Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
n
S Sa =
Where S is the area of the given surface, and
n
a
, is the unit vector
perpendicular to the surface.
If S is a part of a closed surface, positive
n
a
is taken to be an outward
normal. If S is an open surface, first its periphery is oriented and then
n
a
is
defined with the right-hand rule. Positive
n
a
is thus selected arbitrarily.
ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
In a three dimensional space a point can be located as the intersection of
three surfaces. When the surfaces intersect perpendicularly we have an
orthogonal coordinate system.
Cartesian Coordinates:
Here, the constant surfaces are
. x const =
,
. y const =
and
. z const =
Point
1 1 1 1
( , , ) P x y z is located at the intersection of three surfaces.
Constant Surfaces
Fig. 2-1 Cartesian coordinates constant surfaces
. x const =
Planar Surface
. y const =
Planar Surface
. z const =
Planar Surface
Unit Vectors
x
a x =
const. Surface
y
a y =
const. Surface
z
a z =
const. Surface
Differential Length Element
x y z
dl a dx a dy a dz = + +
Fig. 2-2 Differential Length Elements in the Cartesian coordinate system
Differential Surface Elements:
x x
y y
z z
ds dy dz a
ds dxdz a
ds dz dy a
=
=
=
Fig.2-3 Differential Surface Elements in the Cartesian coordinate system
Differential Volume Element
dV dxdydz =
Cylindrical Coordinates
The constant surfaces are:
. const =
,
. const | =
,
. z const =
Point
1 1 1
( , , ) P z | is located at the intersection of three surfaces.
Fig. 2-4 Cylindrical Coordinates, constant surfaces.
Constant Surfaces
., const =
Circular cylinders
., const | =
Planes
., z const =
Planes
Ranges of variables:
0
0 2
z
| t
s <
s s
< <
Unit Vectors
Fig. 2-5 Cylindrical Coordinates, unit vectors.
, . a const
=
Surface
, . a const
|
| =
Surface
, .
z
a z const =
Surface
Differential Length Elements
z
d a d a d a dz
|
| = + +
Fig. 2-6 Differential Length Elements in the Cylindrical Coordinate system.
Differential Volume Element
dV d d dz | =
Differential Surface Elements
ds a d dz
| =
ds a d dz
| |
=
z z
ds a d d | =
Fig. 2-7 Differential surface elements in the cylindrical coordinate system.
The unit vectors obey the following right-hand cyclic relations:
z
a Xa a
|
=
z
a Xa a
|
=
z
a Xa a
|
=
Also, like the other vectors:
. 1 a a
=
. 1 a a
| |
=
. 1
z z
a a =
. 0 a a
|
=
. 0
z
a a
|
=
. 0
z
a a
=
Cylindrical Unit Vectors in Terms of Cartesian Unit Vectors
Fig. 2-8 Cylindrical Unit Vectors in Terms of Cartesian Unit Vectors
cos sin
x y
a a a
| | = +
sin s
x y
a a a co
|
| | = +
z z
a a =
Similarly;
cos sin
x
a a a
|
| | =
sin s
y
a a a co
|
| | = +
z z
a a =
Relationship between
( , , ) x y z
and
( , , ) z |
:
Fig.2-9 Relationship between
( , , ) x y z
and
( , , ) z |
2 2 1
cos , sin ,
, tan ,
x y z z
x
x y z z
y
| |
|
= = =
| |
= + = =
|
\ .
Spherical Coordinates
The constant surfaces are:
. r const =
,
. const u =
,
. const | =
Point
1 1 1
( , , ) P r u | is located at the intersection of three surfaces.
Fig. 2-10 Unit vectors in spherical coordinates.
Unit Vectors
, .
r
a r const =
Surface
, . a const
u
u =
Surface
, . a const
|
| =
Surface
Ranges of variables:
0
0
0 2
r
u t
| t
s <
s s
< <
Constant Surfaces
., r const =
Spherical Surfaces
., const u =
Conical Surfaces
., const | =
Planes
Fig. 2-11 Constant surfaces in spherical coordinates.
Differential Length Elements
sin
r
d a dr a rd a r d
u |
u u | = + +
Fig. 2-11 Differential length elements for spherical coordinates.
Differential Volume Element
2
sin dV r drd d u u | =
Differential Surface Elements
2
sin
r r
ds a r d d u u | =
sin ds a r drd
u u
u | =
ds a rdrd
| |
u =
Fig. 2-12 Differential surface elements for spherical coordinates.
The unit vectors obey the following right-hand cyclic relations:
r
a Xa a
u |
=
r
a Xa a
u |
=
r
a Xa a
| u
=
Also, like the other vectors:
. 1
r r
a a =
. 1 a a
u u
=
. 1 a a
| |
=
. 0
r
a a
u
=
. 0 a a
u |
=
. 0
r
a a
|
=
Spherical Unit Vectors in Terms of Cartesian Unit Vectors
Fig. 2-13 Unit vector relations between Cartesian and spherical coordinates.
sin cos cos cos sin
sin sin cos sin s
cos sin
x r
y r
z r
a a a a
a a a co a
a a a
u |
u |
u
u | u | |
u | u | |
u u
= +
= + +
=
sin cos sin sin cos
cos cos cos sin sin
sin s
r x y z
x y z
x y
a a a a
a a a a
a a co a
u
|
u | u u
u | u | u
| |
= + +
= +
= +
Relationship between
( , , ) x y z
and
( , , ) r u |
:
Fig. 2-14 Relationship between Cartesian coordinates and spherical
coordinates.
2 2
2 2 2 1 1
, tan , tan
sin cos , sin sin , cos
x y y
r x y z
z x
x r y r z r
u |
u | u | u
| |
+
| |
| = + + = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
= = =