TAM 224/CEE 210 101

10. Creep of Metals and Polymers

10.1. Objective
The purpose of this laboratory is to learn how
materials can deform with time at constant load, and
to identify probable deformation mechanisms based
on the observed creep behavior. Creep tests (Fig. 1)
will be conducted on lead (a low melting-point metal)
and a common polymer (such as polyethylene). These
materials have been selected because they creep
readily at room temperature.
10.2. Apparatus
Four portable dead-weight creep testing machines
of the type illustrated in Fig. 2 are available for use in
this laboratory.
The specimen is attached by pins to two grips, one
of which is suspended from a cross-beam at a distance
L
s
= 25.4 mm on one side of a pivot. The specimen is
then loaded by placing weights on a pan hanging
from the other end of the beam, a distance L
w
=
254 mm from the pivot. The load carried by the
specimen is therefore 10.0 times that transmitted
through the weight-pan clevis pin. A linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) is used as a
displacement transducer. The LVDT is attached to the
apparatus to measure indirectly the extension of the
specimen. Due to its position at a distance L
d
=
127 mm from the pivot, the LVDT will sense a
displacement which is 5.00 times the actual
extension l of the specimen.
Digital calipers are available to measure the
dimensions of each specimen prior to testing. An
electronic scale is used to measure the initial and
incremental weights applied to the cross-beam.

Fig. 1. Creep specimen undergoing creep in tension.
Sliding
weight
Specimen
Pin
Weight-pan
clevis pin
Weight pan
Adjusting
nuts
Beam
Displacement
transducer
(LVDT)
L
s
L
d
L
w

Fig. 2. Dead-weight creep machine.
102 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
10.3. Experimental Procedure
1. Break into four teamsA, B, C, D. There are four
creep testers. Teams A and B will work together,
and teams C and D will work together.
2. Teams A and C will each test one lead sample,
and teams B and D will each test one polymer
sample. Handle the lead sample carefully so as to
avoid deforming the specimen plastically.
3. Measure the width, thickness, and effective gage
length (the length of the straight section) of the
specimen to be tested by your team. Begin filling
out Table 1. Exchange this data with the other
team in your group.
4. Check that the LVDT plunger is located 127 mm
from the pivot. Remove the weight pan. Then
balance the beam using the sliding weight. Place
your creep specimen in the testing apparatus
using the pins provided, and, if necessary, adjust
the height of the creep specimen so that the beam
is approximately horizontal. Follow your lab
instructors recommendations concerning the
LVDTs displacement operating range.
5. Prepare to apply the first of four levels of load on
your specimen. Measure the combined actual
mass M
1
, in grams, of the weight pan and any
additional weights recommended by your lab
instructor for the first loading. Record this mass
measurement in Table 1, and calculate the corre-
sponding weight W
1
in newtons. (Remember to
convert from grams to kilograms when calculating
the weight in newtons.) Then multiply this
weight by 10.0 to determine the actual load P
1
that
will be transmitted to the specimen.
6. Calculate the stress
1
that will be applied to the
specimen, based on the specimens cross-sectional
area A . This first stress value should be near the
lower end of the recommended stress range for
your material:
7. Prepare the computer for data acquisition. You
will be recording LVDT displacement as a
function of time t . Begin taking data.
8. Attach the weight pan and initial weights to the
beam. Lower the pan slowly so that the load is
applied gradually.
9. Monitor the plot of ( ) t on the computer screen
closely until a steady-state creep rate is reached.
See Fig. 3. Normally this state is reached in 15 to
20 minutes.
10. Swap data in Table 1 with the other team in your
group for the second material being tested.
11. Measure the mass of the suggested incremental
weights for your material. Calculate the new total
load P
2
that will be applied with this increment,
and the corresponding stress
2
. Add the incre-
mental weights to the pan slowly.
12. Repeat steps 911 until creep data have been
obtained for both materials at four different stress
levels.
13. Without interrupting the data-acquisition pro-
gram, perform one of the following additional
tests on your material:
Add an incremental mass and then remove it
about a minute later. Observe whether there
is a tendency for the creep curve to approach
an extrapolation of the previous curve.
Remove all load from the specimen. Observe
the extent of creep recovery, if any.
Increase the temperature of your specimen by
aiming a heat gun at the specimen. Observe
the effect that this temperature rise has on the
creep rate.
Specimen
material
Stress range,
(MPa)
Lead 16
Polyethylene 69
Polytetrafluorethylene (Teflon) 58
Primary
Secondary
(steady state)
Tertiary

t
Time, t
S
t
r
a
i
n
,

Experimental data
Best fit

Fig. 3. Typical creep curve
for a given value of stress .
TAM 224/CEE 210 Creep of Metals and Polymers 103
10.4. Analysis of Results
1. Prepare plots of strain as functions of time t for
each of the two materials tested by your group.
Note that the strain is given by
( ) , t
l
l
=

0

where l is the recorded change in length of the
specimen and l
0
is the measured gage length.
Label each curve with the appropriate value of
stress . The stress is given by
= =
P
A
W
A
10 0 .
,
where W = Mg. See Fig. 4.
2. Determine for each stress level the steady-state
creep rate
&

ss
(in sec
1
), by calculating the slope of
the best-fit line for each specimen:

&

ss
=

t
.
For best results, use a common time interval t
for all four stress levels, and let this time interval
begin at the same time relative to the time at
which the load was increased.
3. Then, collecting the experimental data for
&

ss
and
corresponding values of (in MPa) for a given
material in Table 2, plot log
&
10

ss
vs. log
10
. The
plot will have the general appearance of Fig. 5.
There will be two such plots, one for each
material. An expanded scale may be necessary for
the log
10
axis.
1

4. For each material, examine the apparent depend-
ence of log
&
10

ss
on log
10
. If the relation
appears to be a linear one (as suggested in Fig. 5),
then determine the constants B and m in the Dorn
(1954) creep relation
2


&

ss
= B
m
(1)
by noting that, if Eqn. (1) holds, then
log
&
log log
10 10 10

ss
= + B m . (2)
Show your calculations for B and m. If the relation
appears to be a nonlinear one, then determine the
apparent variation in m (that is, the range of
values of slope of the log
&
10

ss
vs. log
10
curve)
from low stress levels to high stress levels.

1
See also How to Prepare and Interpret Graphs at the beginning
of the lab manual. The use of regular log-log paper is not
recommended in this lab because there may be a much
larger variation in log (
&
)
10

ss
than in log ( )
10
.
2
The Dorn creep relation is actually of the form

&
/

ss
=

A e
m H RT
,


where H denotes an activation energy, R is the universal
gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If T =
constant, then one may set B A H RT = exp( ) .
Time, t
S
t
r
e
s
s

a
n
d

s
t
r
a
i
n

=
1
=
2
=
3
=
4

1
.

2
.

3
.

4
.
Strain response

Fig. 4. Straintime curves
for an incremental-stress creep test.
1
log ()
Experimental data
Best fit
m
10
l
o
g




(

)
1
0
s
s
.

Fig. 5. Experimental determination of power-law
exponent m for creep.
104 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
10.5. Points for Discussion
Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the
following questions are to be addressed in your report.
1. Discuss the consequences of a large m value.
2. Comment on the similarities and differences
between the creep behavior of lead and that of the
polymer you worked with.
3. Discuss any differences in the mechanisms of
creep between the two materials.
4. Determine if your results are consistent with
published data for these and other materials. (See
Marks Handbook (1987), for example.)
5. State whether the measured creep rates appear to
be in the steady-state creep region. If not, discuss
possible causes and indicate potential limitations
of the experiment.
6. Discuss the observed dependence of the creep rate
on temperature. Is this observation consistent
with the Dorn relation for creep? (See footnote on
previous page.)
7. For the lead specimen, determine the probable
dominant creep mechanism, based on the infor-
mation provided in Fig. 6. With what certainty
can you predict the steady-state creep rate for lead
at a stress level of, say, one-tenth the smallest
value considered in your experiment?
8. Look up the melting point T
m
and shear modulus
G for lead in suitable references, and determine
whether your experimental creep data for lead are
consistent with Ashby and Joness deformation-
mechanism diagram for metals (1981). (See
Fig. 7.) Note that all temperatures must be
absolute (degrees Kelvin).
9. Determine if your polymer behaves in a linear
viscoelastic manner. A linear viscoelastic material
has the property that, under the application of a
log[Stress, ]
l
o
g
[
C
r
e
e
p

r
a
t
e
,

]
s
s
Grain-boundary
diffusion
Power-law creep
(dislocation climb)
Yielding
Yield
stress
m = 1
3 < m < 8
m > 8
.

Fig. 6. Relation between creep exponent m and
possible deformation mechanisms in metals.
(After Ashby and Jones, 1981.)
Temperature, T/T
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

/
G
0 0.3 0.5 1
10
10
10
10
Yielding
Melting
Elastic
deformation
only
Diffusional flow
Dislocation
creep
Grain
boundary
Bulk
Bulk
5
4
3
2
m

Fig. 7. Deformation-mechanism diagram for metals.
(After Ashby and Jones, 1981.)
Stress,
Strain,
Instanta-
neous
elasticity
Time, t
(t)
Delayed
elasticity
Strain
recovery

Fig. 8. Creep compliance curve for a standard linear
viscoelastic solid.
TAM 224/CEE 210 Creep of Metals and Polymers 105
step increase in stress , the material will exhibit
a time-dependent incremental strain response
( ) t that is proportional to . This linearity
implies also that the incremental creep rate
&
( ) t
will be proportional to , and therefore that the
creep exponent m as determined in this lab should
have the value unity. It is particularly important,
in making this determination from your data, that
the time interval over which the creep rate is
determined occur at a consistent time after the
application of each incremental stress.
10. Determine, if possible, whether your polymer
exhibited any of the following characteristics:
instantaneous elasticity, delayed elasticity, and
strain recovery. Refer to Fig. 8, where these effects
are illustrated for the so-called standard linear
solid. A standard linear solid is a model
consisting of two springs in series, with a dashpot
across one of the springs, as shown in the figure.
Note that real viscoelastic behavior, even if it is
observed to be linear, is rarely explained in terms
of such a simple model. However, this is the
simplest model that exhibits all three of these
characteristics.
10.6. References
Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones. 1981. Engineering
MaterialsAn Introduction to Their Properties and
Applications. Oxford: Pergamon, Chapters 17-20.
Avallone, E. A., and T. Baumeister III, eds. 1987.
Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Section 5.1. See
discussion of creep.
Callister Jr., W. D. 2003. Materials Science and Engi-
neeringAn Introduction, 6th ed. New York: Wiley,
Sections 8.148.17.
Dorn, J. E. 1954. Some fundamental experiments on
high temperature creep. Journal of the Mechanics
and Physics of Solids 3: 85-116.
Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering Mate-
rials and Their Applications, 4th ed. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 176-183, 430-431, 513, 690-691.

Notes
106 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 1Creep data
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units Lead
Specimen dimensions
Gage length l
0
mm
Width w mm
Thickness t mm
Cross-sectional area A mm
2

Applied loads
1 Initial mass M
1

g
2 Incremtl mass g
3 Incremtl mass g
4 Incremtl mass g
5 Incremtl mass g
Test date: Team(s): Students name:
Table 2Summary of creep results
Material
Stress,
(MPa)
Creep rate,
&

ss
(sec
1
)
log ( )
10

(MPa)
log (
&
)
10

ss

(sec
1
)
m B

Lead*






*Note: for lead, the values of m and B may or may not be constant over the whole range of strain rates considered.
Date: Team(s): Students name:
Printed 7/9/03