Power Plant Engineering

Chapter 2 Power Plant Thermodynamics

Chapter 2 1

CHAPTER 2
POWER PLANT THERMODYNAMICS

2.1. Thermodynamic Principles...................................................................... 2
2.2. Steady Flow Engineering Devices and Processes................................... 4
2.3. Heat Engine and Cycles............................................................................ 8
2.4. Carnot Cycle............................................................................................ 10
2.5. Rankine Cycle.......................................................................................... 10

Power Plant Engineering
Chapter 2 Power Plant Thermodynamics

In a thermal power plant, all processes are based on the fundamentals of
thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics. Fossil-fuel fired power plants, nuclear
power plants, and diesel engines are thermal heat engines.

2.1. Thermodynamic Principles
The first and second laws of thermodynamics provide the fundamentals relationships for
a power plant cycle analysis.
In the thermodynamics, there are two types of system: closed system, and open system.
Before discussing the systems, we need to talk on system. A system is the object that we want
to analyze it. In the closed system, there is no mass transfer to the system and from the
system. In an open system there is mass transfer.
Lets consider an open system (i.e. control volume). The first law is the energy balance
equation and is given by

Control
Volume
Work (W)
Heat (Q)
Mass in
Mass out

Figure 2.1. Open System

system out in
E E E = (kJ ) (2.1)

or in terms of rate this equation will be

t
E
E E
system
out in

=
& &
(kJ /s) or (kW). (2.2)

Energy can transfer to an open system in three ways: heat transfer, work interaction, and
carrying by mass. Energy (E) has components of enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential

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energy. If the kinetic and potential energies are omitted from this equation, for an open
system this equation can be written as

t
(Mu)
h m h m W W Q Q
cv
out out in in out in out in
= + +

& &
& & & &
(2.3)
where

in
Q
&
=heat transferred to control volume (kJ /s)
out
Q
&
=heat transferred from control volume (kJ /s)
in
W
&
=work done on the control volume (kJ /s)
out
W
&
=work done by the control volume (kJ /s)
in in
h m& =total enthalpy entered to control volume by mass flow (kJ /s)
out out
h m& =total enthalpy entered from control volume by mass flow (kJ /s)
(Mu)
cv
=internal energy change in control volume (kJ )

Similarly, the mass balance equation for control volume will be

=
t
M
m m
cv
out
in
) (
& & (2.4)

For steady-state and steady-flow process, there is no mass and energy accumulation in the
control volume. Then the energy and mass balance equations will be

0 h m h m W W Q Q
out out in in out in out in
= + +

& &
& & & &
(2.5)

and


= 0
out
in
m m & & (2.6)


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2.2. Steady Flow Engineering Devices and Processes

Turbine Process (Expansion Process)
Turbine is a device that converts heat energy of working fluid (e.g. steam) to mechanical
energy. If it is assumed that the process is adiabatic (i.e. no heat transfer), and there are no
kinetic energy and potential energy changes, and under steady-state condition, the energy
equation becomes

Superheated
Steam
W
out
1
2
m
P
h
1
1
1
m
P
h
2
2
2
Figure 2.2. Turbine system

out out in in out
h m h m W & &
&
= (2.7)

Since the steady-state condition m m m
out in
& & & = then,

out in
cv
t
h h
m
W
w = =
&
(kJ /kg) (2.8)

The turbine work (w
t
) by unit mass of working fluid equals the difference between inlet
enthalpy and exit enthalpy of the turbine. The steam temperature and pressure at the turbine
inlet (h
i
) determine the inlet enthalpy. To determine the exit enthalpy (h
e
), the turbine internal
efficiency is used. The turbine internal efficiency is defined as


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s
a
es i
e i
t
w
w
h h
h h
=

= (2.9)

It is the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the enthalpy drop that would occur in the
corresponding adiabatic and reversible process.


Figure 2.3 Turbine Expansion Process


Pump Process (Compression Process)
Pump is a device that increases the pressure of liquid fluid, for example water. The pump
process can be considered as a reversed turbine process. Then, the pump efficiency is defined
by

e i
es i
a
s
p
h h
h h
w
w

= = (2.10)

and the actual pump work for unit mass is
e i p
h h w = (2.11)
Isentropic pump process can be written as
) (
i e i p
P P v w = (2.12)



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Figure 2.4. Compression process.

Mixing Process in a Mixing Chamber
For the mixing chamber, mass balance and energy balance equations are

=
e i
m m & & and

=
e e i i
m h m h & &

Mixing
Chamber
P =cons.
Cold
Hot
1
2
3
m
P
h
1
1
1
m
P
h
2
2
2
m
P
h
3
3
3

Figure 2.5. Mixing chamber system


Heat Exchange Process in a Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat energy from hot fluid to cold fluid. Heat
exchangers have to have at least two fluids: hot fluid and cold fluid. The fluids do not mixed,
thus, fluids can be different pressure, can also be different fluids.

Heat exchangers can be classified in terms of flow direction of the fluids as follows:
Parallel flow (hot fluid and cold fluid flow same direction)
Counter flow (hot fluid and cold fluid flow opposite direction)

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Cross flow (hot fluid and cold fluid flow perpendicular each other).
For example, car radiator is a cross flow heat exchanger in which hot fluid is water and cold
fluid is air.
Since heat exchangers are steady-flow engineering devices, they can be analyzed by the
steady-flow energy balance equation.

Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T
h,i n
T
h,out
T
c,i n
T
c,out
m
h
m
c
Q

Figure 2.6. Turbine system

Energy Balance Equation:
For Hot Fluid (Hot side):
) (
, , out h in h h
h h m Q = & (2.13a)
(2.13b) ) (
, , , out h in h h p h
T T c m Q = &

For Cold Fluid (Cold side):
) (
, , in c out c c
h h m Q = & (2.14a)
(2.14b) ) (
, , , in c out c c p c
T T c m Q = &

If heat exchanger is ideally insulated (i.e. nor heat losses), the energy changes for hot fluid
and cold fluid must be equal. Namely,

) ( ) (
, , , , in c out c c out h in h h
h h m h h m = & & (2.15)

The temperature distribution of the hot fluid and cold fluid is shown in the following figures.
If there is phase changing process like in condenser and evaporator, there are no temperature
changes in the phase changing side. In that case, the energy equations must be written in
terms of enthalpy, because there is not sensible heat change.

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T
c, in
T
h,i n
T
h,out
T
c, out
T
c, in
T
h,i n
T
h,out
T
c, out
Parallel
Flow
Counter
Flow
T
c, in
T
h,i n
T
h,out
T
c, out T
c, in
T
h,i n
T
h,out
T
c, out
Condenser
Evaporator


Figure 2.7. Temperature distribution hot and cold fluid

Throttling Process
In the throttling process, pressure will decrease, and the exit enthalpy is equal to the inlet
enthalpy. In another word, the enthalpy of the fluid during this process does not change,
namely

e i
h h =

2.3. Heat Engine and Cycles
Heat engine is a device that takes thermal energy from the hot reservoir, and converts
part of this energy to work, and dumps the rest of it to the cold reservoir. According to the 2
nd

Law of thermodynamics, without two reservoirs, a heat engine cannot be designed. For
example, car engine is a heat engine. The car engine is internal combustion engine which has

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mainly two thermodynamics cycles: Diesel Cycle (compression cycle), and Otto Cycle (spark
ignition cycle). In a car engine, as a result of fuel combustion, a great amount of thermal









Heat Source (T )
H
Sink (T )
L
Work
Heat
Engine
Q
L
Q
H

Figure 2.8. Heat Engine

energy is released which will be as Hot Reservoir of engine. In this case, hot reservoir is
inside the heat engine thats why called internal combustion engine.
Brayton Cycle is the thermodynamic cycle for gas-turbine cycle engines, and Rankine
Cycle is the thermodynamics cycle for steam-turbine cycle engines.
The energy balance for the heat engines can be written as

(2.16)
L H
Q W Q + =

The main purpose of heat engines is generating mechanical work. This mechanical
energy drives generator, and then electrical energy generated. Generator is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
In the fossil fuel-fired heat engines the fuel is coal, oil, or natural gas; while in nuclear
power plants the fuel is uranium.



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2.4. Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can operate between two constant
temperature reservoirs. One of them is high temperature reservoir, which is called source, and
the other is low temperature reservoir, which is called sink. The Carnot cycle consists of four
internally reversible processes. Thus, it can be called a reversible cycle.

Process 1-2 : reversible, isothermal heat addition
Process 2-3 : reversible, adiabatic
Process 3-4 : reversible, isothermal heat rejection
Process 4-1 : reversible, adiabatic

Since the processes are reversible, the Carnot cycle offers maximum thermal efficiency
attainable between two constant temperature reservoirs. The cycle thermal efficiency is
generally defined as

th
=
work produced by the cycle
heat supplied to the cycle
(2.17)

For the Carnot cycle the thermal efficiency becomes

H
L
H
L H
H
out
th
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
W
=

= = 1 (2.18)
or

th
H L
H
L
H
T T
T
T
T
=

= 1 (Note that all temperature must be in Kelvin.) (2.19)

2.5. Rankine Cycle

Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is similar to the Carnot cycle with one exception in the condensation
process. In the Rankine cycle the condensation process terminates at the saturated liquid state.
The processes of a Rankine cycle are following:

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Process 1-2 : Isentropic compression process in pump
Process 2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
Process 3-4 : Isentropic expansion process in turbine
Process 4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser.

Boiler
Turbine
Condenser
Pump
W
t,out
Cooling
Water
Q
out
Q
i n
Saturated
Liquid
Superheated
Steam
Steam
Compressed
Liquid

Figure 2.9. Simple ideal Rankine cycle

It is evident that in the T-s diagram that the Rankine cycle is less efficient than a Carnot cycle
for the same maximum and minimum temperatures.

T
S
1
2
3
4
Q
i n
Q
out
W
t,out
W
p,in
P =P
1 4
P =P
2 3
Boiler
Pressure
Condenser
Pressure


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Figure 2.10. T-s Diagram of Simple ideal Rankine cycle.

The thermal efficiency of the cycle can written as


in
out net
th
Q
W
,
= and
in p out t out net
W W W
, , ,
= or
out in out net
Q Q W =
,

As it is given above, there are four steady state processes:
Process 1-2: Pump Process
1 2 ,
h h w
in p
= or
( )
1 2 1 ,
P P v w
in p
= for isentropic pump

Process 2-3: Boiler Process
2 3
h h q
in
=

Process 3-4: Turbine Process
4 3 ,
h h w
out t
=

Process 4-1: Condenser Process
1 4
h h q
out
=

Now we can ask why we have to use condenser. According to the 2
nd
Law of
Thermodynamics, without two reservoirs we cannot design a heat engine, so condenser
needed in cycle to damp some heat to sink. Another reason is that we use condenser is that the
work needed for compressing liquid is much less than that of vapor. Thus, always at the inlet
of pumps we need saturated liquid.

The Figure 2.11 shows the deviation of the actually Rankine cycle form the ideal one.

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased by
lowering the condenser pressure
increasing turbine inlet temperature
increasing boiler pressure
increasing boiler inlet temperature.


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Figure 2.11 (a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle. (b) The
effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.

Lowering the Condenser Pressure:
The work produces in the Rankine cycle can be increased by lowering the condenser pressure.
However, it does not mean the condenser pressure should be reduced infinitely. Lowering the
condenser pressure can cause an increase in the moisture content in the turbine exhaust end.
These will affect adversely the turbine internal efficiency, and erosion of turbine blades. Also,
a low condenser pressure will result in an increase in condenser size and cooling water flow
rate.

Increasing Turbine Inlet Temperature:
Increasing the steam temperature also result in an increase of heat supplied in the boiler.
Increasing the steam temperature not only improves the cycle efficiency, but also reduces the
moisture content at the turbine exhaust end.

Increasing Boiler Pressure:
The maximum steam temperature and the condenser pressure are held constant. It is seen that
the steam pressure increases, the net work tends to remain unchanged.

Increasing Boiler Inlet Temperature:
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Chapter 2 Power Plant Thermodynamics

If the boiler inlet temperature is increased, the amount of heat supplied in the boiler will
decrease.


Figure 2.12. The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.


Figure 2.13. The effect of superheating the steam to higher temperatures on the ideal
Rankine cycle.

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Figure 2.14. The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.


The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
In this design, the idea is to increase turbine inlet temperature. The use of reheating is very
common in steam power plants. Reheating process may not improve the cycle efficiency, but
it does reduce the moisture content in the steam leaving the turbine. This may improve the
turbine internal efficiency and thus increase the cycle performance.


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Figure 2.15 The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.

In this cycle,
reheater boiler in
Q Q Q + = and
LPT HPT out t
W W W + =
,

so

=
in p out t out net
W W W
, , ,

In the analysis of the system given in Figure 2.15, we can write

The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
The main idea in this process is to increase boiler inlet temperature, namely to preheat the
feedwater before entering to the boiler using the waste energy of the turbine. The average
temperature for heat addition in the Rankine cycle us usually lower than maximum
temperature. It is only due to the liquid heating in the boiler. If this liquid heating could be
eliminated from the boiler, the average temperature for heat addition would be greatly
increased and equal to the maximum cycle temperature in the liquid case.
Analysis:
Boiler Process
4 5
h h q
in
=
Condenser Process ( )( )
1 7
1 h h y q
out
=
Turbine Process ( ) ( )( )
7 6 6 5 ,
1 h h y h h w
out t
+ =
Pump Process ( )
in p in p in p
w w y w
, 2 , 1 ,
1 + =

Power Plant Engineering
Chapter 2 Power Plant Thermodynamics



Figure 2.16. The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.



Figure 2.17. The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.


Feedwater Heaters
As it is mentioned above, there are two types of feed water heaters: Open feed water heater
(OFWH), and closed feed water heater (CFWH).

Open Feedwater Heater (Direct-Contact Heater):

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Open Feedwater Heaters (OFH) are called Direct-Contact Feedwater Heaters as well. They
are mixing chamber. In OFH the extraction steam is mixed directly with the incoming
sucooled feedwater to produce saturated water at the extraction steam pressure. Every
Rankine cycle power plant has at least one OFWH to remove non-condensable gases from the
system. The condensate water (saturated water) leaves the condenser is pumped to a pressure
equal to that of the extraction steam pressure from the turbine. The subcooled water after
pumping process and wet steam, which comes from the turbine, mix in the OFH to produce
saturated water. Thus the amount of bled steam (from the turbine) is essentially equal to that
would saturate the subcooled feedwater.

Closed Feedwater Heater (Surface Heater):
Closed Feedwater Heaters (CFH) are heat exchanger. This type of feedwater heater, though it
results in a greater loss of availability than the open type, is the simples and most commonly
used type in power plants. The closed feed water heaters are a shell-and-tube type heat
exchanger. In a closed feedwater heater, the feedwater (i.e. cold fluid) flows in the tubes, and
the bled steam (i.e. hot fluid), which is superheated steam or saturated steam, flows in the
shell side, and it passes its energy to the feedwater, and it condenses. Thus, they are small
condensers. Because the feedwater goes through the tubes in successive closed feedwater
heaters, it does not mix with the bled steam and therefore can be pressurized only once by the
first condensate pump, which then doubles as a boiler feed pump. Another boiler feed water
pump is required and placed after the open feedwater heater (i.e. deaerating) if one used in the
power plant.

Feedwater (cold)
Steam
(superheated
or saturated)
1
2
3
4
T
x
T
y
T
drain
T
sat


In the design of closed feed water heaters, there are two approaches:

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Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)
y sat
T T TTD =
Drain Cooler Temperature Difference (DCTD)
x drain
T T DCTD =
The value of TTD varies with heater pressure. In the case of low-pressure heaters, which
receive wet or at most saturated bled steam, the TTD is positive and often of order of 5C.
This difference is obtained by proper heat-transfer design of the heater. Too small a value,
although good for plant efficiency, would require a larger heater than can be justified
economically. Too large a value would effect cycle efficiency. In the drain cooler, the drain
(i.e. condensate) is slightly sobcooled. The low-pressure feedwater heater receives saturated
or wet steam can have a drain cooler and thus physically composed of a condensing section
and a drain cooler section. The high-pressure feedwater heater receives superheated steam
bled form the turbine has desuperheating section and condensing section.
Thus, there are four physical possibilities of closed feedwater heaters composed of the
following section:
1. Condenser
2. Condenser, drain cooler
3. Desuperheater, condenser, drain cooler
4. Desuperheater, condenser.

DC
C
T
L
TTD
DCTD
DC C DS T
L
TTD
DCTD
C DS T
L
TTD
C
T
L
TTD


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Figure 2.20. Temperature distribution of (a) Condenser, (b) Condenser and drain
cooler, (c) Desuperheater, condenser, and drain cooler, (d) Desuperheater and
condenser.


There are two types of connection of closed feedwater heaters: forward connection,
backward connection. For the forward connection a pump is needed to increase pressure. For
the backward connection, a throttling valve is needed to decrease pressure.







Feedwater (cold)
Steam (hot)
Forward
Pump
Feedwater (cold)
Steam (hot)
Backward
Throttling Valve



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