SERIES  ARTICLE
Snippets of Physics
T Padmanabhan works at
IUCAA, Pune and is
interested in all areas
of theoretical physics,
especially those which have
something to do with
gravity.
Keywords
Kepler problem, Coulomb field,
precession, general relativity.
1144
24. Kepler and his Problem
T Padmanabhan
T h e m a jo r c o n tr ib u tio n o f K e p le r w a s in d is-
c o v e r in g h is la w s o f p la n e ta r y m o tio n , o n e o f
w h ic h sta te s th a t p la n e ts m o v e in e llip tic a l o rb its
a r o u n d th e S u n w h ich is lo c a te d a t o n e o f th e fo c i
o f th e e llip s e . T h e m o tio n o f a te st p a rtic le in a n
in v e rse sq u a re fo rc e la w is u su a lly c a lle d th e K e -
p le r p ro b le m . W e w ill e x a m in e se v e r a l a sp e c ts o f
th is m o tio n in th is la st in sta llm e n t o f S n ip p e ts in
P h y sic s.
It is a tex tb o o k ex ercise to sh ow th a t th e b o u n d o rb its
in N ew to n ia n g rav ity u n d er th e in ° u en ce o f a n in v erse
sq u a re law fo rce a re ellip ses. W e h av e a lrea d y d iscu ssed
sev era l fea tu res o f su ch a m o tio n in p rev io u s a rticles [1 ,
2 ]. In p a rticu la r, th is m o tio n h a s th e fo llow in g fea tu res,
w h ich a re sp ecia l to th is p ro b lem a n d d isa p p ea r if y o u
ch a n g e th e p ro b lem ev er so slig h tly !
² T h e tra jecto ry o f th e p a rticle in th e v elo city sp a ce
(u su a lly ca lled a h o d o g ra p h ) u n d erg o in g su ch a m o tio n ,
is a circle [1 ]. T h e v elo city v o f th e p a rticle ca n b e
ex p ressed in th e fo rm v (t) = v 0 + u (t) w h ere v 0 is a
v ecto r co n sta n t in m a g n itu d e a n d d irectio n w h ile u (t)
h a s co n sta n t m a g n itu d e b u t va ry in g d irectio n .
² In a d d itio n to th e a n g u la r m o m en tu m a n d en erg y,
w h ich w o u ld b e co n serv ed in a n y sta tic cen tra l fo rce
p ro b lem , w e h av e a n ex tra co n serv ed q u a n tity ca lled th e
R u n g e{ L en z v ecto r. T h e m a g n itu d e o f th is v ecto r ca n
b e a rra n g ed to g iv e th e eccen tricity o f th e o rb it w h ile
its d irectio n is a lo n g th e m a jo r a x is o f th e ellip se. T h e
co n serva tio n o f th is v ecto r en su res th a t th e d irectio n o f
th e m a jo r a x is d o es n o t ch a n g e a n d th e ellip se stay s in
p la ce.
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T h e ¯ rst ca su a lty w h en w e m o d ify th e p ro b lem is th e R u n g e{ L en z v ecto r. T h is

m ea n s th a t ev en w h en th e m o d i¯ ca tio n is sm a ll, th e d irectio n o f th e ellip se is n o t
p ro tected b y a co n serva tio n law . T h is ca u ses th e ellip se to p recess a n d it is o ften
o f in terest to co m p u te th e ra te o f th is p recessio n . W e sh a ll n ow d iscu ss h ow th is
co m es a b o u t in d i® eren t co n tex ts a n d w h a t it im p lies.
T h e stu d y o f o rb its in ex tern a l ¯ eld s is m o st eco n o m ica lly d o n e u sin g th e H a m ilto n {
J a co b i eq u a tio n . S o lv in g th e releva n t H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a tio n in th e co n tex t
o f a cen tra l fo rce p ro b lem lea d s to a n a ctio n w h ich ca n b e ex p ressed in th e fo rm

A (t;r ;E ;L ) = ¡ E t + L µ + S (r;E ;L ); (1 )

w h ere (r;µ ) a re th e sta n d a rd p o la r co o rd in a tes in th e p la n e o f o rb it, L is th e

a n g u la r m o m en tu m , E is th e en erg y a n d S (r ;E ;L ) h a s to b e d eterm in ed b y
in teg ra tin g th e H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a tio n . T h e o rb ita l eq u a tio n r = r (µ ) ca n b e
o b ta in ed b y d i® eren tia tin g A w ith resp ect to L a n d eq u a tin g it to a co n sta n t:

@S
µ+ = µ 0 = co n sta n t : (2 )
@L

T h e d i® eren t co n tex ts w e w o u ld b e in terested in o n ly d i® ers in th e n a tu re o f

H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a tio n ; o n ce w e o b ta in th e o rb ita l eq u a tio n in (2 ) o n e ca n
co m p a re th e d i® eren t m o d els fa irly ea sily.
L et u s sta rt w ith th e sta n d a rd N ew to n ia n th eo ry. If th e p a rticle is m ov in g in a
cen tra l p o ten tia l V (r ), th en fro m th e H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a tio n @ A = @ t + H = 0 ,
it is ea sy to sh ow th a t S sa tis¯ es th e eq u a tio n
à !2
dS
= 2 m (E ¡ V ) ¡ (L 2 = r 2 ): (3 )
dr

T h is, in tu rn , a llow s u s to w rite th e o rb ita l eq u a tio n in (2 ) in th e fo rm

Z
d r(L 2 = r 2 )
µ ¡ µ0 = : (4 )
[2 m (E ¡ V ) ¡ (L 2 = r 2 )]1 = 2

C o n v ertin g th is in to a n eq u a tio n fo r d r = d µ a n d in tro d u cin g th e sta n d a rd su b sti-

tu tio n u ´ (1 = r ) w e ca n o b ta in th e d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n sa tis¯ ed b y u (µ ):

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m dV
u 00+ u = ¡ ; (5 )
L 2 du

w h ere th e p rim e d en o tes d i® eren tia tio n w ith resp ect to µ . In th e sta n d a rd K ep ler
p ro b lem , V = ¡ G M m = r = ¡ G M m u so th a t th e rig h t-h a n d sid e o f (5 ) b eco m es
a co n sta n t a n d w e g et th e so lu tio n u = ® + ¯ co s µ w h ich rep resen ts a n ellip se.
L et u s n ow a sk w h a t h a p p en s to th e K ep ler p ro b lem w h en w e in tro d u ce p h y sica lly
releva n t m o d i¯ ca tio n s. T h e ¯ rst g en era liza tio n th a t y o u m ig h t th in k o f w ill b e to
in tro d u ce th e e® ects o f sp ecia l rela tiv ity. T h is tu rn s o u t to b e m o re n o n -triv ia l
th a n o n e m ig h t h av e im a g in ed fo r th e fo llow in g rea so n .
In th e n o n rela tiv istic co n tex t, th e m o tio n o f a p a rticle u n d er th e a ctio n o f a
p o ten tia l V is g ov ern ed b y th e eq u a tio n d p ® = d t = ¡ @ ® V , w h ere ® = 1 ;2 ;3
d en o tes th e th ree sp a tia l co m p o n en ts o f th e m o m en tu m p a n d @ ® d en o tes th e
d eriva tiv e w ith resp ect to th e co o rd in a te x ® . O n e m ig h t h av e th o u g h t th a t th e
n a tu ra l g en era liza tio n o f th is N ew to n ia n resu lt in to th e sp ecia l rela tiv istic d o m a in
w o u ld in v o lv e th e fo llow in g rep la cem en ts: C h a n g e th e th ree m o m en tu m p ® to th e
fo u r m o m en tu m p i (w ith i = 0 ;1 ;2 ;3 ), th e co o rd in a te tim e t in to th e p ro p er tim e
¿ o f th e p a rticle a n d th e th ree-d im en sio n a l g ra d ien t @ ® to th e fo u r-g ra d ien t @ i.
T h is w o u ld h av e led to th e eq u a tio n d p i = d ¿ = ¡ @ iV . U n fo rtu n a tely, th ere is a
p ro b lem w ith th is `g en era liza tio n '. T h e fo u r-v elo city u i sa tis¯ es th e co n stra in t:

d x id x i d¿2
u iu i = = ¡ = ¡1 ; (6 )
d¿d¿ d¿2

w h ere w e h av e in tro d u ced th e su m m a tio n co n v en tio n w h ich req u ires u s to su m

a ll rep ea ted in d ices ov er th e ra n g e i = 0 ;1 ;2 ;3 a n d u i = ´ ij u j w ith ´ ij =
d ia [¡ 1 ;1 ;1 ;1 ]. S in ce th e fo u r-m o m en tu m p i = m u i is p ro p o rtio n a l to fo u r-
v elo city u i, w e h av e th e co n stra in t

d pi dui m d
ui = m ui = (u iu i) = 0 ; (7 )
d¿ d¿ 2 d¿

w h ere w e h av e u sed (6 ). T h is im p lies th a t o u r p o ten tia l V h a s to sa tisfy th e

co n stra in ts u i@ iV = 0 ; th a t is, th e p o ten tia l sh o u ld n o t ch a n g e a lo n g th e w o rld
lin e o f th e p a rticle w h ich is n o t p o ssib le in g en era l. T h is is o n e rea so n w h y
v elo city -in d ep en d en t fo rces lik e @ iV ca n n o t b e in tro d u ced in sp ecia l rela tiv ity.

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S o th e g en era liza tio n to sp ecia l rela tiv ity h a s to co m e fro m so m e o th er d irectio n .

O n e p o ssib ility is to n o te th a t th e K ep ler p ro b lem a lso a rises in electro d y n a m ics
w h en w e co n sid er th e m o tio n o f a test ch a rg e in th e C o u lo m b ¯ eld o f a n o th er
ch a rg e. S in ce w e h av e a fu lly sp ecia l rela tiv istic fo rm u la tio n o f electro d y n a m ics,
w e ca n a ttem p t to stu d y th e m o tio n o f a p a rticle u n d er th e a ctio n o f a fo u r-v ecto r
p o ten tia l A i = (V (r );0 ;0 ;0 ) w h ich w o u ld co rresp o n d to a cen tra lly sy m m etric
electro sta tic p o ten tia l. W e ca n o n ce a g a in w rite d ow n th e H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a -
tio n fo r th is ca se a n d o b ta in , in a n a lo g y w ith (3 ), th e d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n fo r S
g iv en b y
à !2
dS 1 2 L2
= (E ¡ V ) ¡ ¡ m 2 c2 : (8 )
dr c2 r2

It is fa irly stra ig h tfo rw a rd to sh ow th a t, in th is ca se, (5 ) g ets m o d i¯ ed to th e

fo rm
à !
00 (E ¡ V ) dV E = c2 d V 1 1 dV 2
u + u = ¡ = ¡ + : (9 )
L 2 c2 du L 2 du 2 L 2 c2 d u

C o m p a rin g (9 ) w ith (5 ) w e see th a t th e ¯ rst term in v o lv es rep la cem en t o f m b y

E = c 2 w h ich , o f co u rse, m a k es sen se th o u g h it b rin g s in a v elo city d ep en d en ce; th e
seco n d term sh ow s th a t th e p o ten tia l p ick s u p a V 2 term a s a co rrectio n w h ich
ca n b e tra ced b a ck to th e fa ct th a t w h ile p 2 / E in th e n o n -rela tiv istic ca se,
p 2 = (E = c)2 ¡ m 2 c 2 in sp ecia l rela tiv ity. M o re fo rm a lly, w e ca n a ttem p t to d e¯ n e
a N ew to n ia n e® ectiv e p o ten tia l V e® in w h ich w e w ill o b ta in th e sa m e eq u a tio n o f
m o tio n . In th e ca se o f m o tio n in a C o u lo m b ¯ eld w ith V (r ) = ¡ ® = r = ¡ ® u , th is
req u ires u s to sa tisfy th e co n d itio n

m d V e® ®E ®2
= ¡ ¡ u (1 0 )
L 2 du L 2 c2 L 2 c2
w h ich in teg ra tes to g iv e
µ ¶
E ® 2 u2
V e® = ¡ ®u ¡ : (1 1 )
m c2 m c2 2

S in ce E = m c 2 is ° , w e ca n th in k o f th e ¯ rst term a s th e o rig in a l p o ten tia l tra n s-

fo rm ed to th e rest fra m e o f th e m ov in g b o d y. T h e seco n d term is a p u rely
rela tiv istic co rrectio n .

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In th is ca se o f rela tiv istic m o tio n in a C o u lo m b ¯ eld , th e o rb it eq u a tio n b eco m es:

®E ®2
u 00+ ! 2 u = ; !2 ´ 1¡ ; (1 2 )
L 2 c2 L 2 c2
w h ich is a g a in essen tia lly a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r eq u a tio n . T h e tra jecto ry o b ta in ed
b y so lv in g (1 2 ) ca n b e ex p ressed in th e fo rm

1 1 E ®
= co s(! µ ) + 2 2 2 ; (1 3 )
r R c L !
w h ere
"µ ¶2 #¡ 1 = 2
L!2 E ®2
R ´ ¡ 1+ 2 2 (1 4 )
m c m c2 c L

is a co n sta n t. In a m o re fa m ilia r fo rm , th e tra jecto ry is l= r = (1 + e co s ! µ ) w ith

" #
c2 J L 2 ! 2 L 2 c2
2 m 2 c4 ! 2
l= ; e = 1 ¡ : (1 5 )
E j® j ®2 E 2

It is ea sy to v erify th a t, w h en c ! 1 , th is red u ces to th e sta n d a rd eq u a tio n fo r

a n ellip se in th e K ep ler p ro b lem . In term s o f th e n o n -rela tiv istic en erg y E n r =
E ¡ m c 2 , w e g et, to lea d in g o rd er, ! ¼ 1 ;l ¼ L 2 = m j® j a n d e 2 ¼ 1 + (2 E n r L 2 = m ® 2 ),
w h ich a re th e sta n d a rd resu lts.
In th e fu lly rela tiv istic ca se, a ll th ese ex p ressio n s ch a n g e b u t th e k ey n ew e® ect
a rises fro m th e fa ct th a t ! 6= 1 . D u e to th is fa cto r, th e tra jecto ry is n o t clo sed
a n d th e ellip se p recesses. W h en ! 6= 1 , th e r in (1 3 ) d o es n o t retu rn to th e
va lu e a t µ = 0 w h en µ = 2 ¼ ; in stea d , w e n eed a fu rth er tu rn b y ¢ µ (th e `a n g le
o f p recessio n ') fo r r to retu rn to th e o rig in a l va lu e. T h is is d eterm in ed b y th e
co n d itio n (2 ¼ + ¢ µ )! = 2 ¼ . F ro m E q . (1 3 ) w e ¯ n d th a t th e o rb it p recesses b y
th e a n g le
2Ã !¡1 = 2 3
®2 ¼®2
¢ µ = 2¼ 4 1 ¡ ¡ 15' (1 6 )
c2 L 2 c2 L 2

p er o rb it w h ere th e seco n d ex p ressio n is va lid fo r ® 2 ¿ c 2 L 2 . T h is is a p u rely

rela tiv istic e® ect a n d va n ish es w h en c ! 1 .

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T h ere is a n o th er p ecu lia r fea tu re th a t a rises in th e sp ecia l rela tiv istic ca se w h ich
h a s n o N ew to n ia n a n a lo g u e. Y o u w o u ld h av e n o ticed th a t ! 2 in (1 2 ) h a s tw o
term s o f o p p o site sig n a n d in o b ta in in g o u r resu lt in (1 3 ), w e h av e ta citly a s-
su m ed th a t ! 2 > 0 . B u t in p rin cip le, o n e ca n h av e a situ a tio n w ith v ery low
b u t n o n -zero a n g u la r m o m en tu m m a k in g ! 2 < 0 . T h is is a fea tu re w h ich th e
n o n -rela tiv istic K ep ler p ro b lem sim p ly d o es n o t h av e a n d { u n d er su ch d ra stic
ch a n g e o f circu m sta n ces { o n e ca n n o lo n g er th in k in term s o f p recessin g ellip ses.
E q u a tio n (1 2 ) n ow h a s th e so lu tio n

0 s 1
³ ´1 q
2 ®2
® 2 ¡ c2 L 2
= § c (L E ) + m 2 c 2 (® 2 ¡ L 2 c 2 ) co sh @ µ ¡ 1 A ¡ E ® : (1 7 )
r c2 L 2

In th is ex p ressio n , w e ta k e th e p o sitiv e ro o t fo r ® > 0 a n d th e n eg a tiv e ro o t

fo r ® < 0 . It is o b v io u s th a t, a s µ in crea ses, (1 = r ) k eep s in crea sin g in th e ca se
o f a ttra ctiv e m o tio n so th a t th e test p a rticle sp ira ls to th e o rig in . T h is d o es
n o t h a p p en in th e K ep ler p ro b lem in N ew to n ia n p h y sics. A s is w ell k n ow n , th e
a n g u la r m o m en tu m term g iv es a rep u lsive L 2 = r 2 co n trib u tio n to th e e® ectiv e
p o ten tia l in a n y cen tra l fo rce p ro b lem . In th e ca se o f ¡ (1 = r) p o ten tia l, th e
a n g u la r m o m en tu m term p rev en ts a n y p a rticle w ith n o n -zero L fro m rea ch in g
th e o rig in . T h is is n o t th e ca se in sp ecia l rela tiv istic m o tio n u n d er a ttra ctiv e
C o u lo m b ¯ eld . If th e a n g u la r m o m en tu m is less th a n a critica l va lu e, ® = c, th en
th e p a rticle sp ira ls d ow n to th e o rig in . Y ou w ill ¯ n d it u sefu l to re-a n a ly se th is
situ a tio n in term s o f su ita b le e® ectiv e p o ten tia ls.
If w e th in k o f ® a s G M m , th e seco n d term in (1 2 ) g iv es a co rrectio n to th e
p o ten tia l (¡ G 2 M 2 = 2 c 2 )(m = r 2 ). T h is term w ill lea d to a p recessio n o f th e ellip se
b u t th e m o d el is to ta lly w ro n g . O n e ca n n o t rep resen t g rav ity u sin g a v ecto r
p o ten tia l; in su ch a th eo ry, lik e ch a rg es rep el w h ile th e g rav ity h a s to b e a ttra ctiv e.
T h e p ro p er w ay o f g en era lizin g th e g rav ita tio n a l K ep ler p ro b lem , ta k in g in to
a cco u n t th e e® ects o f rela tiv ity, is o f co u rse to u se g en era l rela tiv ity to d escrib e
th e g rav ita tio n a l ¯ eld [3 ]. In th e ca se o f a test p a rticle m ov in g in th e g rav ita tio n a l
¯ eld o f a p o in t m a ss a t th e o rig in , w e h av e to ta k e in to a cco u n t th e e® ect o f th e
cu rva tu re o f th e sp a ce w h ich is d escrib ed b y th e m o d i¯ ca tio n to th e lin e in terva l
in th e fo rm

d r2 ³ ´
d s 2 = ¡ f (r )c 2 d t2 + + r 2 d µ 2 + sin 2 µ d µ 2 ; (1 8 )
f (r )

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w h ere f (r ) = [1 ¡ (2 G M = c 2 r )]. W e h a d a lrea d y d iscu ssed th is in a p rev io u s

in sta llm en t [3 ] w h ere it w a s p o in ted o u t th a t o n e ca n o b ta in th e co rrect eq u a tio n
b y rep la cin g co o rd in a te in terva ls b y th e p ro p er g eo m etrica l q u a n tities. F o r a
rela tiv istic free p a rticle, th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een en erg y a n d m o m en tu m is g iv en
b y E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 . W h en ex p ressed in p o la r co o rd in a tes, th is ta k es th e fo rm
µ ¶2 Ã !2
2 E dr c2 L 2
E = m 2 c4 + + : (1 9 )
c dt r2
p
W e n ow h av pe to rep la ce in (1 9 ), d r b y th e p ro p er len g th (d p r= f ); d t b y th e
p ro p er tim e f d t a n d th e en erg y b y th e red sh ifted o n e E = f . T h e ex p ressio n
2
fo r co n serv
p ed a n g u la r m o m en tu m w ill a lso ch a n g e fro m L = m r (d µ = d t) to L =
2
m r (d µ = f d t). M a n ip u la tin g th ese eq u a tio n s, it is ea sy to o b ta in a n ex p ressio n
fo r d r= d µ , d i® eren tia tin g w h ich w e w ill g et th e eq u a tio n fo r th e o rb it in th e
sta n d a rd fo rm :

d 2u G M m 2
3G M 2
+ u = + u : (2 0 )
d µ2 L2 c2

T h e ¯ rst term o n th e rig h t-h a n d sid e is p u rely N ew to n ia n a n d th e seco n d term is

th e co rrectio n fro m g en era l rela tiv ity. T h e ra tio o f th ese tw o term s is (L = m rc)2 ¼
(v = c)2 , w h ere r a n d v a re th e ty p ica l ra d iu s a n d sp eed o f th e p a rticle.
T h is co rrectio n term ch a n g es th e n a tu re o f th e o rb its in tw o w ay s. F irst, it
ch a n g es th e rela tio n sh ip b etw een th e p a ra m eters o f th e o rb it a n d th e en erg y a n d
a n g u la r m o m en tu m o f th e p a rticle. M o re im p o rta n tly, it m a k es th e ellip tica l
o rb it o f N ew to n ia n g rav ity to p recess slow ly w h ich is o f g rea ter o b serva tio n a l
im p o rta n ce.
T h e ex a ct so lu tio n to (2 0 ) ca n b e g iv en o n ly in term s o f ellip tic fu n ctio n s a n d
h en ce is n o t v ery u sefu l. A n a p p rox im a te so lu tio n to (2 0 ), h ow ev er, ca n b e o b -
ta in ed fa irly ea sily w h en th e o rb it h a s a v ery low eccen tricity a n d is n ea rly circu la r
(w h ich is th e ca se fo r m o st p la n eta ry o rb its). T h en th e low est o rd er so lu tio n w ill
b e u = u 0 = co n sta n t a n d o n e ca n ¯ n d th e n ex t o rd er co rrectio n b y p ertu rb a -
tio n s th eo ry. T h is ca n b e d o n e w ithou t a ssu m in g th a t 2 G M u 0 = c 2 = 2 G M = c 2 r 0 is
sm a ll, so th a t th e resu lt is va lid ev en fo r o rb its clo se to th e S ch w a rzsch ild ra d iu s,
a s lo n g a s th e o rb it is n ea rly circu la r.
L et th e ra d iu s o f th e circu la r o rb it b e r 0 fo r w h ich u = (1 = r 0 ) ´ k 0 . F o r th e a ctu a l

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o rb it u = k 0 + u 1 , w h ere w e ex p ect th e seco n d term to b e a sm a ll co rrectio n .

C h a n g in g th e va ria b les fro m u to u 1 , w h ere u 1 = u ¡ k 0 , eq u a tio n (2 0 ) ca n b e
w ritten a s

G M m 2
3G M ³ 2 ´
u 010+ u 1 + k 0 = + u 1 + k 2
0 + 2 u 1 k 0 : (2 1 )
L2 c2

W e n ow ch o o se k 0 to sa tisfy th e co n d itio n
2
G M m 3G M
k0 = + k 02 ; (2 2 )
L2 c2

w h ich d eterm in es th e ra d iu s r 0 = 1 = k 0 o f th e o rig in a l circu la r o rb it in term s o f

th e o th er p a ra m eters. N ow th e eq u a tio n fo r u 1 b eco m es
à !
00 6k0G M 3G M 2
u 1 + 1¡ u1 = u 1: (2 3 )
c2 c2

T h is eq u a tio n is ex a ct. W e sh a ll n ow u se th e fa ct th a t th e d ev ia tio n fro m circu la r

o rb it, ch a ra cterized b y u 1 is sm a ll a n d ig n o re th e rig h t-h a n d sid e o f (2 3 ). S o lv in g
(2 3 ), w ith th e rig h t-h a n d sid e set to zero , w e g et
"µ ¶1 = 2 #
6G M
u 1 »= A co s 1¡ 2 µ : (2 4 )
c r0

W e see th a t r d o es n o t retu rn to its o rig in a l va lu e a t µ = 0 w h en µ = 2 ¼ in d ica tin g

a p recessio n o f th e o rb it. W e en co u n tered th e sa m e p h en o m en o n in th e ca se o f
m o tio n in a C o u lo m b ¯ eld a s w ell. A s d escrib ed in th a t co n tex t, th e a rg u m en t o f
th e co sin e fu n ctio n b eco m es 2 ¼ w h en

µ c ¼ 2 ¼ [1 ¡ (6 G M = c 2 r 0 )]¡1 = 2 (2 5 )

w h ich g iv es th e p recessio n (µ c ¡ 2 ¼ ) p er o rb it.

W e ca n m a k e a n a iv e co m p a riso n b etw een th is p recessio n ra te a n d th e co rre-
sp o n d in g o n e in th e C o u lo m b p ro b lem b y n o ticin g th a t, in th e la tter ca se, w e ca n
su b stitu te ® = G M m a n d L 2 ¼ G M m 2 r 0 (w h ich fo llow s fro m (2 2 ) a t th e low est
o rd er) to o b ta in

RESONANCE  December 2009 1151

 SERIES  ARTICLE

2 G M
! el ! 1¡ (2 6 )
c2 r 0

w h ich d i® ers b y a fa cto r 6 in th e co rresp o n d in g term in g en era l rela tiv ity.

If w e a ttem p t to rep ro d u ce th e g en era l rela tiv istic resu lts b y a n e® ectiv e N ew -
to n ia n p o ten tia l, w e n eed to ¯ n d a V e® w h ich sa tis¯ es th e eq u a tio n
2
m d V e® GM m 3G M
¡ 2 = + u2 (2 7 )
L du L2 c 2

w h ich in teg ra tes to g iv e

G M m G M L2 1
V e® = ¡ ¡ : (2 8 )
r m c2 r 3

T h e tro u b le w ith th is e® ectiv e p o ten tia l is th a t th e co rrectio n term d ep en d s o n

th e a n g u la r m o m en tu m L o f th e p a rticle w h ich is so m ew h a t d i± cu lt to m o tiva te
p h y sica lly. B u t if y o u a re w illin g to liv e w ith it, th en o n e ca n in tro d u ce a p seu d o
N ew to n ia n d escrip tio n o f th e g en era l rela tiv istic K ep ler p ro b lem b y ta k in g th e
eq u a tio n s o f m o tio n to b e m (d 2 r= d ¿ 2 ) = F w ith
à !
GM m 3 (^r £ u )2 dr
F = ¡ ^r 1+ ; u = ; (2 9 )
r2 c2 d¿

w h ere ¿ is th e p ro p er tim e a n d ^r is a u n it v ecto r in th e ra d ia l d irectio n . Y o u

ca n co n v in ce y o u rself th a t th e co n serv ed a n g u la r m o m en tu m n ow is L = m r £ u
w h ich w ill en su re th a t th e a b ov e fo rce rep ro d u ces th e co rrect rela tiv istic o rb it
eq u a tio n . U n fo rtu n a tely, th is fo rce law d o es n o t seem to lea d to a n y o th er u sefu l
co n cep t.

Suggested Reading

[1] T Padmanabhan, Planets Move in Circles!, Resonance, Vol.1, No.9, pp.34–40, 1996.
[2] T Padmanabhan, Perturbing Coulomb to Avoid Accidents!, Resonance, Vol.14, No.6, pp.622–629, 2009.
[3] T Padmanabhan, Schwarzschild Metric at a discounted price, Resonance, Vol.13, No.4, pp.312–318, 2008.

Address for Correspondence: T Padmanabhan, IUCAA, Post Bag 4, Pune University Campus, Ganeshkhind,
Pune 411 007, India. Email: paddy@iucaa.ernet.in, nabhan@iucaa.ernet.in

1152 RESONANCE  December 2009