. When the shaft is square,
/'
^^
'
=
. Here d diameter inches
;
W weight pounds permanently sustained by the shaft;
/ leno-th of lever in feet, at the end of which W acts
;
s side in inches
;
and C, cast steel 590
;
wrought iron 335; cast iron 330;
gun metal 170, brass 1.50; copper 135; lead 34.
IGSly. In the Artizan for 1857 and 1858 is an instructive Em/niri/ into the Strength oj
Beitins and Girders, hy S. Hughes, deserving attention. The chief authorities for the data
rontained in that article, and also in tliis section, are quoted herein.