Cut-OutRelayatHigh/LowRPMs

When the armature in the generator is spinning fast enough (about 1000 generator RPM or 750
engine RPM), the current in the shunt windings (3g) of the cut-out relay will generate a magnetic
field strong enough to overcome the natural spring tension of the contact arm (3d). It snaps own,
bringing the two contacts together. Current now flows through the series windings (3e), across
the contacts and out the arm (3d), finally reaching the output terminal (usually A) on the
control box. From there, it goes on to the ammeter (if fitted) and then to the battery.
This current now flowing through the series windings (3e) actually intensifies the magnetic field
around the core (3f) of the cut-out relay, and this in turn holds the arm down even more firmly,
pressing the contacts (3d) together. The point when the contacts close is usually adjusted so that
the internal voltage of the regulator is about 12.7 to 13 volts.

When the engine slows to idle, the armature slows down as well. This means that the voltage
induced in the spinning armature drops. Lower voltage reduces the strength of the magnetic field
holding the series windings contacts (3d) closed. Eventually, the weakened magnetic field can
no longer hold against the arms spring tension and the contacts open. (The way the contacts
open is more complex, but this description covers it.) This immediately stops all current flow to
or from the generator. The point that the contacts open (around 8.5 to 11 volts) is known as the
drop-off point.
If the series winding contacts in the cut-out relay did not open at low generator output, the higher
battery voltage would flow back through the control box, through the wiring harness and into the
armatures fine wire windings in the generator. The reverse current flow would melt the
windings and destroy the generator. You can see why the control box is so important.


Voltage Regulator

The other half of the control box, the voltage regulator (2b, 3b), limits the voltage in the charging
system to a safe value by controlling the internal voltage of the generator. The voltage regulator,
like the cut-out, has a shunt winding (3h) made up of many turns of fine wire wrapped around a
soft iron core. Suspended above the regulator core are a pair of contact points (3i) similar to the
cut-out relay. However, these points are normally closed, rather than open. When the points are
closed, the output current from the D terminal on the generator goes through the regulator
frame (3l), then through the regulator contacts (3n) to the field terminal on the control box
(usually F). From this field terminal, the current flows to the field terminal (F) on the
generator and then through the field windings (3d) around the field poles of the generator. The
current in the field windings (3d) creates the magnetic field around the armature (3a). The
armature spinning inside this magnetic field generates the electric current that feeds the battery
and the rest of the electrical system.
The function of the voltage regulator is to break this connection.

When the generator is spinning slowly, generator output voltage is low. This means that the
current in the regulator shunt windings (3m) is weak, and the magnetic field created by this weak
current is unable to overcome the spring tension in the arm holding the regulator contact points
(3n) closed. As the generator spins faster, the output voltage increases. This results in increased
current flowing into the voltage regulator through the D terminal. The increased current
continues, flowing through the regulator shunt windings (3m), through the regulator contacts
(3n), out through the F terminal on the voltage regulator and back through the field windings
in the generator. Since there is a direct connection through the regulator contacts (3n), current in
the field windings (3d) increases as the generator spins faster. Consequently, the magnetic field
(in which the armature spins) created by the increased current in the field windings (3d) is also
increasing. Because the magnetic field is stronger, the induced voltage in the armature increases.
As the output voltage from the generator continues to increase, the current in the shunt windings
(3m) of the regulator relay also increases, which increases the strength of the magnetic field
trying to pull the regulator contacts (3i) apart.

When the generator output is high enough, the strength of the magnetic field generated by the
current in the regulator shunt windings (3m) finally overcomes the natural tension of the contact
arm, resulting in the separation of the regulator contacts (3i). The direct connection between the
armature terminal D of the generator and the field terminal F of the control box is broken.


Magneto Ignition systems
The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a
coil, or, in the earlier designs, a coil inside a fixed magnet, and also operates a contact breaker,
interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap.
The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Early magnetos had one coil,
with the contact breaker (sparking plug) inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch
introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and the contact breaker outside the
cylinder. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity
they are often found onpiston-engined aircraft engines and small engines such as those found
in mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where a battery-based electrical system is
not present for any combination of necessity, weight, cost, and reliability reasons.
Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit and miss" engine which
was used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors before battery
starting and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines. Magnetos were used in
these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and
because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator.
Aircraft engines usually have dual magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of a failure, and
to increase efficiency by thoroughly and quickly burning the fuel air mix from both sides
towards the center. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in
1903 by Dayton, Ohio inventor, Vincent Groby Apple.
[1]
Some older automobiles had both a
magneto system and a battery actuated system (see below) running simultaneously to ensure
proper ignition under all conditions with the limited performance each system provided at the
time. This gave the benefits of easy starting (from the battery system) with reliable sparking at
speed (from the magneto).



Battery and coil-operated ignition
With the universal adoption of electrical starting for automobiles, and the availability of a
large battery to provide a constant source of electricity, magneto systems were abandoned for
systems which interrupted current at battery voltage, used an ignition coil (a transformer) to step
the voltage up to the needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the
correct spark plug at the correct time.
The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by the Dayton Engineering
Laboratories Co. (Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed
byCharles Kettering and was a wonder in its day. It consisted of a single coil, points (the switch),
a capacitor and a distributor set up to allocate the spark from the ignition coil timed to the correct
cylinder. The coil was basically a transformer to step up the low battery voltage (6 or 12 V) to
the high ignition voltage required to jump a spark plug gap.
The points allow the coil magnetic field to build and then, when the points are opened by
a cam arrangement, the magnetic field collapses and a large voltage (20 kV or greater) is
produced. The capacitor has two functions: 1) it absorbs the back EMF from the magnetic field
in the coil to minimize point contact burning and maximize point life; and 2) it forms a resonant
circuit with the ignition coil transferring further energy to the secondary side until the energy is
exhausted.
[2]
The Kettering system became the primary ignition system for many years in the
automotive industry due to its lower cost, higher reliability and relative simplicity


Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of
the system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive,
a set of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is
the ignition coil, the spark plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition
coil. (see diagram Below)
The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system
using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the
current to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil).

The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings sharing a common magnetic corethe
primary and secondary windings. An alternating current in the primary induces alternating
magnetic field in the coil's core. Because the ignition coil's secondary has far more windings than
the primary, the coil is a step-up transformer which induces a much higher voltage across the
secondary windings. For an ignition coil, one end of windings of both the primary and secondary
are connected together. This common point is connected to the battery (usually through a
current-limiting ballast resistor). The other end of the primary is connected to the points within
the contact breaker. The other end of the secondary is connected, via the distributor cap and
rotor, to the spark plugs.





Electronic ignition
The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low-
voltage high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to
mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at
the contact surfaces from the constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate
for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is
subject to mechanical variations.
In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can
lead to lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average
ignition current of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may
limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.

Example of a basic electronic ignition system

Horn
A vehicle horn is a sound-making device used to warn others of the approach of the vehicle or
of its presence. Automobiles, trucks, ships, and trains are all required by law in some countries to
have horns. Bicycles in many areas are also legally required to have an audible warning device in
many jurisdictions, but not universally, and not always a horn.


Lead-based Batteries
Invented by the French physician Gaston Plant in 1859, lead acid was the first rechargeable
battery for commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead chemistry continues to be in wide
use today, and there are good reasons for its popularity; lead acid is dependable and
inexpensiveon cost-per-watt base. There are few other batteries that deliver bulk power as
cheaply as lead acid, and this makes the battery cost-effective for automobiles, golf cars,
forklifts, marine and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
But lead acid has disadvantages; it is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and lithium-based
systems when deep-cycled. A full discharge causes strain and each discharge/charge cycle
permanently robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. This loss is small while the battery is
in good operating condition, but the fading increases once the performance drops to half the
nominal capacity. This wear-down characteristic applies to all batteries in various degrees.
Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications provides 200 to 300
discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion
on the positive electrode, depletion of the active material and expansion of the positive plates.
These changes are most prevalent at elevated operating temperatures and high-current
discharges. See How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries.
Charging a lead acid battery is simple but the correct voltage limits must be observed, and here
there are compromises. Choosing alow voltage limit shelters the battery but this produces poor
performance and causes a buildup of sulfation on the negative plate. A high voltage limit
improves performance but form grid corrosion on the positive plate. While sulfation can be
reversed if serviced in time, corrosion is permanent. See Charging Lead Acid.
Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full charge takes 14 to16
hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a
condition that robs the battery of performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces
this problem but this lowers the specific energy. See New Lead Acid Systems.
Lead acid has a moderate life span and is not subject to memory as nickel-based systems are.
Charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries. While NiCd loses approximately 40
percent of its stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges the same amount in one
year. Lead acid work well at cold temperatures and is superior to lithium-ion when operating in
subzero conditions.
Sealed Lead Acid
The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerge in the mid-1970s. The engineers argued
that the term sealed lead acid is a misnomer because no lead acid battery can be totally sealed.
This is true and battery designers added a valve to control venting of gases during stressful
charge and rapid discharge. Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is
impregnated into a moistened separator, a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-bases
system. This enables to operate the battery in any physical orientation without leakage.
The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the term acid-starved.
Perhaps the most significant advantage of the sealed lead acid is the ability to combine oxygen
and hydrogen to create water and prevent water loss. The recombination occurs at a moderate
pressure of 0.14 bar (2psi). The valve serves as safety vent if gases buildup during over-
overcharge or stressful discharge. Repeated venting would lead to an eventual dry out.
Driven by these advantages, several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most
common are gel, also known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass
mat (AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends the electrolyte in a paste.
Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30A are called SLA (sealed lead acid). Packaged in a
plastic container, these batteries are used for small UPS, emergency lighting, ventilators for
healthcare and wheelchairs. Because of economical price, dependable service and low
maintenance, the SLA remains the preferred choice for biomedical and healthcare in hospitals
and retirement homes. The VRLA is the larger gel variant used as power backup for cellular
repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and other sites.
The AGM is a newer design and suspends the electrolytein aspecially designed glass mat. This
offers several advantages to lead acid systems, including faster charging and instant high load
currents on demand. AGM works best as a mid-range battery with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and
is less suited for large systems, such as UPS. Typical uses are starter batter for
motorcycles, start-stop function for micro-hybrid cars, as well as marine and RV that need some
cycling.
With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the other hand, has a dome
shaped performance curve and stays in the high performance range longer but then drops
suddenly towards the end of life. AGM is more expensive than flooded, but is cheaper than
gel.(Gel would be too expensive for start/stop use in cars.)
Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-voltage potential to
prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating potential during charge. Excess charging
causes gassing, venting and subsequent water depletion and dry out. Consequently, gel, and in
part also AGM, cannot be charged to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set
lower than that of a flooded. The float charge on full charge must also be lowered. In respect to
charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements to the flooded type. If no designated
charger is available with lower voltage settings, disconnect the charger after 24 hours of charge.
This prevents gassing due to a float voltage that is set too high.
The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25C (77F); every 8C (15F) rise
above this temperature threshold cuts battery life in half.
Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge. The battery
performs best when discharged slowly and the capacity readings are notably higher at a slow
discharge rate. Lead acid can, however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a
few seconds. This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-light-
ignition (SLI). The high lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid environmentally
unfriendly.
The following paragraphs look at the different architectures within the lead acid family and
explain why one battery type does not fit all.
Starter and Deep-cycle Batteries
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high power burst; the deep-
cycle battery, on the other hand, is built to provide continuous power for a wheelchair or golf car.
From the outside, both batteries look alike; however, there are fundamental differences in design.
While the starter battery is made for high peak power and does not like deep cycling, the deep-
cycle battery has a moderate power output but permits cycling. Lets examine the architectural
difference between these batteries further.
Starter batteries have a CCA rating imprinted in amperes; CCA refers to cold cranking amps,
which represents the amount of current a battery can deliver at cold temperature. SAE J537
specifies 30 seconds of discharge at 18C (0F) at the rated CCA ampere without dropping
below 7.2 volts. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive Engineers.)
Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance, and the manufacturer achieves this by
adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 1). The plates are thin and the lead is
applied in a sponge-like form that has the appearance of fine foam. This method extends the
surface area of the plates to achieve low resistance and maximum power. Plate thickness isless
important here because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged while driving;the
emphasis is on power rather than capacity.

Figure 1: Starter battery
The starter battery has many thin plates in
parallel to achieve low resistance with
high surface area. The starter battery does
not allow deep cycling.
Courtesy of Cadex
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries for golf cars, scooters and wheelchairs are built for maximum
capacity and high cycle count. The manufacturer achieves this by making the lead plates thick
(Figure 2). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges still induce stress, and
the cycle count depends on the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-cycle batteries are marked in Ah
or minute of runtime.

Figure 2: Deep-cycle battery
The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for
improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle
battery generally allows about 300 cycles.
Courtesy of Cadex
A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery and vice versa. While an inventive
senior may be tempted to install a starter battery instead of the more expensive deep-cycle on his
wheelchair to save money, the starter battery wont last because the thin sponge-like plates
would quickly dissolve with repeated deep cycling. There are combination starter/deep-cycle
batteries available for trucks, buses, public safety and military vehicles, but these units are big
and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier the battery is, the more lead it contains, and the
longer it will last. Table 3 compares the typical life of starter and deep-cycle batteries when
deep-cycled.


Charging system used in an automobile
Automotive vehicles include a storage battery for operating electronics in the vehicle and using
an electric starter to start the vehicle engine. Automotive batteries provide power for the
vehicle's starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) components of the car. The rechargeable battery
provides cranking power to start the vehicle and also is the only source of power to continue to
maintain the lights or other devices in operation when the vehicle ignition has been turned off.
When the vehicle is running, the engine is used to charge the battery. Additionally, the battery is
also used to power electrical components of the vehicle when the engine is running. Automotive
battery terminals typically comprise a conical contact section for mounting to a conical battery
post terminal, and having a clamping mechanism for tightening the contact section to the battery
terminal, the terminal further comprising a conductor connection section. A battery charging
system is coupled to the engine and is powered by the engine when the vehicle is running. The
charging system is used to charge the storage battery when the vehicle is operating. Typical
charging systems include a simple voltage regulator connected to the output of an alternator. The
voltage regulator is used to set a voltage generated by the alternator which is applied to the
battery. Voltage regulator controlled car battery charging systems keep an automotive storage
battery at full charge level and to provide sufficient electrical power for the operation of the
various automobile electrical accessories.

Translation Auto Care Center is the leader in Missoula for the service and repair of auto
chargings systems. Our Missoula auto shop staff take the time to educate our customers in
knowing that the battery, starting and charging systems in their car or truck play pivotal roles in
ensuring the dependable operation of your vehicle while driving in and around Missoula. The car
battery stores electrical energy that is then converted by the starter into the mechanical force
necessary to start your engine. The alternator then serves the purpose of producing the electrical
current-initially provided by the car battery-that is necessary for the vehicle's electrical needs
when the engine is running. The ignition module turns the low voltage supply to the ignition coil
on and off, which in turn is converted to a higher voltage that is necessary for the vehicle's
ignition system to operate. The voltage is used to engage the spark plugs and create the sparks
that are necessary to ignite the combined air/fuel mixture in the car engines cylinders. It is this
ignition that is ultimately used to power the pistons that in turn begin the rest of the process of
powering your car or truck.
There are various factors that contribute to the wear and tear of your vehicle's battery, charging
and starting systems. For example the frequent turning on and off of your automobile when
running errands in Missoula will cause more wear and tear than a daily commute to and from
your Missoula workplace. Other factors that affect the wear and tear of the battery, charging, and
starting system include Missoula driving and weather conditions, overall mileage, vehicle age,
and various automotive components like in vehicle entertainment systems that cause an
excessive electrical draw.

The symptoms you may experience that indicate possible problems with your battery, charging,
and starting systems include the dimming of headlights and interior lights, the "check engine"
and/or battery light coming on, or the failure of various car or truck accessories.
The mechanics at our Missoula auto repair shop are expertly trained in the complete service and
repair of car and truck batteries, charging, and starting systems. If you think you are having
problems with any of the components of your charging and starting system bring your car or
truck to our Missoula automotive repair service center and let us.

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has become
the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having replaced carburetors during
the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the
internal combustion engine.
The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the
fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies
on suction created by intake air accelerated through aVenturi tube to draw the fuel into the
airstream.
Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being used. Some
systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the tuning for the fuel
currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline ordiesel applications.
Objectives
The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of
supplying fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular system is
optimized. There are several competing objectives such as:
Power output
Fuel efficiency
Emissions performance
Ability to accommodate alternative fuels
Reliability
Driveability and smooth operation
Initial cost
Maintenance cost
Diagnostic capability
Range of environmental operation
Engine tuning
The modern digital electronic fuel injection system is more capable at optimizing these
competing objectives consistently than earlier fuel delivery systems (such as carburetors).
Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better

Benefits

Driver benefits
Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother and more dependable
engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting,
better operation at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, smoother engine idle and
running, increased maintenance intervals, and increased fuel efficiency. On a more basic level,
fuel injection does away with the choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be
operated when starting the engine from cold and then adjusted as the engine warms up.
Environmental benefits
Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder
fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the same power output
(when cylinder-to-cylinder distribution varies significantly, some cylinders receive excess fuel as
a side effect of ensuring that all cylinders receive sufficient fuel).
Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the
concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine, and because exhaust cleanup
devices such as the catalytic converter can be optimized to operate more efficiently since the
exhaust is of consistent and predictable composition.

Mechanical injection
The first automotive direct injection system used to run on gasoline was developed by Bosch,
and was introduced by Goliath for their Goliath GP700 automobile, and Gutbrod in 1952. This
was basically a high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump with an intake throttle valve set up.
(Diesels only change the amount of fuel injected to vary output; there is no throttle.) This system
used a normal gasoline fuel pump, to provide fuel to a mechanically driven injection pump,
which had separate plungers per injector to deliver a very high injection pressure directly into the
combustion chamber. The 1954 Mercedes-Benz W196 Formula 1 racing car engine
used Bosch direct injection derived from wartime aero engines. Following this racetrack success,
the 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL, the first production sports car to use fuel injection, used direct
injection. The same engine was used in theMercedes-Benz 300SLR famously driven by Stirling
Moss to victory in the 1955 Mille Miglia. The Bosch fuel injectors were placed into the bores on
the cylinder wall used by the spark plugs in other Mercedes-Benz six-cylinder engines (the spark
plugs were relocated to the cylinder head). Later, more mainstream applications of fuel injection
favored the less-expensive indirect injection methods.
Another mechanical system, made by Bosch called Jetronic, but injecting the fuel into the port
above the intake valve, was used by several European car makers, particularly Porsche from
1969 until 1973 in the 911 production range and until 1975 on the Carrera 3.0 in Europe. Porsche
continued using this system on its racing cars into the late seventies and early eighties. Porsche
racing variants such as the 911 RSR 2.7 & 3.0, 904/6, 906, 907, 908, 910, 917 (in its regular
normally aspirated or 5.5 Liter/1500 HP Turbocharged form), and 935 all used Bosch
or Kugelfischer built variants of injection. The early Bosch Jetronic systems were also used by
Audi, Volvo, BMW, Volkswagen, and many others. The Kugelfischer system was also used by
the BMW 2000/2002 Tii and some versions of the Peugeot 404/504 and Lancia Flavia. Lucas
also offered a mechanical system that was used by some Maserati, Aston Martin, and Triumph
models between 1963 and 1973.
A system similar to the Bosch inline mechanical pump was built by SPICA for Alfa Romeo,
used on the Alfa Romeo Montreal and on U.S. market 1750 and 2000 models from 1969 to 1981.
This was designed to meet the U.S. emission requirements with no loss in performance and it
also reduced fuel consumption.












ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION




If the heart of a car is its engine, then its brain must be the Engine Control Unit (ECU). Also
known as a Powertrain Control Module (PCM), the ECU optimizes engine performance by using
sensors to decide how to control certain actuators in an engine. A cars ECU is primarily
responsible for four tasks. Firstly, the ECU controls the fuel mixture. Secondly, the ECU controls
idle speed. Thirdly, the ECU is responsible for ignition timing. Lastly, in some applications, the
ECU controls valve timing.
Before we talk about how the ECU accomplishes its tasks, let's follow the path of a gasoline
droplet that enters your gas tank. Times have changed since the Down the Gasoline Trail video,
so it's time for an update. Initially, after a gas droplet enters your gas tank (which is now made of
plastic), it gets sucked up by an electric fuel pump. The electric fuel pump usually comes in an
in-tank module that consists of a pump, a filter, and a sending unit. The sending unit uses
avoltage divider to tell your gas gauge how much fuel you have left in your tank. The pump
sends the gasoline through a fuel filter, through hard fuel lines, and into a fuel rail.

A vacuum-powered fuel pressure regulator at the end of the fuel rail ensures that the fuel
pressure in the rail remains constant relative to the intake pressure. For a gasoline engine, fuel
pressure is usually on the order of 35-50 psi. Fuel injectors connect to the rail, but their valves
remain closed until the ECU decides to send fuel into the cylinders.
Usually, the injectors have two pins. One pin is connected to the battery through the ignition
relay and the other pin goes to the ECU. The ECU sends a pulsing ground to the injector, which
closes the circuit, providing the injector's solenoid with current. The magnet on top of the
plunger is attracted to the solenoid's magnetic field, opening the valve. Since there is high
pressure in the rail, opening the valve sends fuel at a high velocity through the injector's spray
tip. The duration that the valve is open- and consequently the amount of fuel sent into the
cylinder- depends on the pulse width (i.e. how long the ECU sends the ground signal to the
injector).