Week 10 Chapter 15 & 16

Waves and Oscillations

1
Lecture 1:
Oscillations
- types of waves 16.2
- transverse and longitudinal waves 16.3
- wavelength, frequency and speed of wave 16.4, 16.5

Lecture 2:
Waves
- simple harmonic motion 15.2, 15.3

Lecture 3:
Waves
- wave speed on stretched string 16.6
- energy and power 16.7
Week 10
2
3
A wave is an oscillation that moves through space or matter
transferring energy from one place to another

Generally material returns to its original position as the wave
passes by there for there is no mass transport.
Waves
4
Classical waves transfer energy without transporting matter through the
medium. Waves in a medium do not move the material in the medium
from one place to another place; instead the wave's energy travels
through the medium, leaving the material in place, similar to a cork
rising and falling in one place as the wave moves past the cork
cork bobs up and
down at the same
position
Waves Transfer of Energy
16.2 Types of Waves
Mechanical waves. These waves have two central features: They
are governed by Newtons laws, and they can exist only within a
material medium NO medium NO wave: water waves, sound
waves, and seismic waves (earthquake).

Electromagnetic waves. These waves require no material medium
to exist = PURE ENERGY. All electromagnetic waves travel
through a vacuum at the same exact speed c, speed of light = 3 x10
8

ms
-1
. Common examples include visible and ultraviolet light, radio
and television waves, microwaves, x rays, and radar (radio) waves.

Matter waves. These waves are associated with electrons, protons,
and other fundamental particles, atoms and molecules moving at
very high speeds where they acquire wave-like properties. Basis of
quantum mechanics. Louise de Broglie (1882 1987) =

.
5
In a transverse wave, the
displacement of every such oscillating
element along the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of travel
of the wave
16.3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

In a longitudinal wave the motion of
the oscillating particles is parallel to
the direction of the waves travel
6
Note energy of wave inversely
proportional to its energy
1

7

A
Time/distance
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

Wavelength, , distance between two crests or troughs
distance to complete one cycle
Amplitude maximum displacement
Period, T time between 2 crests/troughs time to complete
one cycle
Frequency, f = 1/T in Hertz (Hz) number of oscillations per second
v
s
8
Velocity of a wave, v
s
= distance/time = /T = .f
Waves
u

A
Time/distance
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
1 = 1 cycle = 360 = 2t
y = Asin(u)=Acos(t/2 u)
y
y
A
Angular frequency e = 2t.f angular speed, number of cycles per sec, in
radians per sec = rad.s
-1
1 =
180
0

1 =

180
0

Angular wave number, k = 2/- number of cycles per unit distance
the spatial equivalent to frequency = spatial frequency of the wave
k = phase change of the traveling wave in terms of rad.m
-1

v
s
k = e/v = proportionality between e and v
9
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency Wave Motion
1s
angular frequency = number of cycles per sec =
2

= 2tf rad.s
-1
1m
wavenumber = number of cycles per metre =
2

rad.m
-1
T

10
Handbook of Recording
Engineering, 1986, p. 2
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency Wave Motion
y = A.sin.|
|
Phase, |, relationship between
2 waves with same frequency
k = number of 2t cycles per
unit distance
Each full cycle | = 360
Note: height is the same whenever x is
an integral multiple of
Phase angle at distance, x
| = k.x = (2t/).x
11
Handbook of Recording
Engineering, 1986, p. 2
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency Wave Motion
y = A.sin.|
|
Ax
y = Asin
2

. x = Asin k. x
x x
t
e = k.v
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency Wave Motion
12
360 = 2t
|
y
y = A.sin.|

A
x
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

If the wave is moving at velocity, v, it moves a distance x
t
=vt
A
e = k.v
y = Asin
2

. x = Asin k. x
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency wave motion
13
y(x,t) = y
m
sin (kx et |
o
)
General Form
Phase Constant (radians)
- et wave traveling to right
+ et wave traveling to left
used to represent the wave as a function of time, t, at a specific distance, x,
or as a function of distance, x, at a specific time, t.
14
When 2 sine waves of equal amplitude and frequency propagate
through a medium in opposite directions combine to form a
Standing Wave. Note: No Energy Transfer with Standing Waves

Wave moving to the right is: A sin(kx - t) & the left is: A sin(kx + t)

Standing wave addition of the 2 waves

y(x,t) = A sin(kx - t) + A sin(kx + t)

Using sin A+sin B = 2sin [(A+B)/2] .cos [(A-B)/2]

y ( x, t ) = 2A cos(t) * sin kx

Where 2A cos(t) determines how the amplitude varies with time
While sin(kx) determines the standing waves shape.
Standing Waves
15
Standing Waves
Fundamental frequency
sine waveform =
2
nd
Harmonic
1 sine waveform = 1
3
rd
Harmonic
3/2 sine waveform = 3/2
4
th
Harmonic
2 sine waveform = 2
=
2

where n = 1, 2, 3, .......
n = number of nodes
16
Standing Waves Examples
atomic
orbitals
standing wave
solution for
electrons in an
atom
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency
The amplitude y
m
of a wave is the magnitude
of the maximum displacement of the elements
from their equilibrium positions as the
wave passes through them.

The phase of the wave is the argument
(kx et) of the sine function. As the wave
sweeps through a string element at a particular
position x, the phase changes linearly with
time t.

The wavelength of a wave is the distance
parallel to the direction of the waves
travel) between repetitions of the shape of the
wave (or wave shape). It is related to the
angular wave number, k, by


:
The period of oscillation T of a wave is the
time for an element to move through one full
oscillation. It is related to the angular
frequency, e, by



The frequency f of a wave is defined as 1/T
and is related to the angular frequency e by




A phase constant | in the wave function:
y =y
m
sin(kx et+ |). The value of | can be
chosen so that the function gives some other
displacement and slope at x 0 when t 0.
17
16.4 Wavelength and Frequency: The Speed of a Traveling Wave
As the wave in Fig. 16-7 moves,
each point of the moving wave
form, such as point A marked on a
peak, retains its displacement y.
(Points on the string do not retain
their displacement, but points on the
wave form do.) If point A retains its
displacement as it moves, the phase
giving it that displacement must
remain a constant:
18
Example, Transverse Wave
19
20
Example, Transverse Wave, Transverse Velocity, and Acceleration
velocity , =

cos
y , =

sin
acceleration , =

=
2

sin
y, v
y
& a
y
v
s
v
y,m
= -ey
m
a
y,m
= -e
2
y
m
transverse
wave speed
21
y = Asin| v = -eAcos|
=

2
+
2
= 1 =

2
+

2
=
2

2

Relationship between v, e, A and y
Example, Transverse Wave, Transverse Velocity, and Acceleration
22
Chapter 15
Oscillations
23
15.1 Oscillatory motion
Motion which is periodic in time, that is, motion that
repeats itself in time.
Examples:
Power line oscillates when the wind blows past it
Earthquake oscillations move buildings
Weight oscillating on a spring
Tuning Fork
Pendulum
Piston moving in a car engine
Guitar String
Sometimes the oscillations are so severe, that the
system exhibiting oscillations break apart.
24
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
A particle repeatedly moves back and forth about the point x=0 where the
time taken for 1 complete oscillation is the period, T.

In T the particle travels from x=+x
m
, to x
m
, and then back to its original
position x
m
.

The velocity vector arrows are scaled to indicate the magnitude of the
speed of the system at different times. At x=x
m
, the velocity is zero.
25
mg
m
pendulum
Frequency of oscillation is the number of oscillations that
are completed in each second.

The symbol for frequency is f, and the SI unit is the Hertz
(abbreviated as Hz).

It follows that
(sec)
1
) (
T
Hz f =
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
26
Any motion that repeats itself is periodic (= harmonic).

If the motion is a sinusoidal function of time, it is called
simple harmonic motion (SHM).

Mathematically SHM can be expressed as:


) cos( ) ( | e + = t x t x
m
Here,
x
m
is the amplitude (maximum displacement of the system)
t is the time
e is the angular frequency, and
| is the phase constant or phase angle
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
27
(a) The displacement of two SHM
systems that are different in
amplitudes, but have the same period.

(b) The displacement of two SHM
systems which are different in periods
but have the same amplitude.

(c) The value of the phase constant
term, f, depends on the value of the
displacement and the velocity of the
system at time t = 0. The
displacement of two SHM systems
having the same period and
amplitude, but different phase
constants.
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
28
(a)
(c)
(b)
For an oscillatory motion with period T,
) ( ) ( T t x t x + =
The cosine function also repeats itself when the argument
increases by 2t. Therefore,
f
T
T
t T t
t
t
e
t e
t e e
2
2
2
2 ) (
= =
=
+ = +
Here, e is the angular frequency, and measures the
angle per unit time. Its SI unit is radians/second. To be
consistent, f must also be in radians.
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
29
15.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
The velocity of SHM
| |
) sin( ) (
cos(
) (
) (
| e e
| e
+ =
+ = =
t x t v
t x
dt
d
dt
t dx
t v
m
m
The maximum value of velocity is: v = ex
m
.

The phase shift of the velocity is t/2, making
the cosine to a sine function. The acceleration
of SHM is:

| |
) ( ) (
) cos( ) (
) sin(
) (
) (
2
2
t x t a
t x t a
t x
dt
d
dt
t dv
t a
m
m
e
| e e
| e e
=
+ =
+ = =
The acceleration amplitude is: a = - e
2
x
m
.

In SHM a(t) is proportional to the displacement but opposite in sign.
30
a(t) maximum where
maximum F applied
a(t) maximum
at bottom of
swing.
15.3 Force Law for SHM
From Newtons 2
nd
law:
kx x m ma F = = =
2
e
SHM is the motion executed by a system subject to a force that is
proportional to the displacement of the system but opposite in sign.
Period T of SHM oscillation =
31
F = -kx
Hookes law
k is the spring constant
m
k
= e
2 2
) 2 ( f m m k t e = =
k
m
T t 2 =
m
k
f
t 2
1
=
15.3 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion
The block-spring system shown on
the right forms a linear SHM
oscillator.

The spring constant of the spring,
k, is related to the angular
frequency, w, of the oscillator:
k
m
T
m
k
t e 2 = =
32
mg
m
pendulum
T = 2t

L
Simple pendulum
Perpendicular to the string
mg sin u = -ma
a is the acceleration along the arc
sin u u and x Lu ,
mg sin u = -ma = mg u
a = -g(x/l) = -(g/l)x

as a = -e
2
x in SHM then e
2
= g/l

Period of oscillation T
g
L
2
2
T t =
e
t
=
A
F=mg
mg cos u
mg sin u
u
x
T
L
33
Combination of Springs
34
F
F
2
=

k
2
x F
1
=

k
1
x
F = k
1
x + k
2
x = (k
1
+ k
2
) x
F
F
1
= k
1
x
1

F
2
= k
2
x
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
2 1
k
1
k
1
x
x k F

35
Combination of Springs
F = T
1
+ T
2
= k
1
x + k
2
x = (k
1
+ k
2
)x
T
1

Equilibrium position
T
2

compression
of spring
extension
of spring
Spring
constant, k
1

Spring
constant, k
2

x
motion of block
Example: Force law:
36
Example, force law:
37
Example, force law:
38
Example, force law:
39
Example, force law:
40
Example, force law:
41
15.4: Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion (not in exam)
The potential energy of a linear oscillator
is associated entirely with the spring.
( ) | e + = = t kx kx t U
m
2
2
2
cos
2
1
2
1
) (
The kinetic energy of the system is
associated entirely with the speed of
the block.
( ) ( ) | e | e e + = + = = t kx t x m mv t K
m m
2
2
2
2
2 2
sin
2
1
sin
2
1
2
1
) (
The total mechanical energy of
the system:
2 2
2
m
kx
2
1
mv
2
1
kx
2
1
K U E + = = + =
42
energy oscillates between KE and PE
Example, energy in SHM:
Many tall building have mass dampers,
which are anti-sway devices to prevent
them from oscillating in a wind. The
device might be a block oscillating at the
end of a spring and on a lubricated track.
If the building sways, say eastward, the
block also moves eastward but delayed
enough so that when it finally moves, the
building is then moving back westward.
Thus, the motion of the oscillator is out of
step with the motion of the building.
Suppose that the block has mass m = 2.72
x 10
5
kg and is designed to oscillate at
frequency f = 10.0 Hz and with amplitude
x
m
= 20.0 cm.

(a) What is the total mechanical energy E
of the spring-block system?
43
Example, energy, continued:
44
16.6: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
The speed of a wave, v , along a stretched ideal string
depends only on the tension, t , and linear density of the
string, , and not on the frequency, f , of the wave.
45
m
Wave
driver
t = mg N
=

Al
v
speed
16.6: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
A small string element of length Al
within the pulse is an arc of a circle
of radius R and subtending an angle
2u at the center of that circle.

A force with a magnitude equal to
the tension in the string, t, pulls
tangentially on this element at each
end
46
t cosu
t cosu
t sinu t sinu
tangential
u
=

= u
16.6: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
The horizontal components of these forces
cancel, but the vertical components add to form
a radial restoring force . For small angles,


If m is the linear mass density of the string, and
Am the mass of the small element,


The element has an acceleration:
Therefore, as F = ma

47
t cosu
t cosu
t sinu t sinu
tangential
u
=

= u
=

2

=
1

2
=
2

16.6: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
48
R
R
Velocity, t
2
= v
2
Velocity, t
1
= v
1
Distance
travelled
t
2
>t
1
Change in
velocity
u
u
Av = v
2
v
1

= a =

Since v
1
and v
2
are perpendicular to R, the angles of both
triangles are equal. Consequently the two triangles are
similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are equal.

49
16.6: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
Vibration frequency of a stretched string depends on:
The length of the string that is free to oscillate - longer
string lower frequency
The tension in the string - higher tension higher frequency
The mass of the string - higher mass lower frequency
=
1

2
.

=
2

16.6: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String
50
Kinetic energy of string element
at each position depends on the
transverse velocity of the element
Potential energy depends on the
amount by which the string element
is stretched as the wave passes
through it
Snapshot of a travelling wave on a
string at t = 0

T
Energy, E

51
In one period T, energy has moved one wavelength,

Transported Power, P =

16.6: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String

52
16.6: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String

Mass per unit length
of the string (kg/m)
Angular frequency of
wave (radians/sec)
wave velocity
speed (m/s)
Amplitude of wave (m)
Power (Watts)
53
16.7: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String

v
s
Wave motion
A
y
v
y
= =
1
2

2
=
1
2

2

= =
1
2
. =
1
2
(. ). =
1
2

2

= =
1
2

2
=
1
2
Ax
2

2

=

54
16.6: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String
y = Asin(kx et)
=
1
2

2
=
1
2

2
Ax =
1
2

2
A
2
sin
2
(kx-et)Ax
Wave equation travelling wave
Potential energy for one wavelength along the string is found by
integrating over dx at t=0

=
1
2

2

2

2
=
1
2

2

2
1
2

1
4
2
0

0
=
1
4

2

Total Energy with one wavelength = E

= U

+ KE

=
1
2

2

=
1
2

2
=
1
2

2
v = eAcos(kxet)
=
1
2

2
A
2
cos
2
(kx-wt)Ax

=
1
2

2

0
=
1
4

2

Similarly

2
=
1
2
1
16.6: Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a String
The average power, which is the average rate at which energy of both kinds
(kinetic energy and elastic potential energy) is transmitted by the wave, is:
55
Velocity of string Kinetic energy of string
y
m
= A
Example, Transverse Wave:
56
57
A string of mass of 20 mg and length of 1000 mm carries a wave
with a period 65 ms and a wavelength 60 cm. What is the average
power transmitted along the string if the waves amplitude is 12
mm?

=
1
2

2

2

v = .T
-1
e = 2t .T
-1

() =
1
2

4
2

Here A = 12 x10
-3
m, = 0.6 m, T = 6.5 x10
-2
s, = 2 x10
-3
kg/m
P = 12.42 Watts