Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6

Sensation is the stimulation of a sensory receptor which produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as
a sound, visual image, odor, taste, pain, etc. Sensation occurs when sensory organs absorb energy from a physical
stimulus in the environment. Sensory receptors then convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the
brain.
The nervous system is responsible for sensing the external and internal environments of an organism, and for
inducing muscle movement. Human sensation is achieved through the stimulation of specialized neurons, organized
into five different modalitiestouch, balance, taste, smell, hearing, and vision. Transduction and adaptation are some
characteristics of sense organs.
Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body
and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing"
process.Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the
information brought to the brain by the senses.
A) How sensation works
1) Sensation occurs: a) sensory organs absorb energy from a physical stimulus in the environment.
b) sensory receptors convert this energy into neural impulses and send them to the brain.
THE SENSE OF VISION
Stimulus: Light Waves
Visible Spectrum is one particular
segment of the electromagnetic energy that
we can see because these waves are the
right length to stimulate receptors in the eye.
Structure and Functions:
1. Image and Reversed
2. Light Waves
3. Cornea is the rounded, transparent
covering over the front of your eye.
4. Pupil is a round opening at the front of
your eye that allows light waves to pass
into the eyes interior
5. Iris is a circular muscle that surrounds
the pupil and controls the amount of light
entering the eye.
6. Lens is a transparent, oval structure
whose curved surface bends and focuses
light waves into an even narrower beam.
7. Retina is a thin film that contains cells
that are extremely sensitive to light.
Light-sensitive cells, called
photoreceptors, begin the process of
transduction by absorbing light waves.
Eyeballs Shape & Laser Eye Surgery:
Some of us are born w/ perfectly-shaped
eyeballs, which contribute to having
almost perfect vision.

Normal Vision

Near-sighted(Near-sightedness/Myopia)
-is a vision condition in which close objects
are seen clearly, but objects farther away appear
blurred. Near-sightedness occurs if the eyeball is
too long or the cornea, the clear front cover of the
eye, has too much curvature. As a result, the light
entering the eye isnt focused correctly and distant
objects look blurred.

Far-sighted(Far-sightedness/Hyperopia)
-is a vision condition in which distant objects
are usually seen clearly, but close ones do not
come into proper focus.
Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6
-Far-sightedness occurs if your eyeball is
too short or the cornea has too little curvature, so
light entering your eye is not focused correctly.
The Retina
1. Rods are photoreceptors that contain a
single chemical called Rhodopsin, which
activated by small amounts of light.
Cones are photoreceptors that contain
three chemical opsins, which are
activated in bright light and allow us to
see color.
2. Transduction the process which
begins when chemicals in the rods and
cones break down after absorbing light
waves
3. Nerve Impulses
The Visual Pathways: Eye to Brain
1. Optic Nerve
2. Primary Visual Cortex
3. Visual Association Areas
Trichromatic Theory
-Says that there are three different kinds of
cones in the retina, and each cone contains
one of three different light-sensitive
chemicals, called opsins.

Opponent-process Theory
-Afterimage is a visual sensation that
continues after the original stimulus is
removed.
-States that Ganglion cells in the retina and
cells in the thalamus of the brain respond to
two pairs of colors: red-green and blue-
yellow. When these cells are excited, they
respond to one color of the pair; when
inhibited, they respond to the complimentary
pair.
Color Blindness
-Is the inability to distinguish two or more
shades in the color spectrum.
Kinds of Color Blindness:
A. Monochromats have total color
blindness; their worlds look like
black-and-white movies. This kind
of color blindness is rare and
results from individuals having
only rods or only one kind of
functioning cone instead of three.
B. Dichromats Usually have
trouble distinguishing red from
green because they just have two
kinds of cones. This is an inherited
genetic defect, found mostly in
males. This results in seeing
mostly shades of blue and yellow.
THE AUDITORY SENSE
The Auditory or Audition sensation is what we use in order to hear. It uses transduction, which transforms
vibrations into electric signals, to gather information from sound waves, the stimuli for hearing. The waves are
represented by ripples and its parts are used to identify a sounds loudness and pitch. Amplitude is what we call the
distance from the top to bottom of a sound wave, while frequency is the measurement of sound waves happening in
one second.
Amplitude, if higher, is represented as louder sounds. Meanwhile, when a sound wave is more frequent, it is a
high pitched sound. This is shown on the lower part of the photo, and an example of this is a person shouting. The
upper part shows a softer, less frequent sound, like a person whispering.
Decibels are what we call the measurement of loudness, which ranges from 0 dB to 140 dB. The colors show
how long it would take before a sound would cause hearing loss. It would take listening to an 80 dB for 8 hours, a 100
dB sound for 2 hours, or a 120 dB sound for 15 minutes to make a person deaf.

Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6
The outer ears shape is used for gathering nearby sound waves.
The oval structure is called the pinna. It connects to a narrow, long
tube called the ear or auditory canal. At the end of the canal is the
inner ear, made up of the eardrum or tympanic membrane, and the
ossicles. These are three small bones in order are called the
hammer, anvil, and stirrup. When sound waves enter, the eardrum
vibrates and passes it to the ossicles, amplifying the sound in the
process.
The amplified sounds are then passed on to the oval window in
the inner ear. The inner ear is composed of the cochlea and the
semicircular canals. The cochlea, which looks like a snails shell, is
the part which transduces the vibrations into electric signals and contains the hair cells. The hair cells, or auditory
receptors, are located near the cochleas lower membrane, known as the basilar membrane. When fluids in the
cochleal tube vibrate, the basilar membrane starts to move and bend the hair cells, generating nerve impulses if large
enough.
The auditory nerve transports the impulses to the auditory cortex in the brain. The primary auditory
cortex then transforms it into basic sensations or meaningless sounds that arent understandable. Lastly, the auditory
association area combines the sounds into perceptions, which are what we hear.
We can detect where a sound is coming from because we have ears on both the
left and right side of our heads. The brain calculates the time difference, or how
long it took the sound wave to reach one of the ears.
There are two known theories on how to calculate a sounds pitch. The frequency
theory, applied only to low pitches, says that how long an impulse took to reach
the brain determines how low the sounds pitch is. The place theory, applied on
medium to high pitches, relies on the place on the basilar membrane where
maximum vibration occurs.
Lower-pitched sounds cause
maximum vibrations near the
beginning of the membrane,
while higher pitches cause it
near the end.
Loudness can be calculated by the intensity of
the sound. A soft sound has a lower amplitude. Because of that,
there are fewer vibrations, less movement, and fewer impulses
sent. The brain calculates a sounds loudness based on how fast
the impulse reaches it.
THE VESTIBULAR SENSE
includes position of head, keeping the head upright and maintaining balance
2 Organs
1. Otolith Organ - Linear acceleration
-two membranous sacs called the utricle and the saccule which primary sense horizontal and vertical
accelerations
2. Semicircular canal- rotational movements
- Each canals is filled with fluid that moves in response to movements of your head.
- In the canals are sensors that respond to the movement of the fluid
Hair cells
Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6
- The sensors within both the otolith organs and the semicircular canals
- They are responsible for the transduction of a mechanical force into an electrical signal and thereby build the
interface between the world of accelerations and the brain.
Example
*When standing on one leg with your arm in the leg, the vestibular sense helps keep you
balance
*When moving your head(straight, leaning, noding)
Motion Sickness
- feeling of discomfort, nausea and diziness in a moving vehicle
- mismatch between the information from the vestibular sense and the
information from your eyes
Kinesthetic Sense
- informs us about our bodies's positions and motions relative to gravity
-It involves being able to detect changes in body position and movements without relying on
information from the five senses.
Examples:
*When riding a bicycle, receptors in your arms and legs send infromation to your brain about the position and
movement of your legs and arms
*Walking through a parking lot and squeezing through closely parked cars to get yours

THE CHEMICAL SENSES
Olfaction, or Smell

Olfaction is called a chemical sense because its stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by the air. The upper
part of the nose has a small area that contains receptor cells for olfaction. The function of the olfactory receptors is
transduction, to transform chemical reactions into nerve impulses.
Functions of Olfaction:
1. Intensify the taste of the food
2. Warn of potentially dangerous foods
3. Elicit strong memories
Gustatory, or Taste
Taste is called a chemical sense because the stimuli are various chemicals. On the surface of the tongue are
receptors, called taste buds, for five basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami. The function of taste buds is to
perform transduction, which means transforming chemical reactions into nerve impulses.
Taste buds, which are shaped like miniature onions, are receptors for taste. Chemical dissolved in saliva activates the
taste buds, which produce nerve impulses that eventually reach areas in the brains parietal lobe. The brain transforms
these nerve impulses in sensations of taste.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity to different taste stimuli varies from place to place on the tongue. While any substance can be detected at
almost any place on the tongue (except the center), different tastes are best detected in different regions.

We experience flavor when we combine the sensations of taste and smell.
References: Plotnik & Kouyoumdijans Introduction to Psychology, Atkinson & Hilgard's Introduction to
Psychology, 15th Edition
Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6

THE SOMATOSENSATION
The sense of Touch or somatosensation, also
called tactition or mechanoreception is
responsible for pressure, temperature, and pain.
The sense of touch is distributed throughout the
body.
Nerve endings in the skin and other parts of the
body transmit sensations to the brain.
Some parts of the body have a larger number of
nerve endings and, therefore, are more
sensitive.
There are 4 kinds of touch sensations that
can be identified:
1. Cold
2. Heat
3. Contact
4. Pain
Hairs on the skin magnify the sensitivity and act
as an early warning system for the body.
Beneath the outer layer of skin there are
miniature sensors that are receptors for the
sense of touch.
Touch sensors: changes mechanical pressure or
temperature variations into nerve impulses that are sent
to the brain for processing.
Receptors in the Skin
Skin:
Bodys largest organ
Has 3 layers:
1. Outermost Layer (Epidermis):
! is a thin film of dead cells
containing no receptors.
! Below the dead layer are the first
receptors, which look like groups
of threadlike extensions
! forms the waterproof, protective
wrap over the body's surface
2. Middle Layer (Dermis):
! Has a variety of receptors with
different shapes and functions .
! Hair receptors can be found in
this layer
! consists of connective tissue and
cushions the body from stress
and strain.
3. Fatty Layer (Hypodermis):
! Pacininan Corpuscle can be
found in this layer
! consists of loose connective
tissue and elastin.
Contains some receptors that adapt rapidly and
others that adapt slowly
Hair Receptors:
Wrapped around the base of each hair follicle
Responds when hairs are first bent
If hairs remain bent for a period of time, the
receptors cease firing (sensory adaptation
prevents our sense of touch from being
overloaded)

Free Nerve Endings:
Threadlike extensions found near the bottom of
the outer layer of the skin
Can transmit information about both temperature
and pain
Have no complex sensory structures
Sensory Receptors:
Pacinian Corpuscle:
! Highly sensitive to touch
Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6
! Only receptor that responds to vibration
! Adapts very quickly.
Merkel Cell:
! Located in the palm side of our fingertips
! Sensitive to gentle, localized touch
*When pressure (touch), temperature, or pain
sti mul ates the ski ns receptors, they perform
transduction and change these forms of energy into
nerve impulses. The impulses go up the spinal cord and
eventually reach the brains somatosensory cortex.

Somatosensory Cortex:
A narrow strip of cortex
Located in the parietal lobe and extends down
its side
Transforms nerve impulses into sensations of
touch , temperature, and pain
The right somatosensory cortex receives
information from the left side of the body and
vice versa
*Compared with touch and temperature, the sense of
pain is different because it has no specific stimulus and
can be suppressed by psychological factors.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY: DISGUST
Disgust is a feeling of revulsion or profound disapproval aroused by something unpleasant or
offensive.

Cause: Things, happenings or ways of our customs appeal in our senses differently due to barriers
of varying culture.
Effect: Presence of Disgust

Cultural Factors:
1. Plump Grubs
2. Whale Skin
3. Milk and Blood

RESEARCH FOCUS:C MIND OVER BODY?
Placebo Effect- indicates a powerful mind over body
interaction



PAIN
Pain is a somatic sensation of acute discomfort. It is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
associated with actual or potential tissue damage, ones thoughts or beliefs, or environmental stressors.

HOW PAIN IS MODIFIED?
Gate Control Theory (Melzack & Katz, 2004) - incoming pain must pass through a "gate" located in the
spinal cord which determines what information about pain will be sent to the brain. So, it can be opened to
allow pain through or closed to prevent pain from being perceived.
Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6
The Neural Gate is actually a neural network controlled by the brain. This limits the number of impulses that
can be transmitted. It is located in an area of the spinal cord called the Substansia Gelatinosa.
There are two types of nerve fibers in this area:
a) large - sends fast signals and can prevent pain by closing the gate.
b) small - sends slower signals which open the gate. So - when pain occurs it is because the large fibers are
off and the small are on, opening the gate.
Contradiction to Gate Control Theory: Endorphins - the body's own pain killers (morphine-like). May
explain acupuncture, acupressure, pain tolerance during last two weeks of pregnancy, etc.
PAIN PATHWAYS
Effects of Pain on Body Functioning:

A.Advantages of pain

Pain motivates the individual to withdraw from damaging
situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and
to avoid similar experiences in the future.
Pain is a symptom to many other illness.

B.Disadvantages of pain

Experimental subjects challenged by acute pain and
patients in chronic pain experience impairments in attention
control, working memory, mental flexibility, problem solving,
and information processing speed.Acute and chronic pain
are also associated with increased depression, anxiety, fear,
and anger.

Dread
great fear or apprehension

Acupuncture
a system of complementary medicine that involves pricking
the skin or tissues with needles, used to alleviate pain and to
treat various physical, mental and emotional conditions

Sensation Group(Bay-ag, Evangelista, Lafuente, Marquez, Ramones, Sueltp) 1Psychology-6


Table 1.1 Sense(Stimulus, Sense Organ, Receptor, Sensation)